FOOD HABITS OF ARAB STUDENTS LIVING
IN THE UNITED STATES
by
BAY AN AHMED OBEIDAT, B.Sc.
A THESIS
IN
FOOD AND NUTRITION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Approved
August, 2002 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to my committee chair Dr. Helen. C. Brittin for her unwavering guidance and encouragement throughout the process of conducting this research study. Further appreciation is extended to the other members of my committee Dr. Mallory
Boylan and Dr. Kenny Wu for their invaluable assistance and suggestions. I would like to thank the Graduate school at
Texas Tech University for their support in providing a
Graduate School Summer Thesis Research Award.
Finally, I wish to thank my family members. I am deeply indebted to my parents for their constant support and encouragements. My deepest gratitude goes to my husband and son, Aziz and Omar, for providing a relaxing atmosphere for necessary diversions. Special thanks go to my best friends Jawaher and Wesal for their constant cheerleading and encouragements.
11 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT v LIST OF TABLES vi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4 Arab Culture 4 Arab Americans 6 Traditional Food Habits of Arabs 8 Dietary Islamic Food Law and Food Habits of Muslims 14 Fasting in Islam 16 Food Habits of Other Immigrant Groups 18 Dietary Pattern, Food Intake, and Preference 19 Factors of Dietary Change 27 Convenience and Availability of Ingredients 28 Income Level 2 9 Relative Price of Food 30 Length of time in the Western Countries 30 Acculturation 31 Food Frequency Questionnaire 34 Measurement of Food Preference 35 Hedonic Scale 36 III. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3 9 Subjects 39 Questionnaire Design 41 Statistical Analysis 44 IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47 Characteristics of Subjects 48 Changes in Eating Patterns and Food Practices 58 Food Frequency and Preferences 75 V. CONCLUSION 118 REFERENCES 121 APPENDIX 12 9 A. E-MAIL SOLICITATION 129 B. FOOD PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES QUESTIONNAIRE 131 ABSTRACT
Changes in dietary patterns among different immigrant groups have been reported. However, limited research data on dietary habits of Arabs living in the United States are available. The objective of this study was to investigate dietary patterns of Arab students living in the U.S. A questionnaire was designed to collect information about background, degree of acculturation, changes in food habits, frequency of food consumption, and food preferences. Potential subjects were Arab students enrolled at five U.S. universities. Questionnaires were mailed to 70 students. Analysis of variance was used with continuous variables; chi-square tests were used to analyze categorical variables. Associations among continuous variables were examined using correlation analysis. Forty- five questionnaires were returned. Because of the availability, cost, and convenience, the consumption frequency of Arab foods had decreased while the consumption frequency of some American foods had increased. The consumption frequency and liking of American foods were related to age, age entered U.S., length of residence in
U.S., and degree of acculturation. LIST OF TABLES
1. Demographic characteristics of subjects. 49
2. Acculturation level of subjects. 55
3. Correlation coefficients for acculturation scores and demographic characteristics for age, age entered U.S., length of residence in U.S., years of education, income, and food expenditure of subjects(n=45). 56
4. Means and standard deviations for eating patterns of Arab students in country of origin and in United States (n=45) 59
5. Chi-square values of eating patterns of Arab students(n=45)in country of origin and living in United States. 61
6. General food habits of Arab students (n=45) after living in United States 64
7. Test for independence of change in eating habits and discrete variables (n=45). 69
8. Means and standard deviations for food consumption frequency of subjects (n=42) in country of origin and in United States. 76
9. Means and standard deviations for food consumption frequency by men and women (n=42). 84
10. Means and standard deviations of hedonic scores for foods by total subjects, men, and women (n=42). 90
11. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and food consumption frequency in United States by total subjects, men, and women (n=42). 98 12. Correlation coefficients for food consumption frequency in United States and general information for age, age entered U.S., length of residence in U.S.,years of education, income, food expenditure. And acculturation scores by total subjects (n=42). 103
13. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and acculturation level for food by total subjects (n=42). 113 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Changing U.S. demographics is the reason that the study of culturally based food habits is essential in all facets of food production and consumption. In recent years, the significance of culturally based food habits on health and the need for intercultural competencies in food and nutrition research and education have been recognized
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001). There is scant information on dietary habits of Arabs living in the United States
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001). Arabs refer to persons who speak Arabic and share the values and beliefs of Arab culture (Abraham, 1995; Patai, 1973).
Food plays a central role in the lives of Arab
families (Meleis, 1981). Wheat, most commonly in bread, is
the primary staple food. Legumes, rice, yogurt, and cheese
also contribute important nutrients. Vegetables are served
often, usually in elaborate preparations that require
considerable time. Fresh fruits are popular as snacks and
desserts (Packard and McWilliams, 1994). Spices and herbs
add vital flavor to foods typical of Middle East culture
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001). 1 Arab foods habits differ along religious lines. While
Christian Arabs have no religious prohibition regarding pork or alcohol, the religious beliefs of Muslims forbid their consumption (Chaudry, 1992; Hussaini, 1993; Sakr,
1971; Twaigery and Spillman, 1989) . Faithful Muslims require meat that is slaughtered according to ritual letting of blood while speaking the name of Allah (God)
(Chaudry, 1992; Sakr, 1971). Obligatory fasting during the holy month of Ramadan involves abstaining from all food and drink from dawn until sunset (Sabini, 1990; Sakr, 1971;
Sakr, 1975) . According to the 1990 census, there were
870,000 persons in the United States who identified themselves as ethnically Arab or who emigrated from one of the 21 countries of the contemporary Arab world (Abraham,
1995). More recent immigrants are Muslims, and the number of Arab Muslims in the United States is growing rapidly
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001).
Several studies have shown changes in food habits among different immigrant groups (Crane and Green, 1980;
Gardner et al., 1995; Kollipara and Brittin, 1996; Pan et al., 1999; Story and Harris, 1989; Zhou and Brittin, 1994).
Most studies showed that immigrant groups retained some native food customs and incorporated some American foods. 2 For example, rice remained a staple food but other native
foods were replaced by cereal, milk, and soft drinks.
Breakfast and snacks were replaced by foods more commonly
consumed by American people (Crane and Green, 1980; Gupta,
1975; Kim et al., 1984; Pan et al., 1999; Yang and Fox,
1979). Researchers have reported that dietary changes were
related to the length of living in the United States,
degree of acculturation, and that changes could be related
to social contact with people in the new culture (Liou and
Contento, 2001; Pan et al., 1999; Yang and Fox, 1979).
