DOCSLIB.ORG

Strontium in Drinking Water: Occurrence, Distribution, and Removal

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Strontium in Drinking Water: Occurrence, Distribution, and Removal Strontium in Drinking Water: Occurrence, Distribution, and Removal A thesis submitted to the Division of Graduate Studies and Research of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in the Department of Biomedical, Chemical, and Environmental Engineering of the College of Engineering and Applied Science 2014 Alissa Jo O’Donnell B.S., Civil Engineering, University of Cincinnati, 2011 Committee Members: Dionysios D. Dionysiou (UC), Chair Darren A. Lytle (USEPA) George A. Sorial (UC) ABSTRACT The occurrence and distribution of stable strontium around the United States was not well documented. Data from both the United States Geological Survey and United States Environmental Protection Agency from the past 10 years resulted in 39,256 samples that showed strontium was widely distributed with pockets of very elevated levels (≥ 10 mg/L) located along the Gulf Coast for surface water and in the Midwest for groundwater. Strontium removal data from a number of full-scale ion exchange, iron removal/coagulation, lime softening, and iron-based adsorption plants were examined. Point-of-entry ion exchange and iron removal, and point-of-use reverse osmosis effectiveness were also studied. Cation exchange and lime softening were effective strontium removal strategies, while iron removal/coagulation and iron-based adsorption approaches were not. The effectiveness of conventional coagulation and lime softening treatments on the removal of strontium at the bench-scale was needed. Alum and iron coagulants were able to achieve 18% and 6.0% strontium removal, respectively, from surface water after 0.2 µm vacuum filtering. No significant change in strontium removal was observed with the increase of coagulant dose, initial strontium concentration, pH, or initial turbidity. Lime softening was able to achieve 77% strontium removal after 0.2 µm vacuum filtering. Higher strontium removal efficiencies were seen at higher lime dosages which corresponded to a higher final pH. No significant changes in strontium removal was observed with the increase of initial strontium concentration. i Fundamental studies were conducted with nanopure water to find the mechanism(s) for the lime softening strontium removal efficiencies. When calcium was not initially added, no significant change in strontium removal was observed with the increase of pH or initial strontium concentration. When calcium was initially added, the strontium and calcium removals were significantly increased above pH 11 to 65% and 98%, respectively. When calcium was initially added, a low initial dissolved inorganic carbon greatly reduced both strontium and calcium removal efficiencies to 8.1% and 29%, respectively. Scanning electron microscope images for the fundamental experiments at a pH of 11 showed high spherical vaterite, the least stable polymorph of calcium carbonate, is prevalent in the samples compared to rhombohedron calcite, the most stable polymorph. Strontianite was only found in the sample with the lowest initial calcium concentration. X-ray diffraction patterns revealed that vaterite was shifted, indicating that strontium could be replacing calcium inside the crystal lattice. SEM images also revealed clusters of minerals in a transitional phase at the lowest and highest initial calcium concentrations. The possible mechanism(s) for strontium removal during the lime-soda ash softening treatment process includes surface adsorption into calcium carbonate precipitates, coprecipitation with the calcium carbonate precipitations, or surface-solution ion exchange within calcium carbonate. ii iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank my thesis committee members: Dr. Darren Lytle from the USEPA and Dr. Dionysios Dionysiou and Dr. George Sorial from UC. You gave me an opportunity to prove that I could accomplish anything, despite all of life’s distractions. You encouraged me to push my limits and were understanding about my need for self-improvement. I would also like to thank Dr. Steven Buchberger from UC who also encouraged me and helped me get into the UC/USEPA traineeship program, which lead me towards my current career path. Secondly, I would like to thank the following staff who spent countless hours helping me. Your contribution was greatly appreciated. Maily Pham and Keith Kelty of the USEPA for their ICP- AES elemental analyses and database management. Bill Kaylor of the National Council on Aging SEE for the alkalinity and chloride analyses. Stephen Harmon of the USEPA for the SEM/EDS/XRD analyses and images. Nicholas Dugan and Jonathan Pressman of the USEPA for their collection of the source waters used in the jar testing experiments. Dan Williams of the USEPA for packing and shipping coolers to different water utility operators. Alex Moix, Dyrian Wandick, and Manelisi Nhliziyo of the USEPA GRO program for their help with a few of the fundamental experimental runs. Emily Nauman of Pegasus Technical Services for the creation of the occurrence, distribution, and USEPA WSWRD studies maps used in this thesis. Christy Mulhen of the USEPA for supply orders, helping me jump through many internal hurdles, and providing me with life advice. Thirdly, I would like to thank my family for their support while completing my degree. To my mother, father and grandmother (Jylene, Tim, and Barb O’Donnell) for their unconditional love iv and support, to my two aunts (Peg Leiter and Mary Ann Darling) who checked up on my wellbeing and encouraged me to keep working hard, and to my late paternal grandfather (Tom O’Donnell) who was always proud of me and told me so regularly. