MAIN PESTS OF FORESTS IN SOUTH EAST EUROPE

Pines are native throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere and have been introduced to most temperate and subtropical regions of the world, where they are grown for timber and cultivated as ornamental plants. Scots pine ( L..) is a species of pine native to Europe and Asia, ranging from Scotland, Ireland and Portugal in the west, east to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains, and north to well inside the Arctic Circle in Fennoscandia. In central and southern Europe there are numerous additional pine species, including European black pine, mountain pine, Macedonian pine, and Swiss pine. Pinus sylvestris is an evergreen coniferous tree growing up to 35 m in height with a 1 m trunk diameter when mature. The lifespan is normally 150–300 years. The bark is thick, scaly dark grey-brown on the lower trunk, and thin, flaky and orange on the upper trunk and branches. The foliage ('needles') are a glaucous blue-green, often darker green to dark yellow-green in winter, 2.5–5 cm long and 1–2 mm wide. The seed cones are red at pollination, then pale brown, globose and 4–8 mm diameter in their first year, expanding to full size in their second year, pointed ovoid-conic, green, then grey-green to yellow-brown at maturity, 3-7.5 cm in length. The cone scales have a flat to pyramidal apophysis, with a small spine on the umbo. Seeds are blackish, 3–5 mm long with a pale brown 12–20 mm wing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_sylvestris) . The health status of individual pine trees is characterized mainly based on defoliation, i.e. the relative foliar loss of a tree crown compared to that of a fully-leafed, healthy reference tree growing in the same stand and site conditions. Tree crown defoliation is a non-specific damage symptom, normally associated with a range of harmful factors, each of which can act separately or together. To determine the effects of single factors on the amount of damage and their importance is usually very difficult. It is usually impossible to separate the influence of climate change from other harmful factors (, pathogens, air pollution) affecting the health status in forest ecosystems.

No defoliation - 0 Slight defoliation - 1 Moderate defoliation - 2 Severe defoliation - 3

Figure 1. The natural range of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) Figure 2. Pine defoliation is defined as needle loss in the assessable crown as compared to a reference tree. Defoliation is (http://www.euforgen.org) and morphology of the needles (A), seed assessed in 5 classes and they are: 0 (0 – 10 % defoliation), 1 ( 11 – 25 % defoliation), 2 (26 – 59 % defoliation), 3 (60 – 99 cones (B) and buds (http://commons.wikimedia.org/). %), 4 (100 % defoliation). (Photos: P. Fabianek. )

Main pests on needles. Certain forest pests (insects and pathogens) affect pine trees at Main pests on branches and shoots: Pine shoot moth larvae feed inside the primary shoots different stages. Insects feeding on pine needles (e.g. Pine processionary moth, Pine , causing serious deformation. After re-growth the shoot remains deformed. The disease European pine sawfly) are damaging to both young and older trees. Larvae feed on needles in Cenangium canker usually occurs on lower, shaded branches of pine trees. Small, black fruiting large groups. Pine needle cast is a general term used to describe diseases in which needle-like bodies appear on dead branches. The main symptoms of pine twisting rust are bent or broken foliage is shed from a tree. Once a pine has succumbed to a primary pest, secondary pests shoots in the upper crown of young Scots . begin to attack the trees (e.g. bark beetles). B A A B C C D A BB C C D A B C

6 1 2 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5

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Figure 3. Major pests on pine needles. A - Pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea Figure 4. Major pests: A - Pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana), (Photo: Gy. Csoka); pityocampa), (Photo: F. Lakatos); B - European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer), (Photo: Gy. B - Cenangium canker (Cenangium ferruginosum), (Photo: A. Kunca); ; C - Pine twisting rust Csoka); C- Pine sawfly ( pini), (Photo: Gy. Csoka); D - Pine needle cast (Lophodermium (Melampsora pinitorqua), (Photos: P. Kapitola). 11 seditiosum), (Photo: A. Kunca). 1010 12 1212 7 8

Pine decline and main pests on trunks: Pine decline is attributed to the interactions of several stressors, including biotic factors such as pine needle eating insects, pine needle cast, mistletoes and climate change. Abiotic factors, such as devastating hurricanes, strong winds, wet snow, fire, persistent drought or logging damage can have detrimental effects on pine forests. Once a pine has succumbed to a primary pest, secondary pests begin to attack the tree (large pine weevil, six toothed , large pine shoot beetle, annosus root disease, honey fungus, red heart of pine and so on). These secondary pests are normally attracted to pines recently attacked by abiotic and biotic stressors.

C D E F A AA B B DD E F F

Figure 5. Major pests and damage on pine trunks. A: Accumulation of wet snow on pine trees, (Photos: S. Mirtchev); ; B: European mistletoe (Viscum album), (Photos: J. Samanek); C: Large pine weevil (), Photos: Gy. Csóka); D: Six toothed bark beetle (Ips sexdentatus), (Photos: Cy. Csoka): E: Large pine shoot beetle (Tomicus piniperda), (Photos: Cy. Csoka); F: Red heart of pine (Phellinus pini), (Photo: USDA Forest Service Archive).

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This publication has been made possible by the generous support of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland

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