CHANGES IN FANTASY NARRATIVES: FROM 19TH CENTURY BOOKS TO 21ST CENTURY TELEVISION
By
NATALIE GARCEAU-TURNER
Integrated Studies Final Project Essay (MAIS 700)
submitted to Dr. Nanci Langford
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts – Integrated Studies
Athabasca, Alberta
December, 2014 Natalie Garceau-Turner 2
ABSTRACT
An overview of popular fantasy from its cultural and literary roots in the 19th century to today's television adaptations. A cultural history overview follows the evolution of fantasy from oral tradition to written book to the visual mediums of today, showcasing how each iteration contributed to the evolution of the genre, and was aimed at a different perceived audience whose expectations influenced the narrative away from its original form while still referring to its roots. This evolution gradually led to a contemporary fascination with revisionist adaptations of fantasy tales, now aimed at an adult television audience. An analysis of several television series points out through various theories; folklore (monomyth) literary theories (intertextual, post colonial and feminist) and media studies (theory of persuasion) how those adaptations change the focus of the original narrative. Natalie Garceau-Turner 3
Table of Contents-
Introduction - p. 4
1. Folklore – Cultural History p. 4
2. Feminist Theory: Female Voice in Genre Development p. 7
3. Folklore: The monomyth p.10
4. Intertextuality p.10
5. Post-Colonial Theory: Treatment of Race p.16
6. Theory of persuasion: Functions of Attitude p.17
Conclusion p.18
Works Cited p.20 Natalie Garceau-Turner 4
Introduction-
There are two angles to the question: how the stories themselves have changed over the years
(narratives) and how they were presented (iteration). Covering over two hundred years the integral catalogue of the all the variations in story and presentation is an impressive one. Without cataloguing all those changes (a type of research already better done than is possible here) it is necessary to follow the evolutionary thread in the narratives and their medium that led to their present renaissance. Looking at this thread through the lens of different disciplinary theories using literary, cultural, historical and media analysis, reveals how the narratives evolved and the reasons behind it. More importantly, how those narratives survived through the centuries is in many ways exceptional and may give insights into popular culture.
1. Folklore - Cultural History
First Iteration - from oral tales to written word
Legends, superstitions and folktales, or fairy tales were the subject of storytelling as far back as records exist. Storytelling was (and is) the easiest and cheapest way to entertain an audience with fiction but it had no permanence. In the late 17th century a popular form of writing among the middle class and aristocracy was the collection of folk and fairy tales. Compiling folktales was an adult endeavour. Contemporary fantasies were penned to express the writers' conviction. In 1697 the French academician Charles Perrault was the first to publish an adaptation of eleven tales as Les Contes de ma
Mère l'Oye (Tales of Mother Goose) exclusively for children, adding morals at the end of the stories.
During the 18th century as the literary and artistic movement of the Enlightenment evolved Natalie Garceau-Turner 5 among intellectual and artistic circles, promoting reason over superstition, the compilation of tales fell out of favour as a cultural activity. Mass printing was enabling other kinds of literary innovations: the novel, the encyclopedia, the lending library. As the century progressed the Enlightenment gave way to the Romantic movement. Artists and writers were looking for inspiration away from classical motifs to something closer to home. Medieval arts and literature were used as inspiration. It was the start of the interest in Neo-gothic in architecture and Gothic and chivalrous Romances in literature. Stories from the Arthurian legend were a favourite subject to adapt such as Tennyson's Idylls of the King (1859-85).
Part of the Romantic movement credo was an interest in the promotion of nationalism.
This is what prompted the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm to collect folk stories in the early
19th century. Those oral sources contained a wide range of genres, horror tales, monster and ghost legends, tragic tales and humour that ranged from vulgar to witty. In 1812 they published some of those folk tales as 'Children's and Household Tales' (Kinder und Hausmärchen). The brothers Grimm's two volumes compiled 209 tales as opposed to Perrault's eleven. In both cases, the authors interpreted the tales heavily. Expansion of the text and flowering language, removal of sexuality and violence, addition of morals transformed the stories into something different from their oral storytelling origins.