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends for whom this journey to complete my degree would not have been possible. My deepest thanks goes to Andrew Knowles, Cricket Wyatt, Dhawal Chheda, Jananie Rockwood, Jennifer Liggett, Jen Norman, Masud Rana, Nick McCormick, and Ruta Deshpande. When I needed to talk, you were there to listen. When I needed support, you helped get me back on my feet. You always believed in me and wanted the best for me. I am very grateful for having met you all. You taught me so much about myself and I am eternally grateful for our friendships over the years. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix NOTATIONS................................................................................................................................. x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 3 2.1 Discovery .............................................................................................................................. 3 2.2 Chemical and Physical Properties ......................................................................................... 3 2.3 Industrial Uses ....................................................................................................................... 4 2.4 Health Effects & Regulations ................................................................................................ 4 2.5 Detection ............................................................................................................................... 6 2.6 Occurrence and Distribution ................................................................................................. 6 2.7 Treatment Removal Methods ................................................................................................ 7 2.8 Conventional Drinking Water Treatment .............................................................................. 7 2.9 Lime-Soda Ash Softening Treatment .................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 3: OCCURRENCE AND DISTRITBUION IN DRINKING WATER ............. 12 3.1 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 12 3.2 Results & Discussion .......................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 4: USEPA STUDIES WITH STRONTIUM IN THE RAW WATER ............... 19 4.1 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 19 4.2 Results & Discussion .......................................................................................................... 20 CHAPTER 5: JAR TESTING – CONVENTIONAL (SURFACE WATER) ....................... 25 5.1
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Rediscovery of the Elements — a Historical Sketch of the Discoveries
    REDISCOVERY OF THE ELEMENTS — A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DISCOVERIES TABLE OF CONTENTS incantations. The ancient Greeks were the first to Introduction ........................1 address the question of what these principles 1. The Ancients .....................3 might be. Water was the obvious basic 2. The Alchemists ...................9 essence, and Aristotle expanded the Greek 3. The Miners ......................14 philosophy to encompass a obscure mixture of 4. Lavoisier and Phlogiston ...........23 four elements — fire, earth, water, and air — 5. Halogens from Salts ...............30 as being responsible for the makeup of all 6. Humphry Davy and the Voltaic Pile ..35 materials of the earth. As late as 1777, scien- 7. Using Davy's Metals ..............41 tific texts embraced these four elements, even 8. Platinum and the Noble Metals ......46 though a over-whelming body of evidence 9. The Periodic Table ................52 pointed out many contradictions. It was taking 10. The Bunsen Burner Shows its Colors 57 thousands of years for mankind to evolve his 11. The Rare Earths .................61 thinking from Principles — which were 12. The Inert Gases .................68 ethereal notions describing the perceptions of 13. The Radioactive Elements .........73 this material world — to Elements — real, 14. Moseley and Atomic Numbers .....81 concrete basic stuff of this universe. 15. The Artificial Elements ...........85 The alchemists, who devoted untold Epilogue ..........................94 grueling hours to transmute metals into gold, Figs. 1-3. Mendeleev's Periodic Tables 95-97 believed that in addition to the four Aristo- Fig. 4. Brauner's 1902 Periodic Table ...98 telian elements, two principles gave rise to all Fig. 5. Periodic Table, 1925 ...........99 natural substances: mercury and sulfur.