Studies showed that younger immigrant groups tend to change
their food habits more than the older immigrant groups
(Gordon et al., 2000; Kim et al., 1984) . However, there was
limited research data on dietary habits of Arabs living in
the United States. Therefore, the purpose of this study was
to determine general food habits of Arab students living in
the United States, factors affecting dietary choices after
living in the United States, consumption frequency of
selected food items of Arab students before and after
living in the United States, and food preferences. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Arab Culture
Arab refers to a person who speaks Arabic and shares the values and believes of Arabs culture (Patai, 1973) .
With the development of Islam in the seventh century A.D. and its spread over part of Asia, Africa, and Europe,
Arabic culture and language spread to the newly conquered people. Over time the Arab identity lost its purely ethnic roots as millions in the Middle East and North Africa adopted the Arabic language and integrated Arab culture with that of their own. Arabic language is the religious language of the holy book called Qur'an. Today, the term
Arab is cultural, linguistic, and to some extent, a political designation (Abraham, 1995). The Arab world consists of 21 countries that span from North Africa to the
Persian Gulf (Abraham, 1995). The Arab countries are
Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine,
Yemen, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirates (Musaiger, 1993) . Arab customs center on hospitality around food and socializing with family and friends (Abraham, 1995).
Arab cuisine is known for the flavor and its use of
fresh ingredients. The common ingredients that give the
flavor to Arab cooking are herbs and spices (bitter orange
leaf, black pepper, caraway, cardamom, coriander seed,
cinnamon, cumin, cloves, fennel, galanga, garlic, ginger,
mace, marjoram, mastic, mint, nutmeg, saffron, sumac
berries, and thyme), dried fruits and nuts (dates, raisins,
almond, walnuts, hazelnuts, pinenuts, and pistachios),
fresh fruits (both sweet and sour), sugar and honey,
vegetables (onion, leek, celery root, fresh coriander,
carrots, cabbage, and spinach), rose water, vinegar, and
dairy products are (Kritzman, 1999). The staple in every
Arab's diet is bread. Fats play an essential role in Arab
cooking. The most common fat is olive oil. Chickpeas, fava
beans, and lentils are also important in the diet. Mostly
fruits are served as desserts after a meal. Eggplant is the
favorite vegetable (Kritzman, 1999; Weeb, 2000). Many Arab
dishes such as stuffed zucchini or green peppers and
stuffed grape or cabbage leaves are highly labor-intensive
(Abraham, 1995). Arab cuisine continues to favor dairy foods, dates, mutton, and camel hump even after migration and acculturation (Kritzman, 1999) .
Arab Americans
Arab Americans are Arabic speaking people, usually of
Semitic origin, who were born in an Arab country and
migrated to the United States, or whose parents were born
in an Arab country and who therefore consider themselves of
Arabic origin (Lipson and Meleis, 1983). Immigration of
Arabs to the United States has increased during the latter
quarter of 20*^^ century (Laffrey et al. , 1989). However,
Arab immigrants represent a tiny fraction of the overall
migration to the United States, constituting less than
three percent of the total (Abraham, 1995).
According to the 1990 census, there were 870,000
persons in the United States who identified themselves as
ethnically Arab or who emigrated from one of the 21
countries that constitute the Arab world. The 1990 census
indicates that most Arab Americans are U.S. citizens (82%)
even though only 63 percent were born in the United States
(Abraham, 1995). Arabs began migrating to the United States
in the late 1800s and have continued in waves that have
coincided with a number of political upheavals in the 6 Middle East (Abraham, 1995; Lipson et al., 1987). Early
Arab immigrants came between the late 1800s and World War
I. They were primarily Christians from areas in the modern countries of Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine,
Yemen, and parts of Iraq (Abraham, 1995; Kittler and
Sucher, 2001; Laffrey et al., 1989; Zanger, 2001).
Immigration resumed after World War II, especially in the
1950s to the mid 1960s, and included many more Muslims
(Abraham, 1995). The third wave of Arab immigration began
in the mid 1960s, following the Immigration Act of 1965 which abolished the quota system (Abraham, 1995). Although
Christian Arabs are still a majority in America, more
recent immigrants follow Islam, and the number of Arab
Muslims in the United States is growing rapidly (Abraham,
1995) .
Most Arab people are located in the Northeast and
Midwest, with significant populations in Boston, Detroit,
New York, and California, particularly in Los Angeles
(Abraham, 1995; Kittler and Sucher, 2001) . Smaller
communities are developing in Texas, Georgia, Alabama, and
other areas in the South (Kittler and Sucher, 2001) . Except
for a small group of Yemenites who are farm workers, Arab-
Americans are urban dwellers who work in industry and 7 private business, including a sizable group of professional
or semiprofessionals in all fields (Lipson et al., 1987).
Traditional Food Habits of Arabs
Traditional foods are a significant part of people's
diet and a demonstrator of their cultural uniqueness. Food
plays a central role in the lives of Arab families,
especially in the celebration of special occasions (often
religious) and in the observance of certain events like
weddings and births (Kittler and Sucher, 2001). Love and
care are intertwined with food and it's offering. Family
get-togethers are planned around elaborate meals;
conversations and discussion are only incidental (Meleis,
1981) .
Wheat, most commonly in bread, is the primary staple
food (Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1994).
Rice is also a staple item (Packard and McWilliams, 1994) .
Legumes, such as chickpeas, fava beans, and lentil are
other important ingredients in Arab cooking (Mermelstein,
1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1994). Favorite foods include
hummus (dip based pureed garbanzos), lentil soup, foul
(slow-cooked broad or black beans), and falafel (seasoned
ground bean paste, shaped and deep fried) (Packard and 8 McWilliams, 1993) . Vegetables are served often, usually in elaborate preparations that required considerable time and they are also preserved as pickles. Favorite vegetables in
Arab countries include eggplant, okra, green beans, cucumber, and tomatoes. Beets were also favored and figure in many dishes. Spinach becomes popular because of its supposed dietary value. Onions are basic ingredients. Leeks are used as much as onions. Squash is popular (Kritzman,
1999). Fresh fruits are eaten for desserts and snacks
(Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1994; Packard and McWilliams, 1993). Fruit and sugar are also used to make jelly and syrups (Kritzman, 1999).
Olives are eaten with most meals (Packard and
McWilliams, 1993) . Olive oil is frequently used in food preparation especially in dishes that are to be eaten cold and for frying fish. Corn or nut oil, clarified butter, palm oil, or fat from mutton are used for most deep-frying
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001; Packard and McWilliams, 1993;
Weeb, 2 000). Sesame oil and tahini, a sauce made by crushing sesame seeds, are used commonly; tahini is especially favored on fried fish (Packard and McWilliams,
1993). Fresh butter is used to spread on bread (Kritzman,
1999) . Fresh milk is not widely consumed but cheese and yogurt, made from sheep or goat milk, contribute important
nutrients (Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams,
1994). Plain yogurt is used abundantly as a side dish and
in soups, dips, and cold drinks. Lebneh, a soft cheese
product made by draining the whey from yogurt, is a
standard food at breakfast and supper (Packard and
McWilliams, 1993).