Second Iteration: Expansion of Fantasy into new Genres
The earliest popular fantasy texts all came from continental Europe, with Germany and France leading the wave. As the Industrial age progressed into the 19th century, English speaking authors made an important contribution with the creation of new works of fantasy literature. Fantasy was popular for adults as the Gothic genre developed. Old folkloric monsters were given their own fictive spaces. Vampire legends inspired several books. The most famous and influential is Dracula (Bram Natalie Garceau-Turner 6
Stoker, 1897). New monsters were also created : Frankenstein or the new Prometheus (Mary Shelley,
1818) also the first of a new kind of fantasy, Science Fiction.
The market for children literature was now well established, and several series were created with a young audience in mind. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Lewis Carroll, 1865) and Alice through the Looking Glass (1871) was created then in England. A few years later the Wizard of Oz series started ( L. Frank Braum, 1900-1920).
Third Iteration: Books to Other Mediums
The start of the 20th century and the Modernist era is when audio and visual medias start to appear. The continuous, episodic serial format started to be used in the new mediums. Radio and short film serials were the precursors of the television serials.
In the sixties there were shows based on fantasy monsters aimed at a general audience. In the daytime there was the soap opera Dark Shadows, where relationship problems included vampires and werewolves. The other three notable series were all situation comedies: The Munsters (1964-66), The
Addams Family (1964-66), and Bewitched (1964-72). The Munsters and The Addams Family portrayed close knit families who loved each other and were confident in their own values. In Bewitched, the story also revolves around families but now the conflict is between them. Samantha, a witch, married
Darrin, a human. Samantha's witch family disapproves of humans, and Darren disapproves of his wife's powers, in an impressive display of the anti-feminism status quo of the time. Fantasy characters were used as motifs to comment on American middle-class family values as for the first time they were the heroes of their story where the fictive depiction of 'our' world was their own alien fantasy world.
A survey of all American shows in the seventies television shows no daytime or prime time Natalie Garceau-Turner 7 fantasy content outside of children series, or more precisely no traditional fantasy content. On the other hand, the newest genre of fantasy, science fiction was popularized. Several science fiction series were created during that decade, especially after the success of the movie Star Wars (1977). This is similar to the wane the genre experienced during the Enlightenment era.
In the eighties with the introduction of cable television, the number of stations expanded.
Speciality stations were introduced. This meant the audience's choices increased and shows could be created for more specific audiences as opposed to content aimed at a general audience.
Beauty and the Beast (1987-90) may be considered the first case of fantasy reimagining. A female prosecutor , Catherine, is helped by her beastly looking lover who lives in a secret world of caves under
New York. Although the adventures are original creations, the title, the look of the show and a constant motif of references (the Beast is an avid reader with a chivalrous code of conduct) refer directly to previous literary works. This Beast quotes Shakespeare and Carroll, never transforming into a handsome prince, but gradually becoming more attractive in the eyes of Catherine.
In the 90s the first of many 'monster lives among us' series began. In 'Forever Knight' (1992-96) the hero is a vampire who struggles against his nature and works as a police detective. The series was innovative in showing two parallel worlds, one hidden in the other, as vampires lived among humans. It was also the first to be shown in the evening, aimed at an adult audience. Both practises are standard today.
2. Feminist Theory: Female Voice in Genre Development
The popularity of the Perrault and Grimm collections eclipses awareness of others done by their contemporaries. During Perrault's time, gathering and writing fairy tales was a favoured activity among genteel women in general and among the literary movement of the Précieuses in particular. It organized Natalie Garceau-Turner 8 female centric gathering of artistic amateurs gathering to exchange poetic texts in their own extremely florid style.
A similar wave of new fairy tales creation occurred during the beginning of the Romantic era, also largely done by well educated women. Those tales created by women were usually more girl centric, introspective and with personalized voices. This is the preface of one such author:
'History...is a well behaved matron...legend, on the other hand, is a saucy
little thing eager to please, and doesn't care where she borrows her baubles
as long as they do the trick. since I confess openly to you, dear reader,that
my guide is not the former, but the latter...then you know what to expect in
those pages and which hours of the day you should spend reading them.'
(Werner, Graf von Bernburg 5)(Eigler 74))
The last sentence is revealing. Whether professionally printed or manuscript, women's fairy tales or fantasies (Werner calls them 'legend') 'which hour' refers to private time, reading for oneself or aloud in a group.Creations written by females and their audience were meant to stay close to home.
