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Contents

Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxix

I ntroduction 1

A. The Basic Theoretical Frameworks 2 1. Formal Equality 2 2. Substantive Equality 3 3. Nonsubordination 4 4. Difference 6 5. Autonomy 7 Putting Theory into Practice 8 B. Challenges and Complications to the Basic Theoretical Frameworks 8 1. Who Is a “Woman”? Deconstructing Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation 8 a. Framing the Sex/Gender/Sexuality Divide 9 Katherine M. Franke, The Central Mistake of Sex Discrimination : The Disaggregation of Sex from Gender 9 Mary Anne Case, Disaggregating Gender from Sex and Sexual Orientation: The Effeminate Man in the Law and Feminist Jurisprudence 11 Francisco Valdes, Queers, Sissies, Dykes, and Tomboys: Deconstructing the Conflation of “Sex,” “Gender,” and “Sexual Orientation” in Euro-American Law and Society 13 Dean Spade, Resisting Medicine, Re/Modeling Gender 14

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b. Implications of the Sex/Gender/Sexuality Divide 15 Putting Theory into Practice 19 2. Which Women? 20 a. Introducing the Intersectionality Critique 21 Kimberlé Crenshaw, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist Politics 21 Angela P. Harris, Race and Essentialism in Feminist Legal Theory 22 b. Exploring and Responding to the Critique 23 Putting Theory into Practice 25 3. What About Men? 26 a. Introducing Masculinities 27 Nancy E. Dowd, Asking the Man Question: Masculinities Analysis and Feminist Theory 27 Frank Rudy Cooper, “Who’s the Man?”: Masculinities Studies, Terry Stops, and Police Training 28 b. Relating Men and Masculinities to the Study of Women and Gender 29 Putting Theory into Practice 33

1 Formal Equality 37

A. Historical Foundations for Women’s Claim to Formal Equality 39 1. The Historical Legacy: Women as Different and in Need of Protection 39 a. Economic and Social Legislation to Protect Women 39 Muller v. Oregon 40 Goesart v. Cleary 42 Putting Theory into Practice 44 b. Women’s Differences and the Practice of Law 44 Bradwell v. Illinois 45 2. The Case for Women’s 47 Declaration of Sentiments, Seneca Falls Convention, Seneca Falls, New York (July 1848) 49 United States v. Anthony (1873) 51 Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Address to the Legislature of the State of New York (February 14, 1854) 53 Note on the Birth and Rebirth of Modern 58 B. Formal Equality and the Constitutional Right to Equal Protection 58 1. The Right to Equal, Individualized Treatment 58 Reed v. Reed 59 xiii

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Frontiero v. Richardson 60 Orr v. Orr 64 Putting Theory into Practice 66 2. The Right to Equal Group Treatment 67 Stanton v. Stanton 67 Craig v. Boren 69 Notes 73 1. “Simple Little Case”? 73 2. The Role of Stereotyping in Formal Equality Analysis 74 3. Sexual Orientation Discrimination and Transgender Discrimination as Forms of Gender Discrimination 75 4. Remedying Inequality in Formal Treatment 77 5. Who Is the Protected Victim? 78 6. Women in the Military 79 7. LGBT Inclusion (and Exclusion From) the Military 82 8. The Equal Rights Amendment 83 Putting Theory into Practice 85 3. Indirect Discrimination 86 Personnel Administrator of v. Feeney 87 Note on Nondiscriminatory and Discriminatory Intent 90 Putting Theory into Practice 91 C. Formal Equality in Employment 92 1. The Equal Pay Act: Formal Equality Paradigm 93 EEOC v. Madison Community Unit School District No. 12 93 Sandor v. Safe Horizon, Inc. 97 Notes 103 1. The Wage Gap 103 2. The Formal Equality Paradigm 105 3. Factors “Other than Sex” Justifying Differences in Pay 106 4. Lilly Ledbetter and Pay Discrimination Claims Under Title VII 109 5. “Comparable Worth” or “Pay Equity” 112 6. Women and Contingent Work 114 Putting Theory into Practice 115 2. Title VII: Finding the Limits of Formal Equality 120 a. What Is Discrimination “Because of Sex”? 122 Ezold v. Wolf, Block, Schorr & Solis-​Cohen 123 Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins 130 Notes 134 1. Assessing the Facts in Ezold 134 2. Recognizing “Mixed-​Motive” Discrimination 135 xiv xv