Almost all meats and seafood are eaten, with the
exception of pork in the Muslim countries and pork and
shellfish among observant Jews in Israel. Red meat is
consumed more frequently than fish or poultry, and mutton
and lamb are preferred over beef (Bourne, 1987; Kittler and
Sucher, 2001; Kritzman, 1999; Mermelstein, 1999; Packard
and McWilliams, 1993; Weeb, 2000). Arabs like their meat
tender and well marbled with fat. Meat is often marinated
at least overnight in order to imbue it with the flavor of
herbs and spices. Although recipes for roasted meat are
relatively rare, there is a widespread taste for roast lamb
(Kritzman, 1999) . Various vegetables and meat pieces are
placed onto skewers and grilled or boiled. Sometimes ground
lamb or beef are mixed with spices and rolled into the
shape of nuggets or fingers and then grilled or baked 10 (Packard and McWilliams, 1993). It is common to boil meat in casseroles with salt, onions, herbs, and spices. A wide range of other ingredients is often added, along with vegetables. Stews are frequently thickened by adding soaked or peeled chickpeas, lentils, or fava beans. Sometimes meat is fried before boiling (Kritzman, 1999).
Candy, baklava, halwa (sesame paste sweet, usually made in a slab and studded with fruits and nuts), and hakoum (gelatinized starch, sweetened with sugar) are the popular sweets (Mermelstein, 1999). Nuts and seeds are used widely as snacks and in main dishes, pilafs, and sweets.
Pistachios, almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, sesame seeds, and seeds of squash and melon are also popular (Packard and
McWilliams, 1993).
Tea and coffee are the most popular drinks and tea is consumed sweetened with or without milk (Bourne, 1987;
Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1993) . Herbal tea is used, sometimes for therapeutic purposes (Packard and McWilliams, 1993).
Numerous herbs and spices are used to add vital
flavor to foods. Commonly used ones are allspice, black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, coriander, cumin, curry, fresh
cilantro, garlic, lemon, mace, mint, nutmeg, oregano, 11 paparika, parsley, poppy seeds, red pepper, saffron, salt, sumac berries, thyme, and turmeric (Mermelstein, 1999;
Packard and McWilliams, 1993) . These traditional foods and ingredients are used to prepare such Arabic dishes such as couscous (a fine semolina grain, usually consumed by steaming over a simmering stew), homous, foul, falafel, and shawarma. Shawarma is a fast food that consists of meat slices layered alternately with slabs of fat onto a vertical rotisserie. As the outer surface cooks, small pieces are carved off and served in pita bread with pickles and a paste made of potatoes and garlic cooked in vegetable oil. Tabouli is a mixture of finely minced parsley, mint, green onion, soaked bulgur, diced cucumber and tomato, olive oil, lemon juice, and a little salt. Koshary is a dish containing a mixture of lentils with rice. Mansaf is a lamb meat cooked with yogurt sauce and served on a base of rice. Kibbeh is a mixture of ground lamb, bulgur, and spices. Kofte is a ground lamb or beef which has been spiced and rolled into the shaped of nuggets or fingers.
Fattoush is mixed salad of cucumber, tomato, onion, lettuce, parsley, mint flakes, and toasted pita bread
(Mermelstein, 1999; Weeb, 2000) .
12 Foods available to a particular population depend on the location, season, and storage and transportation infrastructure of the country. Meal times tend to be later in the Arab countries than in the United States: breakfast at 10 a.m., main meal about 2 p.m., and supper after 9 p.m.
The evening meal may be served as late as midnight in summer (Packard and Williams, 1993).
Breakfast usually consists of tea or coffee, followed by bread with jams, cheese or yogurt, sliced tomatoes, cucumbers, and olives. A heavier breakfast meal would include eggs or legumes, such as falafel, foul, and hummus.
The main meal typically includes meats, grains, vegetables, and legumes in a dish such as stuffed grape leaves, stuffed eggplant, or cabbage rolls. It also includes bread and yogurt. Seasonal fresh fruits always will be offered for dessert; sometimes milk pudding flavored with rose water or orange water also is served. A light evening meal consists of bread, cheese or yogurt, eggs, olives, and salad.
Tabouli and fattoush are the favorite salads (Bourne, 1987;
Packard and McWilliams, 1993).
13 Dietary Islamic Food Law and Food Habits of Muslims
Islam is a comprehensive religion guiding the lives of its followers through sets of rules governing the personal, social, and public aspects (Chaudry, 1992). The spread of
Islam, starting in the 7^^ century, has given a basic character to the food of people in the Middle East
(Mermelstein, 1999). Muslims are expected to eat for survival, to maintain good health, and not to live for eating. In Islam, eating is considered to be a matter of worship of God like prayers, fasting, and other religious practices. A Muslim eats to maintain a strong and healthy physique in order to be able to contribute knowledge and effort for the welfare of society (American Dietetic
Association and American Diabetes Association, 1996; Sakr,
1975) .
Moslem dietary laws are based on the restriction or prohibition of some foods and the promotion of others, derived from Islamic teaching in the Koran. Pork and pork products, such as gelatin, and alcoholic beverages or any thing that causes stupefaction or deprivation of senses are prohibited (Chaudry, 1992; Hussaini, 1993; Sakr, 1975;
Twaigery and Spillman, 1992). The flesh of animals slaughtered in a humane way outlined by Islamic law is 14 halal, meaning lawful or permitted. All meat used for food must be slaughtered according to ritual letting of blood while speaking the name of Allah (God). If the animal is not slaughtered properly, the meat becomes haram (unlawful or prohibited) (Chaudry, 1992; Sakr, 1975) . Muslims use kosher meat products because they know such products have been slaughtered in the proper manner (Mahan and Escott-
Stump, 2000) . Some foods have also been specially recommended. It has been mentioned in the Koran that certain foods have special value. These foods are figs, olives, dates, honey, milk, seafood, and vegetable oil, especially olive oil (Sakr, 1975; Williams, 2001).
Religion has also its influence on food manners and habits of personal cleanliness. Eating always starts with mentioning the name of God and the right hand is preferred for eating. Muslims are advised to eat not more than two- third of their normal capacity. Eating slowly and sharing food are recommended. Food is not to be thrown away, wasted, or treated with contempt, as it is a provision from
God. Muslims must wash their hands before and after each meal, and the mouth must be rinsed. It is traditional to send a dish of food to a neighbor whenever something good is prepared. If there are guests, the hosts are the first 15 to begin eating and the last to finish, and they are to
care for the needs of their guests before their own. The
drinking of stimulants, such as coffee and tea, is
discouraged, and smoking is strongly discouraged
(Mermelstein, 1999; Sakr, 1975).