    [Show full text]
  • EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY THEORIES of the NATURE of HEAT. the U
    This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received ^ 5—13,888 MORRIS, Jr., Robert James, 1932— EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY THEORIES OF THE NATURE OF HEAT. The University of Oklahoma, Ph.D., 1965 History, modern University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright By Robert James Morris, Jr. 1966 THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA. GRADUATE COLLEGE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY THEORIES OF THE NATURE OF HEAT A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY ROBERT JAMES MORRIS, JR. Norman, Oklahoma 1965 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY THEORIES OF THE NATURE OF HEAT APPROVED BY [2- 0 C ^ • \CwÆ-UC^C>._____ DISSERTATION COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Duane H. D. Roller, McCasland Professor of the History of Science, whose provocative and intriguing lectures first enticed me into the study of the history of science, and to Thomas M. Smith, Associate Professor of the History of Science, for their suggestions and criticisms concerning this dissertation, for their encouragement, confidence, and assistance freely given throughout my years of graduate study, and for their advice and friendship which made these years enjoyable as well as profitableo To Professor Charles J. Mankin, Director of the Department of Geology, Leroy E. Page, Assistant Professor of the History of Science, and Robert L- Reigle, Instructor of History, for reading and criticizing this dissertation. To Marcia M. Goodman, Librarian of the History of Science Collections, for her aid in obtaining sources needed for this study and for her personal interest, encouragement and friendship. To George P. Burris and Dwayne R. Mason for their selfless, untiring help in the preparation of the manuscript.
    [Show full text]
  • Download: Brill.Com/Brill-Typeface
    i Compound Histories © Lissa Roberts and Simon Werrett, 2018 | doi 10.1163/9789004325562_001 This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC License. ii Cultural Dynamics of Science Editors Lissa Roberts (Science, Technology and Policy Studies (STePS), University of Twente, The Netherlands) Agustí Nieto-Galan (Centre d’Història de la Ciència (CEHIC) & Facultat de Ciències (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain) Oliver Hochadel (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Institució Milà i Fontanals, Barcelona, Spain) Advisory Board Miruna Achim (Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana–Cuajimalpa, Ciudad de México, CDMX) Warwick Anderson (University of Sydney) Mitchell Ash (Universität Wien) José Ramón Bertomeu-Sánchez (Universitat de Valencia) Paola Bertucci (Yale University) Daniela Bleichmar (University of Southern California) Andreas Daum (University of Buffalo) Graeme Gooday (University of Leeds) Paola Govoni (Università di Bologna) Juan Pimentel (CSIC, Madrid) Stefan Pohl (Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá) Arne Schirrmacher (Humboldt Universität zu Berlin) Ana Simões (Universidade de Lisboa) Josep Simon (Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá) Jonathan Topham (University of Leeds) VOLUME 2 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/cds iii Compound Histories Materials, Governance and Production, 1760-1840 Edited by Lissa L. Roberts Simon Werrett LEIDEN | BOSTON iv This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC License, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro- vided the original author(s) and source are credited. Cover illustration: “The Dissolution, or The Alchymist producing an Aetherial Representation.” An alchemist using a crown-shaped bellows to blow the flames of a furnace and heat a glass vessel in which the House of Commons is distilled; satirizing the dissolution of parliament by Pitt.
    [Show full text]
  • James Hutton and Phlogiston
    from Annals of Science 51: 615-35 James Hutton and Phlogiston Douglas Allchin* Science and Technology Studies Cornell University James Hutton defended the doctrine of phlogiston in two lengthy dissertations in 1792 and 1794. Empirical, biographical and disciplinary contexts jointly explain his position. Observationally, Hutton based his argument on facts about heat, light and the storage of energy, explicitly contrasting them to concerns about weight relationships. Hutton's intellectual development shows how he found these particular problems centrally relevant, and focusing on phlogiston indicates how his better known geology fits into more fundamental thinking about the natural economy. The resonance of Hutton's views with many contemporaries highlights the significance of his views and suggests how we might reconsider the role of phlogiston in late 18th-century chemistry. Contents I. Introduction II. Hutton's Argument and its Observational Context III. Cognitive Context IV. Disciplinary Context V. Synthesis of Contexts and Conclusions Appendix: Historiographic Methods *My appreciation to Allen Debus, Arthur Donovan, George Reisch, Robert Siegfried and two encouraging reviewers for comments on various drafts. The phlogistic doctrine impeded the progress of science, as far as science of experiment can be impeded by a false theory, by perplexing its cultivators with the appearance of contradictions, . and by involving the subject in a mist of visionary and hypothetical causes in place of true and acting principles. ---Sir John Herschel, 1830 We have only to regret that the valuable truth embodied in it [the phlogistic theory] should have been lost sight of; that the antiphlogistonistic chemists, like other reformers, destroyed so much of what was good in the old system.