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3. Sex Stereotyping 135 4. Discerning and Proving Discriminatory Intent 136 5. The Significance of Stray Remarks 138 6. Upper Level Employees 139 7. Systemic Bias 140 8. Strategies for Countering Bias in the Workplace 144 9. How Broad Is “Sex” Under Title VII? Transgender and Sexual Orientation Bias 147 10. The Intersection of Sex and Race Under Title VII 153 Devon W. Carbado & Mitu Gulati, The Fifth Black Woman 153 Putting Theory into Practice 160 Note on Discrimination in Legal Education and the Legal Profession 163 American Bar Association Commission on Women in the Profession, Fair Measure: Toward Effective Attorney Evaluations 170 Putting Theory into Practice 180 b. What Is Discrimination? The Special Case of Appearance Regulation 181 Jespersen v. Harrah’s Operating Company, Inc. 182 Notes 191 1. Dress, Appearance, and Judicial Ideology 191 2. The Importance of Appearance 191 3. Women in Politics 193 4. Legal Standards 193 5. Weight 195 6. Against Discrimination Based on Appearance 198 7. The Intersectionality Critique (and Responses to It) 199 8. Sex and Age 202 9. Feminism and Appearance 203 Putting Theory into Practice 204 c. When Is Sex a “Bona Fide Occupational Qualification”? 209 Dothard v. Rawlinson 209 Wilson v. Southwest Airlines Co. 215 Notes 221 1. The Disparate Impact Doctrine and the Business Necessity Defense 221 2. BFOQ and Sexual Authenticity 221 3. BFOQ and Customer Preferences 222 4. BFOQ and Privacy Considerations 223 5. BFOQs and Formal Equality Analysis 225 6. His Very Manhood? 226 7. The Ministerial Exception 228 Putting Theory into Practice 229 D. State Public Accommodations Laws and Associational Freedoms 233 xv

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Board of Directors of Rotary International v. Rotary Club of Duarte 234 Foster v. Back Bay Spas 238 Notes 241 1. First Amendment Challenges 241 2. The Scope of State and Local Public Accommodations Laws 243 3. Gender-Based​ Pricing 244 4. Public Breastfeeding 245 5. Sexual Orientation and Public Accommodations 246 Masterpiece Cakeshop, LTD v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission 247 Note on Religious Objections to Public Accommodations Law 255 Putting Theory into Practice 256

2 Substantive Equality 261

A. Remedying the Effects of Past Discrimination 262 1. Sex-​Specific Public Benefits to Remedy Past Societal Discrimination 262 Kahn v. Shevin 262 Note on “Benign” Classifications Favoring Women 265 Putting Theory into Practice 266 2. “Affirmative Action” in Employment 267 Johnson v. Transportation Agency 268 Notes 276 1. Affirmative Action: Definitions and Background 276 2. Women’s “Choices”: Explanation or Symptom of Gender Inequality? 282 3. Affirmative Action and the “Merit” Principle 283 4. The Problem of Stigma 285 5. “Positive Action” in European Law 285 Putting Theory into Practice 286 B. Eliminating the Disadvantages of Women’s Differences 288 1. Pregnancy 288 California Federal Savings & Loan Association v. Guerra 290 Herma Hill Kay, Equality and Difference: The Case of Pregnancy 293 Richard A. Posner, Conservative Feminism 294 UAW v. Johnson Controls, Inc. 296 Troupe v. May Department Stores Co. 303 xvi xvii