Fasting in Islam
Fasting is practiced during the month of Ramadan every
year, which occurs during the ninth month of the Islamic
lunar calendar. During this month fasting is obligatory for
all adult and healthy Muslims during the daylight hours.
Muslims fast completely (do not eat or drink) from dawn to
sunset. They eat or drink only twice a day before dawn and
just after sunset. After sunset and during the night, until
the first light of dawn appears, people may eat and drink.
After sunset they have a large meal. Children under the age
of puberty are exempted from fasting, but the elderly who
are well are not allowed to postpone the fast. The sick,
those traveling, and pregnant, lactating, and menstruating
women are permitted to postpone their fast for Ramadan
until such a time as they less vulnerable; however, they
must make up the fast. People who have chronic disease are
not required to fast (Sabini, 1990; Sakr, 1971; Sakr, 16 1975). A recent study reported that Ramadan fasting was unlikely to have any untoward effects on the quantity and quality of breast milk or infant nutrition (Bener et al.,
2001) .
Muslims are also encouraged to fast at other times, for example, for three days each month, on Mondays and
Thursdays, and for six days during the month following
Ramadan (Sabini, 1990; Sakr, 1971; Sakr, 1975) . Fasting is considered to be training in controlling one's needs and desires, in restraining oneself from self-indulgence, and in deepening one's spiritual life. Muslims also fast to improve their health, as the prophet Muhammad said:" If you fast you will have better health," and also, "Eat less; you will be healthier" (Sakr, 1975). The hunger that Muslims experience while fasting also enables them to appreciate the hunger of the poor and the needy (Hussaini, 1993; Sakr,
1975). During fasts Muslims consume two meals a day, causing some changes to their nutritional habits and lifestyle (Karaagaoglu and Yucecan, 2000) . These changes lead to some reduction in the body weights (Hallak and
Nomani, 1988; Husain et al., 1987; Fedail et. al, 1982), energy balances (Husain et al., 1987) and increase in the levels of total serum cholesterol, thyroxine, and utric 17 acid (Fedail et al., 1982). During fasting, a Muslim eats a
large meal after sunset in the evening and a relatively
light meal before dawn. Although there is a reduction in
the total food consumption, the variety of food increases
(Hallak and Nomani, 1988). Milk, soups, fruit juices, fresh
and dehydrated fruits, and dates are among regular food
items eaten during this period. Special foods, using
special recipes, are made during this month. Sweets of all
types are prepared during Ramadan (Sakr, 1975) . There is a
tendency to consume more sweets and drinks in the evening
(Fedail et al., 1982).
Food Habits of Other Immigrant Groups
Food habits are an aspect of culture in which
personal, social, and situational factors interplay. When
people are relocated from one society to another,
differences in customs and food production capabilities may
influence the foods they eat.
Many investigations have been reported concerning food
habits and changes in food consumption patterns of
immigrants who have settled in the United States, such as
Chinese, Indian, Korean, Japanese, Vietnams, and Hispanic
(Chavez et al., 1994; Crane and Green, 1980; Gordon et al., 18 2000; McArthur et al., 2001; Kim et al., 1984; Story and
Harris, 1989; Yang et al., 1979; Wenkam and Wolff, 1970).
Dietary Pattern, Food Intake, and Preference
Dietary pattern and food intake are altered in a new cultural environment, but the progression of these changes is dependent on factors such as socioeconomic status, education, and the length of time since immigration.
A questionnaire survey conducted by Story and Harris
(1989) of 60 Southeast Asian refugee families (Cambodian and Hmong) living in the United States obtained information about changes in food habits, compared food intakes and practices before and after resettlement, and assessed preferences and adoption of American food. These authors found that while food-buying practices have changed drastically in the United States, Southeast Asia refugee families have maintained strong ties to their native foods and traditional diet. Rice, the staple food of the southeast Asia diet, remains the most commonly food eaten in America and was eaten daily. Fresh fruit, fresh vegetables, meats, and soft drinks remained highly preferred foods in the U.S. and were eaten more with the exception of fish which is eaten less in the United States. 19 Fresh milk and cheese remained the least liked food items because they are generally not available in Cambodia or
rural Laos. These results were also confirmed by Wiecha et
al. (2001) . They found that Vietnamese students were much
likely to consume fruits and vegetables than did other
students, but they were less likely to consume dairy foods.
Story and Harris (1989) also reported that most of the
respondents preferred eating native foods but their
children preferred both American and native food. Steak was
the most preferred American food among Southeast Asian
refugee families living in the United States.
Another study conducted by Reeves and Henry (2000) to
investigate the ability of Malaysian students to modulate
their food intake when migrate from a country where the
energy density of food is low to a country where the energy
density of the majority of foods is high. A total of 53
female and 56 male Malaysians of average age 22 years were
recruited from the student body of Oxford Brookes
University. Food intake using 3-day food records and food
frequency questionnaires were measured on arrival in the UK
and after 3 and 6 months of stay. Authors found that there
was a decrease in the consumption of both red and white
meat while meat products such as sausages and burgers were 20 eaten more frequently in the UK than in Malaysia. Fish was eaten less frequently in UK. Fruits and vegetables consumption were both observed to decrease. There was an increase in the consumption of bread and a decrease in the consumption of rice and noodles. The number of cups of tea and coffee increased per day but soft drinks and fruit juices decreased. Also, alcohol consumption did not change because the majority of the students were Muslims.
Breakfast was the meal has changed the most. The students were more likely to have toast or cereal for breakfast instead of rice or noodles while they were residents in the
UK, but dinner was similar to that consumed in Malaysia.
Wenkam and Wolff (1970) described the changing food habits of the immigrants Japanese in Hawaii. They found results similar those of Reeves and Henry (2000) . Bread and crackers were replaced by rice in some meals and the most conspicuous change was in the breakfast menu. The American breakfast replaced the rice, soup, and pickled vegetable meal of the traditional Japanese.
A study conducted by Grane and Green (198 0) to determine food habits and preferences of 79 Vietnamese refugee families residing in Leon, Bay, and Escambia
Counties in northern Florida, and to explore the extent of 21 dietary change resulting from resettlement in the United
States. The head of the house was asked to complete the questionnaire. Although the majority of respondents had
resided in the United States for less than four years, the
authors found a change in their food habits. The refugees
ate more frequently foods characteristic of the American
diet such as milk, beef, butter or margarine, eggs,
potatoes, candy, and soft drinks. Food eaten frequently in
Vietnam such as vegetables, rice, and tea were also eaten
frequently in the United States. No change in the frequency
of the consumption of pork, chicken, canned vegetables,
bread, cooking oil, and coffee was apparent. Authors stated
that the respondents still strongly preferred the
Vietnamese foods and that steak was the only American food
these refugees like as much as or more than the Vietnamese
dishes. Fried chicken, pizza, and French fries were the
next favorite food items.