    [Show full text]
  • The First Hundred Years of Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh
    Edinburgh 300: Cradle of Chemistry The First Hundred Years of Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh Thursday 24 October 2013 The Royal Society of Edinburgh 22–26 George Street, Edinburgh Report of Conference organised by The University of Edinburgh and The Royal Society of Edinburgh Conference Programme 09.15 RSE Welcome Sir John Arbuthnott FMedSci MRIA President, Royal Society of Edinburgh 09.25 Introduction/Overview Chair: Professor Eleanor Campbell FRS FRSC FInstP CorrFRSE Chair of Chemistry and Head of the School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh Session 1 09.30 Science in the Athens of the North: The Development of the Sciences in Enlightenment Edinburgh Professor John Henry Director Science Studies, School of Social and Political Science, University of Edinburgh 10.10 Q&A 10.15 Leyden Chemistry in Edinburgh: Herman Boerhaave, James Crawford and Andrew Plummer Dr John C Powers Department of History, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA 10.55 Q&A 11.00 Tea / coffee Session 2 11.25 Chair: Professor Lesley Yellowlees MBE FInstP FRSC FRSE President, Royal Society of Chemistry; Professor of Inorganic Electrochemistry, Vice-Principal and Head of College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh 11.30 From Plummer to Cullen: Novelty in Cullen’s Chemical Pedagogy Dr Georgette Taylor Department of Science and Technology Studies, University College London 12.10 Q&A 12.15 Professors and Students in the Age of the Chemical Revolution John R R Christie Faculty of History, University of Oxford; Associate Fellow, Centre
    [Show full text]
  • Adair Crawford (*1748; †1795)
    Adair Crawford (*1748; †1795) Biographie: ● geboren 1748 als Sohn eines presbyterianischem Geistlichen in Belfast (damals Irland) ● studierte Medizin in Glasgow & Edinburgh (Schottland) ● 1770 Abschluss zum medizinischen Assistenten https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Crawford_Adair_ und anschließend angestellt am St. George´s Hospital equipment.jpg in London ● 1779 Veröffentlichung seines ersten Werkes „Experiments and Observations on Animal Heat, and the Inflammation of Combustible Bodies“ → er bewies darin unter anderem, dass der Gasaustausch von tierischen Lebewesen eine chemische Verbrennung darstellt ● 1780 Abschluss der Ausbildung zum Arzt und Ausübung dieses Berufes am St. Thomas Hospital in London ● zudem Professor der Chemie an der Royal Military Academy in London ● entwickelte kalorimetrische Methoden zur Messung spezifischer Wärmekapazitäten spezieller Stoffe und zur Entstehung von Wärme bei chemischen Reaktionen ● 1786 Ernennung zum Mitglied der Royal Society von London ● 1788 Veröffentlichung einer überarbeiteten Auflage seines 1778 erschienenen Buches, welches ihm ein hohes Ansehen bei den bedeutendsten Wissenschaftlern im vereinigten Königreich verschaffte ● 1790 Entdeckung von Strontium gemeinsam mit Kollegen William Cruickshank ● gestorben am 29. Juli 1795 in Lymington (England) Till Kruse Teilnehmer des Moduls 602 im Wintersemester 2018/19 Strontium Entdeckung: • 1790 Fund eines Minerals in der Nähe des schottischen Ortes Strontian durch Adair Crawford und William Cruickshank → wurde für Witherit gehalten • Herstellung
    [Show full text]
  • Biographical Index of Former RSE Fellows 1783-2002