The gathering of tales, once shared, exposed them to revisions to match the social norms of the day.
Tales gathered by the brothers Grimm's 'informants' where the heroine displayed the socially approved female qualities of passive acceptance were favoured for inclusion in the Kinder und
Kantchen.
'...tales by Dorothea Viehmann, an older market woman who supplied 37
tales of the first collection, portray women with survival skills and inner
resources, as indicated in her tale “Die kluge Bauerstochter,” in which the
farmer's daughter shows initiative and intelligence. Wilhelm Grimm, however,
added biased notes in the 1857 edition to the effect that the farmer's daughter Natalie Garceau-Turner 9
was wise beyond her social standing, illustrating the editorial liberties the
Grimms took with tales contributed by women. ' ( Mabee 141)
Paradoxically when the fairy tale craze was at its height at the end of the 19th century, publishers in need of content adapted many of the forgotten female creations in collections such as the
Andrew Lang's 'colour' fairy-tale books. Most of the princesses may not have been proactive, but they were girls having adventures facing trials and monsters and they were familiar to Victorian and
Edwardian era children. Familiarity with young heroines made the more active Alice in Wonderland and Dorothy in Oz acceptable to young readers.
What of their mothers? In the 19th century men could read of chivalrous exploits. Most of the females in those stories were, if powerful, evil (Morgan le Fay) if the embodiment of love, pure
(Blanchefleur), doomed (The lady of Shalot), or carnal (Guenevere). As in fairy tales, strong female characters were usually villains.
This situation remained fairly steady until recently. Even as late as 1954 with the publication of the epic romance pastiche 'The Lord of the Rings' (J. R. R. Tolkien); females are seldom present except as aloof elven queens (and one female warrior Éowyn the shieldmaiden). However, The Lord of the
Rings is important for developing 'fantasy' into its own genre, where authors could create their own fictional worlds, including a wave of fictional worlds where female characters are active heroes.
Fantasy (as does Science Fiction) covers a wide range of tones, from comedy to epic, and themes ranging from simple escapist adventures to socio-political commentaries. Imitation and adaptation of material from the 'classics' is an accepted practice. This is also where the current revisionist movement started, by retelling those classic fantasies in different ways. Two influential books on this theme are:
The Mists of Avalon (Marion Zimmer Bradley,1983) a feminist re-telling of the Arthurian legend from the female perspective. casting Morgan le Fay as Celtic priestess fighting against the encroaching Natalie Garceau-Turner 10
Christian culture.
Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (Gregory Maguire, 1995) likewise shows the the events of the original book The Wizard of Oz from the Wicked Witch's point of view, making the
Wizard the true villain of the story.
Those books have not been out of print since their first publication and have set an precedent for showing the villain's point of view. It contains a message against subjective demonization that, since villains are often strong women, reassesses that negative connotation . Because of similarities with the revisionist treatment in adult fantasy television series, it is safe to assume that they are influential.
3. Folklore: the Monomyth
Joseph's Campbell's theory of the monomyth is that most stories are built as a Hero's Journey.
The hero is an archetype (for example Dorothy) who goes on a quest into the special world (Oz). There s/he meets other archetypes who are allies (Scarecrow) or enemies (Wicked Witch) to finally return home (Kansas). Those other archetypes are also the heroes of their own journeys. All the tales that became classics are build on this structure. Campbell's theory became well-known outside of academia thanks to a television series in the eighties based on his work titled 'The Masks of God'. Writers started to use it as a tool to analyze and create stories.
4. Intertextuality
'Intertextuality refers to the interconnectedness of cultural narratives, such that current texts always refer backward to structures and ideas contained in earlier texts; each generation’s patterns of Natalie Garceau-Turner 11 discourse are built upon those of preceding generations.' ( Hirschman 1)
The process from one medium to another, until the apparition of audio visual mediums, was one of adaptation as opposed to reinterpretation. From oral to written version the text would get embellished and guided toward a preferred meaning (think of the morals added to Perrault's Contes) but it was still essentially the same story. With the advent of television a new challenge faced the content creators. Different texts would have to share the same fictional space. That is, television series need multiple stories, or episodes, involving the same characters in the same environment. Book series (with the help of illustrations) or radio series would leave the visualization of the text to its audience.