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Young v. United Parcel Service, Inc. 305 Notes 311 1. The Feminist Debate over “Equal” vs. “Special” Treatment 311 2. Stereotypes v. Facts 312 3. Pregnancy Bias? 313 4. Pregnancy as a Disability 315 5. Accommodation Under the Second Clause of the PDA 316 6. Disparate Impact Theory 318 7. European Community Law 319 8. Johnson Controls as a Reprise of the Protective Legislation Debate 320 9. Women Workers and “Choice” 320 10. Equality Analysis in Johnson Controls 321 Putting Theory into Practice 322 2. Caregiver Discrimination 324 Back v. Hastings on Hudson Union Free School District 327 Ayanna v. Dechert, LLP 332 Notes 336 1. Caregiver Discrimination Lawsuits 336 2. Accommodation vs. Discrimination 338 3. Parenting Leave: An International Perspective 339 Putting Theory into Practice 341 C. Recognizing Sex-​Linked Average Differences 342 1. Fringe Benefit Plans, Insurance, and Other Actuarially Based Systems 342 City of Los Angeles, Department of Water & Power v. Manhart 342 Notes 347 1. Group-​Based vs. Individual-​Based Equality 347 2. Efficiency vs. Nondiscrimination 348 3. Life Insurance 350 4. Health Insurance 350 5. Auto Insurance 351 6. Europe 352 Putting Theory into Practice 353 2. Education 354 a. Sex-Segregated​ Schools 354 United States v. Virginia 356 Joanna L. Grossman & Grant Hayden, The Thin Pink Line: Policing Gender at Every Corner 369 Notes 372 1. What’s at Stake Here? 372 xvii

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2. Single-​Sex Schools at the Elementary and Secondary Level 374 3. Race and Single-​Sex Schooling 381 4. Gender-Nonconforming,​ Transgender, and Non-Binary​ Students 383 Putting Theory into Practice 385 b. School Athletics 388 Cohen v. Brown University 395 Biediger v. Quinnipiac University 401 Notes 406 1. Title IX and Women’s Participation in Sports 406 2. Title IX and Race 407 3. Title IX and Women’s Interest in Sports 408 4. Affirmative Action or Nondiscrimination? 410 5. Gaming Compliance 411 6. Allocating Resources Under Title IX 412 7. Pregnant Student Athletes 413 8. Redefining Sport 413 Putting Theory into Practice 414 D. Substantive Equality in the Family 416 1. The Right to Marry for Same-​Sex Couples 416 United States v. Windsor 418 Obergefell v. Hodges 424 Notes 434 1. Windsor Grounds 434 2. Theories of Equality 435 3. The Internal Debate on Same-​Sex Marriage 435 4. Backlash to Same-​Sex Marriage 436 5. Gender Identity, Marriage, and Documentation 437 Putting Theory into Practice 439 2. Marital Dissolution and Its Economic Consequences 440 a. The Traditional View 440 b. Modern Divorce 442 Joan Williams, Do Wives Own Half? Winning for Wives After Wendt 443 Arneault v. Arneault 445 Michael v. Michael 450 Chen v. Warner 454 Notes 460 1. Property Distribution 460 2. Spousal Support 461 3. Educational Degree: Property, Support, or Neither? 462 4. Child Support 463 Putting Theory into Practice 465 xviii xix

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3. Child Custody 468 Patricia Ann S. v. James Daniel S. 469 Notes 477 1. Primary Caretaker Presumption 477 2. Joint Custody 478 3. The “Approximation” or “Past Caretaking” Standard 480 4. Lesbian Parents 481 5. Relocation 484 6. Fairness and Custody 486 7. Marriage, Cohabitation, and the American Paradox 486 Putting Theory into Practice 486 4. Unmarried Parents 489 Serena Mayeri, Founding Fathers: (Non-)Marriage​ and Parental Rights in the Age of Equality 494 Putting Theory into Practice 496

3 Nonsubordination 499

A. Women’s Rights and Power in the Liberal State 500 John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women 501 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law 502 Nancy E. Dowd, Asking the Man Question: Masculinities Analysis and Feminist Theory 504 B. Sexual Harassment 505 1. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace 505 Catharine A. MacKinnon, The Sexual Harassment of Working Women 507 Kathryn Abrams, Gender Discrimination and the Transformation of Workplace Norms 508 L. Camille Hébert, The Economic Implications of Sexual Harassment for Women 508 Kathryn Abrams, The New Jurisprudence of Sexual Harassment 510 Vicki Schultz, Reconceptualizing Sexual Harassment 511 Katherine M. Franke, What’s Wrong with Sexual Harassment 511 Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson 511 Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc. 515 Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc. 518 Nichols v. Azteca Restaurant Enterprises, Inc. 522 xix