    FORMER RSE FELLOWS 1783- 2002 SIR CHARLES ADAM OF BARNS 06/10/1780- JOHN JACOB. ABEL 19/05/1857- 26/05/1938 16/09/1853 Place of Birth: Cleveland, Ohio, USA. Date of Election: 05/04/1824. Date of Election: 03/07/1933. Profession: Royal Navy. Profession: Pharmacologist, Endocrinologist. Notes: Date of election: 1820 also reported in RSE Fellow Type: HF lists JOHN ABERCROMBIE 12/10/1780- 14/11/1844 Fellow Type: OF Place of Birth: Aberdeen. ROBERT ADAM 03/07/1728- 03/03/1792 Date of Election: 07/02/1831. Place of Birth: Kirkcaldy, Fife.. Profession: Physician, Author. Date of Election: 28/01/1788. Fellow Type: OF Profession: Architect. ALEXANDER ABERCROMBY, LORD ABERCROMBY Fellow Type: OF 15/10/1745- 17/11/1795 WILLIAM ADAM OF BLAIR ADAM 02/08/1751- Place of Birth: Clackmannanshire. 17/02/1839 Date of Election: 17/11/1783. Place of Birth: Kinross-shire. Profession: Advocate. Date of Election: 22/01/1816. Fellow Type: OF Profession: Advocate, Barrister, Politician. JAMES ABERCROMBY, BARON DUNFERMLINE Fellow Type: OF 07/11/1776- 17/04/1858 JOHN GEORGE ADAMI 12/01/1862- 29/08/1926 Date of Election: 07/02/1831. Place of Birth: Ashton-on-Mersey, Lancashire. Profession: Physician,Statesman. Date of Election: 17/01/1898. Fellow Type: OF Profession: Pathologist. JOHN ABERCROMBY, BARON ABERCROMBY Fellow Type: OF 15/01/1841- 07/10/1924 ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL ADAMS Date of Election: 07/02/1898. Date of Election: 19/12/1910. Profession: Philologist, Antiquary, Folklorist. Profession: Consulting Engineer. Fellow Type: OF Notes: Died 1918-19 RALPH ABERCROMBY, BARON DUNFERMLINE Fellow Type: OF 06/04/1803- 02/07/1868 JOHN COUCH ADAMS 05/06/1819- 21/01/1892 Date of Election: 19/01/1863.
    [Show full text]
  • The Hidden History of Phlogiston: How Philosophical Failure
    The Hidden History of Phlogiston How Philosophical Failure Can Generate Historiographical Refinement Hasok Chang Abstract: Historians often feel that standard philosophical doctrines about the nature and development of science are not adequate for representing the real history of science. However, when philosophers of science fail to make sense of certain historical events, it is also possible that there is something wrong with the standard historical descriptions of those events, precluding any sensi- ble explanation. If so, philosophical failure can be useful as a guide for improv- ing historiography, and this constitutes a significant mode of productive inter- action between the history and the philosophy of science. I illustrate this methodological claim through the case of the Chemical Revolution. I argue that no standard philosophical theory of scientific method can explain why European chemists made a sudden and nearly unanimous switch of allegiance from the phlogiston theory to Lavoisier’s theory. A careful re-examination of the history reveals that the shift was neither so quick nor so unanimous as imagined even by many historians. In closing I offer brief reflections on how best to explain the general drift toward Lavoisier’s theory that did take place. Keywords: Chemical Revolution, phlogiston, history and philosophy of science, scientific change, Lavoisier. 1. Introduction Many historians of science have felt for some time that standard philosophi- cal doctrines about the nature and development of science are not adequate for representing the real history of science. This is one of the major obstacles standing in the way of productive collaboration between historians and phi- losophers of science.