In a study conducted by Ikeda et al. (1991), 205
volunteer, low income Hmong homemakers completed two
questionnaires on patterns of food intake, variety of food
consumed, food preparation, and equipment; and 24-hour food
recalls. The majority of Hmong homemakers responding
reported consuming two meals per day and their meals 22 usually consist of white unenriched rice, vegetables, and meat (chicken, pork, and beef were all consumed). While rice is the staple of the diet and was eaten at every meal, bread was consumed to a limited degree. Cereals were consumed primarily by children who were exposed to them either because of the WIC program or the School nutrition program. Pork was the preferred meat and chicken was also well liked and eaten regularly. Beef was consumed less often than pork and chicken. Some fresh fruits and vegetables they consumed in their homeland were not growing in the United States, were only available in Asian-American supermarkets, and high cost limited their consumption.
Also, low consumption of both milk and cheese was reported.
Snacking was more common among children, but it was not a common practice of Hmong adults. Food preparation was the responsibility of the wife. A metal cooking utensil consisting of an upper and lower pot was used to cook the staple of the Hmong diet. Also, stovetop cooking was the most common method of food preparation. In addition, the authors found that non-pregnant subjects revealed intakes of less than 80% of the 1989 RDA for riboflavin, calcium,
iron, magnesium, and zinc. Pregnant subjects had lower
23 intakes of these nutrients, as well as of vitamins B-6 and folacin.
Satia et al. (2000) conducted ninety-minute qualitative interviews with 30 less-acculturated Chinese-
American women in their native language to obtain information regarding food consumption, knowledge, attitude, and beliefs about diet and disease, and factors that influence food choices. Also, the researchers conducted 2-hour-long focus group sessions with 6 participants to cross-validate the interview finding.
Breakfast appeared to be the first meal that changed after immigration. Most of the subjects consumed a Chinese style lunch, such as noodles, soup, or rice, and they all consumed a Chinese dinner. A majority did not eat snack between meals. Participants seemed to be influenced by both
Eastern and Western concepts, beliefs regarding diet, and health. Women mentioned "Western" concepts such as "banana has potassium" and "eggs are high in cholesterol", whereas they also stated such Eastern beliefs as "soup is good for the 5 internal organs (heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys)" and "ginger soup can unclog arteries to the heart." Several mentioned that food could cause, prevent, and treat illness. 24 A questionnaire designed by Pan et al. (1999) was mailed to 120 Asian students to obtain information on changes in their dietary patterns before and after immigration to the United States. Sixty-three questionnaires were used in the analysis. Results showed that while women were responsible for food preparation in their country of origin, more men were preparing food in the United States. The researchers reported that many students were Buddhist and still omitting foods (pork, beef, fish, onion, garlic, and leek) from their diets because of their religious beliefs. The majority of the students spent between $100 and $199 per month for food per person. The number of meals consumed per day had decreased significantly since immigration to the United States, subjects skipped breakfast more often than the other 2 meals. The researchers reported a significant decrease in the number of times per week respondents ate out in the
United States. The participants were consuming more sweet and salty snack items, chocolate, cookies, candy, and ice cream. A small number of the students consumed the food generally served in the United States on the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. Also, there were significant increases in the frequency of the consumption fats and 25 sweets, dairy products, and fruits and significant decreases in consumption of meat/meat alternatives and vegetables. No change was noted in the frequency of consumption of grains. Most subjects gained weight after immigrating to the United States.
In another study, qualitative data were collected through individual interviews with a sample of 23 participants and through a focus group discussion with a separate sample of 10 respondents to assess maintenance and change in the food consumption, preparation, and purchasing practices of Hispanic immigrants currently residing in
Eastern North Carolina who had lived in the United States for no more than 10 years (McArthur et al., 2001). These
Hispanic immigrants were struggling to retain their cultural food adapting to a different lifestyle, and being exposed to a new majority culture food. School-aged children showed a strong preference for American style foods over traditional Mexican foods. Similar findings were reported by Story and Harris (1989) among Southeast Asian children living in the United States. While Hispanic mothers were responsible for food preparation in their country of origin, husbands had a positive attitude toward participating in food preparation when their wives worked 26 outside the home in the United States. They generally purchased food at open markets on a daily basis in their home country, but in the United States they shopped for
food once a week from local supermarkets. Story and Harris
(1989) reported that in Southeast Asia, food was generally purchased daily from independent vendors who sell meat and
other foods in open markets, but food-buying practices had
changed radically among Southeast Asians in the United
States and they shopped once a week in large supermarkets or in oriental markets.
Factors of Dietary Change
Many researchers who examined the food habits of immigrant group not only described the traditional food ways of these groups but also identify ecological factors that contribute to change in their dietary practices.
Several authors (Crane and Green, 1980; McArthur et al.,
2001; Pan et al., 1999; Satia et al., 2000; Story and
Harris, 1989) have noted that as immigrant groups become assimilated into the majority culture, traditional foods are consumed less often than when they lived in the home country. Several ecological factors such as food availability and convenience, quality/freshness, income 27 level, relative price of foods, media exposure, and length of time in the United States can bring about changes in the dietary habits.
Convenience and Availability of Ingredients
An important feature of ethnic cuisine is the use of specific ingredients for flavoring (Kittler and Sucher,
2001). McArthur et al. (2001) reported that a Hispanic immigrants group was pleased that they could easily locate authentic sauce, spices, and cheeses at mainstream and
Latino grocery stores. When ethnic ingredients were not locally available, they substituted a similar ingredient in the recipes. Reeves and Henry (2000) reported that the availability of certain foods in UK supermarkets influenced the frequency of how often certain foods were eaten. The students were not internationally trying to alter their native diet but typically Malaysian food was not available and so UK substitutes were purchased. Yang and Fox (1979) noted similar practices with Chinese people living in the
United States, where American foods were not always eaten in their natural style, but instead were modified according to the flavor or texture preferences of the Chinese and accepted as new 'Chinese-like' foods. Satia et al. (2000) 28 found that many American- women consumed a Western-style breakfast, such as a bagel with cream cheese. They stated this was the primarily for convenience, as it is time consuming to prepare Chinese breakfast meals such as a fried dumpling. Also, they sometimes ate American foods because it is difficult for them to find traditional
Chinese foods. Pan et al. (1999) found that Asian students consumed a large amount of salty and sweet snack items, a practice that might not be nutritionally desirable. This increased use of snack items might be attributable to the availability and convenience of these items. Also, they were consuming American-style meals (e.g., pizza, hamburger, sandwich, French fries) when they ate out.