Television needs to show everything. A character's inner monologue, or a reference to the past, needs to be shown. For a general audience the stories must be clear enough for younger viewers while still relevant to adults. For an adult audience suggested or explicit sexual or violent content add another dimension of text. In some ways the graphic sex and violence in those modern fantasies echoes back to the original folktales before they were censured. In all cases the audience is assumed to understand the visual language of film. It is not assumed to have read the original fantasy texts referenced in today's television series, but to know the narratives from their popularity and from previous sources. Those fantasy texts are now revisited, either as new versions of an original story (readaptation) or as an element of a new story (reappropriation).
Five Examples of Intertextuality in Reappropriated Fantasies
Being Human (2008-2013)
Out of the fives examples chosen Being Human is not based on a particular text. Being Human Natalie Garceau-Turner 12 reflects a trend that has been going on for the past decade of putting supernatural beings in contemporary settings. what was set for laughs in the sixties with The Munsters is now a source of drama. Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Vampire Diaries, Supernatural all work on the premise that hidden among us is a parallel world of monsters.
The three main characters represent the three more popular movie monsters: a vampire, a werewolf and a ghost. Monsters are exaggerated beings. Their exaggerated nature reflects facets of the human psyche that is usually repressed in everyday life. Ghosts reflect our fascination, and fear of, death. Vampires lusting after blood represent fear of sexuality and werewolves our animal selves or fear of losing control. The three friends struggle to live a normal life while supernatural beings seek them out constantly. they look and act like ordinary young people. It is a drama with fantasy elements, but without a fantasy look. Identification with the heroes is encouraged by their apparent normalcy and contemporary settings. The texts referred to here are the movies that popularized those monsters rather than the original legends.
Dracula (2014)
Of all folklore monsters, vampires have proven the most popular. It is in great part thanks to the novel Dracula (Bram Stoker, 1897). Bram Stoker set the rules about vampires still in use today. Living at night, destroyed by light, able to hypnotize and change form. He gave one a name and title, and more importantly, set him up against not only traditional agents of good (Christian faith) but against modern technology. Using gramophone recordings, blood transfusions and hypnotism his nemesis Van Helsing, intended victim Mina and her protectors defeated Dracula.
The 2014 version is pitting aristocracy against modern technology but this time the roles are reversed.
Dracula, revived by Van Helsing, is acting as an industrialist promoting a new source of energy. His human opponents are now financiers belonging to an evil secret society. The series' plot has little to do Natalie Garceau-Turner 13 with the original book or movies but references them constantly. Although Dracula can acts violently, the horror elements come also from the human characters surrounding him. The fictive world is a steampunk version of London (Victorian style with added imaginary technology). Steampunk is a contemporary style that refers to an alternate past history, adding another revisionist layer to the narrative. The series both quotes and reimagines its nominal roots. With its industrial invention sub- theme, the enemy is again the aristocracy, but its menace is as a human institution rather than a symbol of older power.
Sleepy Hollow (2014-15)
Ichabod Crane, now a revolutionary soldier, wakes up in present day Sleepy Hollow to combat the headless horseman. The only thing the series has in common with the Washington Irving story is the title and the motif of the headless horseman. The series refers more to the 1999 Tim Burton movie of the same name using several of the same plot points such as two little girls finding a monster in the woods. Neither later versions duplicate the humour of the original. Sleepy Hollow adds an epic element to the horror story. The headless horseman is now one of the four horsemen of the apocalypse, which must be stopped before they destroy the world. Part of the solution lies in the bible George Washington gave Crane. The story has all the elements of a legend, imitating folklore, adding significance to familiar American icons (Washington, witches, Revolutionary soldier) using them as signs of an epic destiny. But the original meaning of those elements is ignored, such as the Four horsemen which are
Biblical agents of God. Once again the reimagining is a reversal.
Merlin (2008-2012)
'The Merlin we know today generally descends in a direct line from Geoffrey’s character, as developed by Thomas Malory and as adapted by a number of nineteenth- and twentieth century authors Natalie Garceau-Turner 14 to their own situations and concerns.' (Goodrich,Thompson 231) Merlin is a mentor figure, either unpredictable, aloof, or faithful companion depending on the story, but always older than King Arthur.