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Notes 525 1. Distinguishing “Ordinary” Social Exchange from Sexual Harassment 525 2. Same-​Sex Harassment and Sex-​Stereotyping 526 3. Sexual Harassment as Discrimination “Because of Sex”? 527 4. The Standard for Determining Hostile Work Environment 530 5. When Is Sexual Conduct “Unwelcome”? 532 6. Race and Sexual Harassment 533 7. Sexual Harassment in the Legal Profession 537 8. Sexual Harassment as an Offense Against Dignity 538 9. Employer Liability 539 10. Harassment Prevention Policies: Do They Go Too Far? 543 11. Sexual Harassment and the #MeToo Movement 545 Putting Theory into Practice 555 2. Sexual Harassment in Educational Institutions 560 a. School Legal Liability for Sexual Harassment 560 Feminist Majority Foundation et al. v. Hurley 563 Notes 571 1. Legal Issues under Gebser and Davis 571 2. Administrative Versus Judicial Enforcement 573 b. Speech and Conduct Codes to Prevent Harassment 574 c. Faculty-Student​ Dating 575 Putting Theory into Practice 578 C. Domestic Violence 580 1. Domestic Violence: Legal Strategies for Protecting Victims 580 Karla Fischer, Neil Vidmar & René Ellis, The Culture of Battering and the Role of Mediation in Domestic Violence Cases 585 Deborah Epstein & Lisa A. Goodman, Discounting Women: Doubting Domestic Survivors’ Credibility and Dismissing Their Experiences 588 Stevenson v. Stevenson 588 Jeannie Suk, Criminal Law Comes Home 594 Aya Gruber, A “Neo-​Feminist” Assessment of Rape and Domestic Violence Law Reform 597 Notes 599 1. The Violence Against Women Act and Other Federal Legislation 599 2. Mandatory Arrest Policies 600 3. Mandatory No-​Drop Policies 602 4. Risk Assessment Tools 604 xx xxi

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5. Reporting Laws 605 6. Victim Services 605 7. Prevention and Rehabilitation Services 606 8. Domestic Violence Courts 607 9. Domestic Violence and the Overincarceration Problem 608 10. Civil Damage Claims 610 11. Stalking and Domestic Violence in the Workplace 613 12. Domestic Violence and Housing Discrimination 615 13. Domestic Violence and Child Custody 615 14. Immigration and Asylum Law 618 Putting Theory into Practice 620 2. Domestic Violence and Substantive Criminal Law 621 People v. Berry 622 Donna K. Coker, Heat of Passion and Wife Killing: Men Who Batter/​Men Who Kill 625 State v. Norman 626 Martha R. Mahoney, Legal Images of Battered Women: Redefining the Issue of Separation 632 Notes 633 1. “Heat of Passion” Manslaughter and the Reasonable “Man” 633 2. Heat of Passion and Sex Equality 634 3. The Battered Person Syndrome 635 4. The Battered Person in Self-​Defense Law: Substantive and Procedural Proposals 636 5. Concerns About the Battered Person Syndrome 637 6. Post-​Conviction Strategies for Battered Persons Who Kill 639 Putting Theory into Practice 639 D. Pornography 641 1. The Feminist Critique of Pornography 643 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law 643 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Pornography as Defamation and Discrimination 643 2. The Judicial, First Amendment Response 644 American Booksellers Association, Inc. v. Hudnut 644 Notes 648 1. Pornography and the First Amendment 648 2. Evaluating the Harm of Pornography 649 3. Sex-​Positive Feminism and Feminist, Ethical, and Queer Pornography 652 4. Pornography and Individual Agency 654 xxi

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5. Pornography, the Internet, and Children 654 6. Sexting 658 7. Nonconsensual Pornography: Revenge Porn 660 8. Misogyny Online and in Mass Shootings 662 Putting Theory into Practice 665