Income Level
The generally improved economic situation of society provides sufficient income in most cases to give us more choice. McArthur et al. (2001) reported that migration provided the Hispanic people with an opportunity to improve their economic status, which brought about changes in the kinds and amounts of food they consumed. Respondents reported that their economic status in their home country played a major role in determining what food they consumed 29 and how often they consumed them. Meats and fruits were consumed more in the United States than in home country.
Relative Price of Food
Several studies showed that immigrant people consumed more beef than fish in the United States because fish was more expensive in the United States (Crane and Green, 1980;
McArthur et al., 2001; Satia et al., 2000). Reeves and
Henry (2000) found that fruits, vegetables, beef, and fish consumption were decreased in UK due to the cost. Pan et al. (1999) similarly found that there were a decrease in the vegetables and meat in the United States but conversely found an increase in the consumption of fruits.
Length of Time in the Western Countries
Many researchers (Yang and Fox, 1979; Kim et al.,
1984; Pan et al., 1999) found that dietary changes were related to the length of stay in the United States. Chavez et al. (1994) investigated the effect of length of U.S. residence on food groups intake in 112 non-pregnant Mexican and Puerto Rican women attending a community health center
WIC clinic by using a food frequency questionnaire. They found that longer periods of residence in the United States were associated with decreased intake of fruit and 30 vegetables, protein foods, dairy foods, and breads among
Mexican women. For Puerto Rican women, fruit and vegetables intake was decreased and dairy food intake was increased.
Acculturation
Acculturation is defined as the process that underlies the changes in the immigrants' culture beliefs and values toward those of the host country (Satia et al., 2001).
Cultural, psychological, social, economic, and political changes are involved (Lee et al., 1999). Acculturation is typically assessed with undimenstional measures such as migration status, generation level, length of stay, language proficiency, and media and social preferences, or a combination of these which is called multidimenstional
(Dewey et al., 1984; Chavez et al., 1994; Gordon et al.,
2000; Guendelman and Abrams, 1995; Hrobotickly and Krondi,
1984; Lee et al., 1994; Lee et al., 1999; Satia et al.,
2001; Story and Harris, 1989; Romero-Gwynn et al., 1993).
While food habits and beliefs about food difference among cultures, it has been shown that dietary behaviors are sensitive to cultural changes that occur with migration
(Axelson, 1986). Many recent investigations examined in acculturation-related diet and nutrition studies include 31 food use, food pattern, and nutrient composition of diet.
Romero-Gwynn et al. (1993) who studied the dietary pattern of Mexican Americans living in California, found
that these immigrants became acculturated and exchanged
their traditional diet for a nontraditional diet. The
changes included an increased consumption of flour
tortillas; a decreased use of lard but increased
consumption of margarine, butter, vegetable oil,
mayonnaise, salad dressing, and sour cream; and an
increased consumption of sliced white bread, sugar rich
drinks, and ready to eat breakfast cereals. Also they found
a decreased consumption of chilis and many traditional
dishes with vegetables. Hrboticky and Krondi (1984)
examined the changes in the perceived flavor, health value
and prestige of common Canadian foods in a group of first-
and second-generation Chinese immigrant adolescent males.
They found that the second generation subjects and those
with more acculturated patterns of language use gave higher
hedonic flavor and prestige ratings to dessert, snacks and
fast foods. Also they found that the second-generation
group exhibited better discrimination between nutrient rich
and poor foods.
32 Lee et al. (1994) compared dietary habits, physical activity patterns, and body mass index of 2488 healthy
Chinese men and women residing in North America and the
People's Republic of China. They found that Chinese in
China consumed more calories and more carbohydrate; but less fat, protein, vitamin A, beta-carotene, and vitamin C than did Chinese in North America. Also they reported that
Chinese in China spent more time in vigorous activity, sleeping, and working than Chinese in North America.
Furthermore, Chinese in China weighed less and were leaner than North American Chinese.
Guendelman and Abrams (1995) compared the nutrient intake of second-generation Mexican American women of childbearing age detriorate with that of first generation and approximates that of White non-Hispanic women by using a 24-hour dietary recall. They found that, while first generation Mexican-American women were of lower socioeconomic status than were second generation or white non-Hispanic women of childbearing age, they had a healthier nutrient intake such as a higher average intake of protein and vitamins (A, C, and folic acid).
33 Food Frequency Questionnaire
Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is a technique used for collecting food intake information. FFQ asks participants to report their usual frequency of consumption of each food from a list of food for a specific period
(Block, 1982; Thompson and Byers, 1994). FFQ is designed to estimate the participant's usual intake of foods. It also
can be used to circumvent recent changes in diet by
obtaining information about individuals' diets. Many food
frequency tools also incorporate portion size questions, or
specify portion sizes as part of each question to estimate
relative or absolute nutrient intake. Advantages of FFQ
that it is a relatively inexpensive to code, can be made to
be self-administered and require little time to complete,
and may be more representative of individual intake than a
few days of dietary records (Block, 1989; Thompson and
Byers, 1994) . However, its validity is highly dependent on
the correct selection of the foods on the list, and on the
correct selection of portion size and nutrient content
assumptions for each food. In addition, FFQ relies on the
participant's self-description of his or her diet and also
is limited in its ability to assess accurately the nutrient
intake of groups with dietary patterns markedly different 34 from the food list. The validity of FFQ was investigated by
Willett et al. (1985). The FFQ was administrated to the 173 participants at the beginning and end of a year to investigate the relationship between diet and cancer/heart disease in a population. Four 7-day weighed food records were collected throughout the year. They found that the FFQ used generated nutrient intake data that compared favorably with those from 7-day weighed food records. Also, the investigators evaluated the usefulness of the FFQ to reproduce dietary intake information of recent past. The same FFQ was administered to the same participants in the previous study that mentioned before 3-4 years after the weighed food records were collected. The result proved the validation of the FFQ in assessing usual intake (Willett et al., 1988) .
Measurement of Food Preferences
Food consumption is predictable and different measurements have been used to measure food preferences.
The most common measurement is a questionnaire developed
food items in which a hedonic scale is used to rate the
degree of liking of each food (Einstein and Hornstein,
197 0; Meiselman and Waterman, 1978; Peryam and Pilgrim,
35 1957; Pilgrim, 1961; Viljoen and Gericke, 2001 A, B; Weaver and Brittin, 2001; Wyant and Meiselman, 1984).
Studies reported that there was a relationship between an individual's food preferences and frequency of
consumption of foods (Knickrehm et al., 1969; Weaver and
Brittin, 2001) . Pilgrim (1961) stated that food preferences
change with age. Region of origin, size of town, and
education level also influence food preference.