In this reimagining, Merlin is a teenager and the same age as Arthur. He must protect him while learning how to use his powers and do it secretly since magic is forbidden. Merlin is now an outsider
(the way teens usually feel), the hero of his own story, and his young age signifies that his young audience can identify with him.
Once Upon a Time (2011-2014)
Emma Stone finds out that she is the daughter of Snow White and Prince Charming, 'the chosen one' who can save the citizens of Storybrook, who are actually all fairy tales characters from the
Enchanted Forest, from the curse that brought them to 'our' world. This live action action drama has all the signs of a soap opera, with convoluted family relations, secret plots and surprise revelations.
Characters from the Disney film catalogue are reimagined twice, as a version of their self from the
Enchanted forest, and as a contemporary small town citizen. This dual fictive space refers to the various characters' own stories. They are forced together changing, removing and adding parts of their personaes to fit each others' stories. For example, Belle from Beauty and the Beast re-enacts her story from that movie, imprisoned in a castle and falling in love with its owner except that the 'beast' this time is Rumpelstiltskin. The fact that it is a obvious promotional vehicle is not hidden by Disney. On the contrary, textual references to numerous shows, both incidental and within the plot pepper each show. Awareness of the reappropriation of the characters is encouraged and the message here is that one must be knowledgeable about the Disney brand to enjoy the show fully.
Much as been written about the homogenizing effect of the Disney treatment of fairy tales. The Natalie Garceau-Turner 15
Disney versions of fairy tales have been broadcasted and adapted into other mediums steadily (not only books, comics, audio books, but musicals and ice-skate show and now a primetime drama) until today to the point where the Disney version of a story is now the accepted version by the general public.
'Disney versions of traditional Märchen replaced the original orally circulated
text and thereby created a sense of canonicity. Tucker’s research was geared to
demonstrate that children today were allowing video narrative texts to
predetermine their own storytelling performance styles. “None of them [the
children she studied] used anything but video versions as starting points for
narrations; to this extent, I can assert that videotape is overshadowing traditional
print versions of stories” (1992:25). That being said, Tucker noted the importance
of video-mediated narrative in developing children’s storytelling repertoires. She
mentioned a narrative variant of “Cinderella” told to her by a four year-old
informant named Emily, who fused the romantic fairytale with a vampire story.'
(Koven, p. 178)
There are two important points made in the previous quote: the homogenization of mass media
(in this case video) replaces older forms of storytelling but at the same time new narratives can be constructed from those same video sources. The active recomposition of a story (in this case from two different genres) into a new one that Emily did was not different in strategy from what is going on in television fantasy programs practicing reappropriation now.
The general public is aware of a reduced number of tales, but that awareness is shared by most. A shared culture of of familiar texts makes their reappropriation easier for creators and audience alike. Natalie Garceau-Turner 16
5. Post Colonial Theory: Treatment of Race
All the original texts used as inspiration for the television series are eurocentric. All the original characters are white. All the contemporary series reviewed have at least one non-white character. In
Being Human Nina the ghost is black. As the show is set in the present day her presence reflects a current demographic. In this case, the black character reinforces the impression of normalcy. The human characteristics of the roommates are as different as their supernatural ones.
In Dracula, the non white other is his able assistant Radcliffe. Radcliffe is not only black, but large, with a booming voice and he dresses in clashing patterns. Radcliffe is treated well by Dracula but this follows the role reversal motif of the show (The original was a madman enslaved by Dracula who ate bugs).There is a duality in Radcliffe that parallels his master's. They are both remaking themselves as entrepreneurs. Dracula can hide his aristocratic roots and his inhumanity but Radcliffe is a visible minority of one. Using an actor who physically embodies all the characteristics that prejudiced people of the day would find offensive (large, loud, brash) emphasizes this.
In Merlin, Guenevere is black. In this version she is not a princess but the handmaiden of Morgana,
Arthur's sister. She becomes an ally of Merlin from the beginning of the series, learning his secret while
Arthur remains oblivious to it. Guenevere is smart, courageous and resourceful. She soon becomes
Arthur's love interest.
Once Upon a Time is all white, except for Mulan, who is now a minor character who appears occasionally away from Storybrook where the main action is. She serves other characters as a knight bodyguard.