4 Difference 669

A. The Ethic of Care and Its Legal Implications 670 Robin West, Relational Feminism and Law 671 Leslie Bender, A Lawyer’s Primer on Feminist Theory and Tort 672 Richard A. Posner, Conservative Feminism 673 Kingsley R. Browne, Sex and Temperament in Modern Society: A Darwinian View of the Glass Ceiling and the Gender Gap 674 Notes 676 1. Mainstreaming the Ethic of Care in the Law 676 2. Different Voice Lawyering 677 3. The Sociobiological Explanation 677 4. The Feminist Critique of Difference Theory and an Ethic of Care 678 5. Does the Source of Gender Difference Matter? 681 Putting Theory into Practice 683 B. Work and Family 686 Anne-​Marie Slaughter, The Failure of the Phrase “Work-Life”​ Balance 686 Maxine Eichner, The Free-​Market Family: How the Market Crushed the American Dream (and How It Can Be Restored) 687 Martha Albertson Fineman, The Vulnerable Subject and the Responsive State 688 Vicki Shultz, Life’s Work 689 Dorothy Roberts, Spiritual and Menial Housework 691 Darren Rosenblum, Unsex Mothering: Toward a New Culture of Parenting 693 Notes 694 1. Substantive Equality vs. Difference Theory as a Basis for Legal Reform 694 2. Women’s Disproportionate Caretaking Burdens 696 3. Women “Opting Out” 699 4. Child Care 700 xxii xxiii

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5. Is Caretaking a Public Good? 703 6. Dependent Care and the Market in Domestic Workers 705 Putting Theory into Practice 706 C. Women and Leadership: What Difference Does It Make? 709 1. The General Case for Diversity 710 2. Women in the Legal Profession: Are There Advantages to a Different Voice? 712 Andrea Kupfer Schneider, What’s Sex Got to Do With It? Questioning Research on Gender & Negotiation 715 3. Women on Corporate Boards 717 4. Women and Ambition 718 Putting Theory into Practice 721 D. Women in the Justice System 722 1. Women Judges 722 Putting Theory into Practice 729 2. Juries and Gender 731 J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B. 731 Note on Equality and Impartiality in the Jury Context 739 Putting Theory into Practice 741 3. Gender and Criminal Sentencing 742 Putting Theory into Practice 747

5 Autonomy 749

A. Sex and Consent 750 1. “Statutory” Rape: The (Ir)relevance of Consent 750 Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County 750 Notes 756 1. Consent and 756 2. Statutory Rape Laws 757 3. Gender Neutrality and Differential Treatment of Offenders 758 4. 760 Putting Theory into Practice 761 2. Rape and the Criminal Law 763 Deborah Tuerkheimer, Incredible Women: Sexual Violence and the Credibility Discount 765 State v. Jones 767 Steven Schulhofer, Reforming the Law of Rape 775 Notes 776 1. Rape Law Reform 776 xxiii

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2. Consent 778 3. Cultural Attitudes, “Rape Myths,” and Responses 780 4. Rape Shield Laws, Character Evidence, and Defendant’s Rights 783 5. Racial Bias and the Intersectionality Critique 786 6. Marital Rape 788 7. Rape and Scientific Evidence 789 8. The Rape Crisis Counselor Privilege 789 9. Rape Trauma Syndrome 790 10. Male Rape 791 11. Rape and Penalties 792 Putting Theory into Practice 792 3. Campus Rape and Title IX 793 Notes 793 1. The Problem of on Campus 793 2. Affirmative Consent 794 3. Procedural Due Process and Fairness Concerns 797 4. Athletes and Sexual Assault 798 5. Substance Abuse 802 6. Title IX Enforcement Procedures 803 7. Education, Prevention, and Risk Reduction Programs 808 Putting Theory into Practice 810 4. Rape, War, and the Military: Violence Against Women as a Human Rights Issue 814 5. Religious Practices and Sexual Autonomy 820 Putting Theory into Practice 825 6. Sex Work: Consent Under Conditions of Constraint 826 Dorchen Liedholdt, Prostitution: A Violation of Women’s Human Rights 830 Notes 831 1. Prostitution and the Autonomy of Workers 831 2. Alternative Regulatory Structures 835 3. Trafficking 839 4. Juvenile Sex Work 846 5. International Matchmaking 847 Putting Theory into Practice 852 B. Pregnancy and Autonomy 854 1. Control of Conception and Other Aspects of Women’s Health 854 Griswold v. Connecticut 855 Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. 856 Notes 875 1. The Constitutional Right to Contraception 875 xxiv xxv