Hedonic Scale
This scale is known as a degree of liking scale. The
historical development of the use of hedonic scales for
foods has been traced by Peryam and Pilgrim (1957). The
scales were first used by the Quartermaster food and
Container Institute in 1947 when a seven-point scale of
like and dislike terms provided information on the
preferences of army personnel for menu items (American Meat
Science Association and National Live Stock Meat Board,
1995). A 5-to 9-point balanced scale is used. The most
common hedonic scale is the 9-point hedonic scale. The 9-
point scale is very simple to use and easy to implement. It
has been shown to be useful in the hedonic assessment of
foods and more sensitive to differences among foods than
36 shorter ones (Jones et al., 1955; Lawless and Heymann,
1999). The hedonic scale assumes that consumer preferences exist on a continuum and that preferences can be categorized by responses based on likes and dislikes
(Peryam and Pilgrim, 1957). The words chosen for each scale
option were based on equal interval spacing. This equal
interval option is useful in the assignment of numerical values to the response choices and to the use of parametric
statistic in analysis of the data (Lawless and Heymann,
1999). It has been reported that the scale is reliable and
has a high stability of response. Peryam and Pilgrim (1957)
stated that the hedonic rating can be affected by changes
in environmental conditions that the absolute magnitude of
the hedonic score may increase or decrease, but all the
samples had relative changes.
In using the hedonic scale, sample are presented in
the succession and the subject is told to decide how much
he or she likes or dislikes each food and to mark the scale
accordingly. The scale is verbally anchored with nine
categories: dislike extremely, dislike very much, dislike
moderately, dislike slightly, neither dislike nor like,
like slightly, like moderately, like very much, and like
extremely. Many different forms of hedonic scales may be 37 used without major effects on the value of the results, as long as the essential feature of verbal anchoring of successive categories is retained. Reduction in the numbered categories to less than five is not advisable
(American Meat Science Association and National Live Stock
Meat Board, 1995). Hedonic scaling can also achieved using
facial scales. These scales are simple smiley faces, or
more representational, involving animal cartoons, or more
realistic pictures of adults. These scales are useful if
the researcher is working with children or illiterate
people (Lawless and Heymann, 1999). The food preferences
questionnaire is designed to explore the attitude toward
the food type based on experiences with food.
38 CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
Potential participants were students who were born in
Arab countries, had resided in the United States at least 3 months before the study, and aged 18 years or older.
Sixteen Arab countries were included in the study: namely
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Yemen, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Syria, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirate. Potential
participants for this study were 248 Arab students enrolled
at five U.S. Universities, which were Iowa State
University, New Mexico State University, Texas A&M
University, Texas Tech University, and University of
Kansas. Names of potential participants and contact
information were obtained from the lists of members of the
Arab students' Association and from campus phone directory
at the Universities mentioned above. Potential participants
were contacted by e-mail (Appendix A) to determine
willingness and eligibility to participate in the study, to
ask if they can read the questionnaire in English or if
Arabic is needed, and to obtain/verify name, address and
39 telephone Number. Screening for eligibility was done to exclude those who had any of the following criteria: students who are not Arab, Arab students who were not born in Arab countries, have resided in the United States less than 3 months, and age under 18 years.
The protocol for this study was approved by Texas Tech
University Human Subjects Review Committee. The questionnaire was pre-tested on 5 Arab students chosen from the list of Texas Tech University. Four males and 1 female from five different Arab countries (Bahrain, Jordan,
Kuwait, Libya, Yemen) completed the questionnaire and participated in a focus group. The questionnaire was revised on the bases of respondents' comments before the actual survey was done. These students were not included in the subsequent study
To minimize bias the food items listed in the questionnaire were translated into Arabic. Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire within 2 weeks.
The questionnaire and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope were mailed in April and May 2002 to each student who had previously agreed to participate in the study so that he or she could easily return the questionnaire to the researcher. Participants who did not return the 40 questionnaire were contacted by telephone 2 weeks after the
day of distribution and if necessary, again 1 week later.
If subjects did not respond after receiving 3 phone calls,
they were considered not interested.
Subject's responses were kept confidential; only a
code number was written on the questionnaire. Their
participations were entirely voluntary. They could withdraw
at any time. They could refuse to answer any question.
Questionnaire Design
A questionnaire (Appendix B) composed of four-part by
using a multiple choice and fill in the blank format was
developed to collect information about demographic
characteristics, degree of acculturation, general food
habits, factors affecting dietary choices after living in
the United States, consumption of specific food items
before and after living in the United States, and food
preferences for these food items. An explanation of the
project's objectives and request for the student to
participate in the study were included on the first page of
the questionnaire. The questionnaire took approximately 45
minutes to complete. The questionnaire was mailed to 70
students. 41 Part I of the questionnaire was asked about the food
consumption frequency and preference. A food frequency and preference list of specific food items was developed to
determine the average number of times each day, week, or month each food item was consumed and the degree of liking
of each food item. Food items were adapted from previous
studies (Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1993;
USDA, 1997; Weaver and Brittin, 2001). The 109 food items
were listed according to the six groups of food guide
pyramid: bread, cereal, rice, and pasta (18 items);
vegetables (19 items); fruits (13 items); meat, poultry,
fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts (20 items); milk, yogurt,
and cheese (14 items); fats, oils, and sweet (13 items).
Beverages (7 items) and some Arabic dishes (5 items) were
also included in the list (Weeb, 2001; Thompson et al.,
1987). Subjects were asked to rate each food item twice;
the first rating reflected frequency of consumption while
living in the country of origin and the second rating
reflected consumption after living in the United States. No
specific questions on portion size of the food were asked
because our focus of this study was frequency of
consumption not quantity or nutrient intakes. Subjects were
also asked to indicate the degree of liking of each food 42 item by using a 9-point hedonic scale, which had range from dislike extremely to like extremely.
Part II of the questionnaire was 23 questions developed to collect information about general food habits and factors affecting dietary choices after living in the
United States. The section on general food habits had questions about number of meals consumed daily, meal times and meal types, skipping meals, the main meal, kinds of fats and herbs/spices used for cooking, and frequency of snacking and eating out. Additional questions asked about type of food items consumed more often during snacking and eating out and about consumption of food generally served in the United States on Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. This section also asked questions about the gender of person who prepares meals and purchases foods, and frequency of shopping. Participants were also asked to identify factors that influence any changes in their food habits.
Part III of the questionnaire was 23 questions developed to obtain information about demographic characteristics. Information on gender, age, weight, height, country of origin, residence in the U.S., age entered U.S., marital status, education, length of 43 residence in the U.S., employment, annual income, monthly food expenditure, weight changes, special diet (weight-loss diet, vegetarian diet, or for medical condition), chronic diseases, and dietary supplements (including frequency of vitamin and/or minerals intake) were obtained. Questions on religious affiliation to assess adherence to religious dietary practices in the United States were also included.