Sleepy Hollow has two main characters, Ichabod Crane (white male) and the local sheriff Abbie Mills
(black female). Although nominally equal, Abbie needs to guide Ichabod through the pitfalls of modern life. She serves as his guide and he reveals to her the arcane knowledge of the past. Natalie Garceau-Turner 17
There is a non-white presence in those series to acknowledge contemporary multiculturalism but not to the point where a non-white would be in a leading position. Four out of five of those non-white characters are also female. With the exception of the contemporary Being Human, the treatment of race, while consciously far away from the position of an 'other' excluded from being an active participant, and while it does introduce and integrate other races as such, limits them to the role of allies and mentors. The combination of race and female gender projects an 'equal but separate' image that still reflects subordination.
6. Theory of Persuasion: Functions of Attitude
The theory of persuasion applicable in this case focuses on attitude (relationship to an object of interest).
Referring to the way components of an attitude relate to each other, or Intra-attitudinal structure
(Severin,Tankard 151) shows how those components are balanced in the target audience:
Affective component (feeling about object): the target audience appreciates fantasy.
Cognitive component (belief about object): the source material is recognized by the target audience as a
'classic' fantasy.
Behavioural component (action toward object): the target audience watches fantasy-based television
series
A common strategy used to persuade audience involves source credibility, or 'having the right source can increase the effectiveness of your message.' (156). In this case the original source is the 19th century popular fantasy texts used as inspiration for the television series. The trustworthiness factor Natalie Garceau-Turner 18
(159) of the original text material, in this case its 'classic' label, is proven by the original texts' longevity and by their popularity in previous adaptations (such as previous versions of Dracula or
Alice in Wonderland in movies) is a persuasion argument.
There are four major functions for attitude. One is the 'value-expressive' function (the others are
'utilitarian', 'ego-defensive', and 'knowledge' functions). The value -expressive function which focuses on self-identity, appeals to 'individuals to reasserts self-image' (169), by persuading the target audience that their values and interests are represented in the fictional world of the series.
Those values and interests are about relationships, either to others or to power.
On the themes of personal relationship, Being Human is about friendship, Once Upon a Time about family and Merlin about duty versus personal needs.
The more adult Dracula and Sleepy Hollow are both about quests for power; but the visual motif
(setting, character, props) construct not only a fictional space but a fictional past. This fictional space is a fantasy re-telling of actual history. Sleepy Hollow rewrites American history to include occult elements in it. Dracula does the same with the Victorian industrial age.
All those series are appropriate and aimed at young adults in their twenties and thirties. The more family-oriented shows include a younger audience interested the more intimate tone of personal relationships, the evening ones a wider adult one interested in the epic tone of power struggles.
Conclusion
The role of fantasy as a popular culture genre from its first recordings of oral folklore to today's adaptations evolved parallel to literary movements and industrial development in European and
American society. The propagation of fairy tales and horror stories outside of oral tradition opened the door to new creations. Popular interest in Romantic era inventions such as 'Dracula' and 'Alice in Natalie Garceau-Turner 19
Wonderland' has been added to fairy-tales in a collective occidental culture. The rise and wane of fantasy sub-genres such as tales of chivalry or monster comedy reflects changes in its perceived audience as society evolves.
At each new iteration, books based on current literary research in fantasy were aimed at the general public: the brothers Grimm's 'Kinder- und Hausmärchen' in the 18th century, Tennyson's 'Idylls of the
King' in the 19th, and Campbell's the 'Masks of God' series in the 20th promoted the importance of fantasy fictive spaces to the same audience who consumed them as entertainment.
The current popularity of fantasy as a genre for television series aimed at adults goes beyond retelling stories in different ways into post-modern deconstruction.
The components of the text are broken down to be reconstituted into new configurations.
Recognizable characters change their archetypal roles, or the signification of textual signs may be altered. Once a monster becomes a hero or a princess a mentor, the audience has to reevaluate contexts developed over the last two hundred years.
The message may be altered but, because it is made by using touchstones from our collective culture in order to reconstruct them, it still refers to our common fictive spaces. Those fictive spaces ground the audience in past narratives while simultaneously altering those narratives. Although at first glance the method appears extreme it has been always been present in some form as part of the making of fantasy, which evolves by using old tales as inspiration for new ones. Natalie Garceau-Turner 20
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