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2. Access to Contraception 877 3. Contraceptive Equity and Discrimination Law 879 4. Religion and Women’s Reproductive Freedom 881 5. Men and Contraception 882 6. Emergency Contraception and Conscience Laws 883 7. Beyond Contraception: Reproductive Control Over the Decision to Reproduce 885 8. Access to Treatment for Infertility 886 9. Gender Bias in Health Care 887 10. Sterilization 889 11. Menstrual Equity 890 Putting Theory into Practice 892 2. 894 Roe v. Wade 895 of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey 897 Reva Siegel, Reasoning from the Body: A Historical Perspective on Abortion Regulation and Questions of Equal Protection 904 Robin West, The Supreme Court 1989 Term, Foreword: Taking Freedom Seriously 906 Loretta J. Ross & Rickie Solinger, Reproductive Justice: An Introduction 908 Rachel Rebouché, Reproducing Rights: The Intersection of Reproductive Justice and Human Rights 909 Notes 910 1. Grounding the Abortion Right 910 2. Funding and 913 3. Stare Decisis, Reliance, and Autonomy 915 4. “” Requirements 916 5. Spousal Notice and Consent Provisions 918 6. Parental Consent and Notification Requirements 918 7. Federal Policy Relating to Minors and Abortion 920 8. Abortion Laws and the First Amendment 921 Gonzales v. Carhart 924 Jeannie Suk, The Trajectory of Trauma: Bodies and Minds of Abortion Discourse 930 Khiara M. Bridges, When Pregnancy Is an Injury: Rape, Law, and Culture 932 Notes 933 1. Restrictions on Late-​Term 933 2. Abortion “Regret” 933 3. A State or Federal Matter? 935 xxv

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Whole Women’s Health v. Hellerstedt 936 Mary Ziegler, Substantial Uncertainty: Whole Women’s Health v. Hellerstedt and the Future of 943 Notes 944 1. Targeted Regulation of Abortion Providers (“TRAP”) 944 2. Access to Abortion and the Role of Law and Technology 945 3. Anti-Abortion​ Activism 947 4. Amendments and Other Efforts to Ban Abortion 950 5. The End of Roe? 951 Putting Theory into Practice 953 3. Pregnancy and Contractual Autonomy 955 In re Baby M. 955 Notes 963 1. Decisional Autonomy 963 2. Gestational Surrogacy 964 3. The Use and Regulation of Surrogacy 966 4. Feminist Responses to Surrogacy 970 5. Reproductive Rights in the Surrogacy Context 973 6. Frozen “Pre-​embryos”: Balancing Wanted and Unwanted Parenthood 974 Putting Theory into Practice 978 4. The Pregnant Woman and Fetus as Adversaries 980 Ferguson v. City of Charleston 980 Notes 985 1. Drug Testing of Welfare Recipients 985 2. Criminal Prosecutions of Drug-​Using Pregnant Women 986 3. of Pregnancy? 990 4. Civil Alternatives to Criminal Prosecution 992 Putting Theory into Practice 995 C. Economic Autonomy and Women’s Poverty 997 Sara Sternberg Greene, The Bootstrap Trap 999 Ann Cammett, Deadbeat Dads & Welfare Queens: How Metaphor Shapes Poverty Law 1002 Martha Albertson Fineman, Cracking the Foundational Myths: Independence, Autonomy, and Self-​Sufficiency 1002 Vicki Schultz, Life’s Work 1003 Notes 1005 1. Poverty, Gender, and Race 1005 xxvi xxvii

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2. The Impact of Welfare Reform 1007 3. Low-​Wage Work as a Cause of Poverty 1010 4. Incarcerated Mothers 1011 5. Welfare Reform and the Promotion of Marriage 1012 6. Welfare and Autonomy 1014 7. Income Inequality 1014 Putting Theory into Practice 1016

Table of Cases 1017 Index 1025