    [Show full text]
  • 200 Years of Arc Discharges
    Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Recent Work Title Tracking down the origin of Arc plasma science. II. Early continuous d ischarges Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1rk1t5h6 Journal IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, 31(5(pt2)) Author Anders, Andre Publication Date 2003-01-14 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Tracking Down the Origin of Arc Plasma Science. II. Early Continuous Discharges André Anders, Fellow Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California 94720-8223 [email protected] ABSTRACT Continuous discharges could only be obtained after enduring energy sources became available, namely in the form of a battery of electrochemical cells, invented by Volta in late 1799. Humphry Davy is generally credited with the discovery of the arc discharge and the invention of the carbon arc lamp. Indeed, as early as 1800, he obtained short pulsed arcs with his Voltaic pile. Independently, and earlier than Davy in the sense of continuous discharges, the Russian Vasilii Petrov of St. Petersburg made carbon arcs in 1802. Petrov used a pile of 4200 electrochemical cells to drive what was the most powerful discharge at that time. Petrov’s publication of 1803 appeared only in Russian, and his work was ignored and forgotten for over century. Davy pursued highly successful electrochemical experiments and was unaware of Petrov’s work. He increased the size of his battery in several steps, which led to increasingly powerful discharges, most likely an undesired side effect. After 1808, using the new 2000-element battery of the Royal Institution, Davy demonstrated continuous arc discharges in the institution’s theatre before large audiences, thereby establishing arc physics as a lasting science.
    [Show full text]
  • Max Planck Research Library for the History and Development of Knowledge Studies 7 Christa Jungnickel and Russell Mccormmach: Mercury
    Max Planck Research Library for the History and Development of Knowledge Studies 7 Christa Jungnickel and Russell McCormmach: Mercury In: Christa Jungnickel and Russell McCormmach: Cavendish : The Experimental Life (Sec- ond revised edition 2016) Online version at http://edition-open-access.de/studies/7/ ISBN 978-3-945561-06-5 First published 2016 by Edition Open Access, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science under Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 Germany Licence. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/de/ Printed and distributed by: PRO BUSINESS digital printing Deutschland GmbH, Berlin http://www.book-on-demand.de/shop/14971 The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de Chapter 15 Mercury After chemistry and electricity, heat was the third major experimental field in the eighteenth century. Benjamin Thompson, a leading investigator in the field, compared heat with grav- ity as a principal mover in nature: “The effects produced in the world by the agency of Heat are probably just as extensive, and quite as important, as those which are owing to the ten- dency of the particles of matter towards each other,” and “its operations are, in all cases, determined by laws equally immutable.”1 Heat, Joseph Black told his students, “is certainly the chief material principle of activity in nature,” and if it were removed, “a total stop would be put to all the operations of nature.”2 His student William Cleghorn said that without heat, “Nature would sink into chaos.” Of fields of investigation, he said, “nothing will seem more deserving of the attention of philosophers” than heat.3 Heat awaited its Newton, who would lay down its laws and erect a system to stand beside the theory of gravitation and the system of the Sun and planets.
    [Show full text]
  • Unit 6.4 Timeline of the Elements
    Unit 6.4 Timeline of the Elements COPPER Copper was probably the first metal mined and crafted by IRON man. It was originally obtained as a native metal and later There is evidence that iron from smelting ores. Earliest was known from before 5000 estimates of the discovery of GOLD BCE. The oldest-known iron copper suggest around 9000 objects used by humans are ARSENIC BCE in the Middle East. It was Archaeologists suggest that some beads of meteoric iron, one of the most important the first use of gold began made in Egypt in about 4000 TIN In use in the early bronze materials to humans with the first civilizations in BCE. The discovery of smelting age; Albertus Magnus was throughout the copper and the Middle East. It may have around 3000 BCE led to the First smelted in combination the first European to isolate bronze ages. Copper beads been the first metal used by start of the iron age around with copper around 3500 BCE the element in 1250. In 1649, dating from 6000 BCE have humans. The oldest remaining 1200 BCE and the prominent to produce bronze and brass. Johann Schröder published been found in Çatalhöyük, gold jewellery is that in the use of iron for tools and The oldest artefacts date from two ways of preparing Anatolia. tomb of Egyptian Queen Zer. weapons. around 2000 BCE. elemental arsenic. 9000 BCE 7000 BCE 6000 BCE 5000 BCE 3750 BCE 3500 BCE 3000 BCE 2500 BCE 2000 BCE LEAD SILVER CARBON ANTIMONY MERCURY It is believed that lead smelting Estimated to have been The earliest known use In widespread use in Egypt Known to ancient Chinese began at least 9,000 years ago, discovered shortly after copper of charcoal was for the and the Middle East.
    [Show full text]