Part IV consisted of nine questions adapted from a research article (Liou and Contento, 2001) to assess the subjects' degree of acculturation. The subjects were asked questions to indicate the language(s) in which they read, speak, and think and read newspapers. The ethnic background of their friends and health professionals also were assessed. The types of food that they prefer to eat, what they usually eat at home, and their favorite types of restaurants were also asked. Response categories for all questions were ranged from A (Only Arabic) to E (only
American).
Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Analysis system for windows (SAS,
1989) was used to conduct analysis of variance, X^ tests,
and correlation analysis. The X^tests were used to analyze 44 the relationship between change in eating habits and discrete variables, and to compare categorical variables of eating patterns in country of origin and in the United
States. One-way analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of treatments (in country of origin and in the
United States) on eating pattern, and to determine the effect of gender on liking of 109 foods and total of each food group. Two-way analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of treatments (in country of origin and in the United States), gender, and their two-factor interaction on food consumption frequency of 109 foods and total of each food group. Pearson's correlation coefficients were determined between acculturation scores and demographic variables (age, age entered U.S., education, length of residence in U.S., income level, and food expenditure); hedonic scores and consumption frequency of each food and total of each food group combined for men, women, and for total, acculturation score and hedonic scores of each food and total of each food group, and between demographic variables, acculturation score, and frequency of consumption for each food and for total food group. Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used to determine which groups differed significantly from each other. 45 Results were reported as mean ± standard deviation. Results were considered statistically significant at P<0.05.
46 CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Information concerning food practices and preferences was obtained by surveying Arab students at Iowa State
University, New Mexico State University, Texas A&M
University, Texas Tech University, and University of
Kansas. Of the 70 questionnaires mailed, 45 were returned
(64.3%) . A returned questionnaire was considered usable if
the demographic and general food habits sections were
completed. Three subjects did not complete the food
frequency and preferences section and were not included in
food consumption frequency and preference analysis, but
they were included in other analyses. Every effort was made
to contact students who did not return questionnaires. Of
the 25 not returned, six students said they thought the
questionnaire would take more time than they were willing
to give, five went to their home country, and the remainder
were not contacted after 3 follow-up phone calls.
Quetelet's body mass index (BMI) was calculated by dividing
weight in kilograms by height in meter^ (kg/m^) (Deyoung,
2000). The frequency of intake of each food in the food
frequency section was calculated as times per month 47 (daily=30, weekly=4.29, monthly=l, yearly=0.083). The Sum total of each food group of the consumption frequency and the average of each food group of liking were calculated and named as a total.
Characteristics of Subjects
Table 1 shows the general demographic characteristics of the subjects. Subjects had a mean age of 29.0±4.7 years
(range=2 0-41years), with more male (80%) than female (20%).
The average weight and height for males were 84.2+19.0 kg and 1.77±0.08 m, respectively. The average weight and height for females were 64.5+8.9 kg and 1.6+0.05 m, respectively.
The average BMI in males was 26.7+5.0 (range=20.3-41.3), and in females was 24.6±3.5(range=19.3-30.2). The desirable BMI range for healthy adults is 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m^, which reflects a healthy weight for height (Deyoung, 2000). All subjects were Arabic, but they originated from nine different countries (53.4% from Jordan, 11.1% from Egypt,
8.9% from Yemen, 6.7% from Lebanon, 6.7% from Syria, 4.4% from Morocco, 4.4% from Oman, 2.2% from Saudi Arabia, and
2.2% from Sudan). The majority of subjects lived in Texas
(68.9%); they reported their marital status as married
48 Table 1. Demographic characteristics of subjects (n=45).
Variable Mean+SD'
Age (years) 29.0±4.74 Weight (kg) Men 84.2±19.0 Women 64.5±8.8 Height (m) Men 1.8±0.08 Women 1.6±0.05 BMI^ (kg/m^) Men 26.7±5.0 Women 24.6±3.5 Age of arrival in United States (years) 25.9+5.5 Education (years) 19.2+2.9 Length of residence in the United States 3.2+2.6 (years) Annual income before taxes ($) 23706.7+21289.9 Monthly food expenditure per person($) 205.1+102.0
Variable Number
Gender Men 36 80.0 Women 9 20.0 Marital status Single 19 42.2 Married 26 57.8 Country of origin Jordan 24 53.4 Egypt 5 11.1 Yemen 4 8.9 Lebanon 3 6.7 Syria 3 6.7 Morocco 2 4.4 Oman 2 4.4 Saudi Arabia 1 2.2 Sudan 1 2.2
49 Table 1. Continued.
Variable Number
State of residence in U .S. Texas 31 68 9 Iowa 5 11 1 Kansas 5 11 ,1 New Mexico 4 8 ,9 Employed Full-time 7 15 .6 Part-time 23 51 .1 Unemployed 15 33 .3 Religion Islam 44 97.8 None 1 2.2 Fast during Ramadan In home country Yes 44 97.8 No 1 2.2 In 2001 Yes 42 93.3 No 3 6.7 Degree of adherence to religious dietary practices in, U.S . Always 27 60.0 Almost always 11 24.5 Usually 4 8.9 Seldom 2 4.4 Never 1 2.2 Living in U.S. Alone 12 26.7 With family 27 60.0 With friend 6 13.3 Number of people in family 1 18 40.0 2 12 26.6 3 8 17.8 6.7 4 3 8.9 5 4
50 Table 1. Continued.
Variable Number
Special diet In country of origin Yes 3 6. 7 No 42 93. 3 In U.S. Yes 8 17. 8 No 37 82. 2 Reason for a special diet In country of origin Weight loss diet 2 66. 7 Vegetarian diet 1 33. 3 Medical condition 0 0. 0 In U.S. Weight loss diet 4 50. 0 Vegetarian diet 1 12. 5 Medical condition 3 37. 5 Have any type of chronic disease Yes 2 4. 4 No 43 95. ,6 Type of chronic disease Diabetes ^ 50, .0 Heart disease 0 0 .0 Cancer 0 0 .0 Other disease 50 .0 Change weight after living in U.S. 80 .0 Yes 36 .0 No 9 20 How much weight change .4 Lost 5-15 pounds 7 19 Lost 16-25 pounds 1 2 .9 Lost over 25 pounds 0 0 .0 Gained 5-15 pounds 21 58 .3 Gained 16-25 pounds 3 8 .3 Gained over 25 pounds 4 11 .1
51 Table 1. Continued,
Variable Number
Reasons for gained weight Food in U.S. is fatting and makes 14 50.0 One gained The U.S. life style leads to weight 19 67.9 gained Other reasons 3 10.7 Take vitamin or mineral supplements Yes, fairly regularly 5 11.1 Yes, but not regularly 7 15.6 No 33 73.3
^Mean±standard deviation.
'^BMI=Body mass index.
52 (57.8%), and their spouses from Arab countries (100%). The mean of age entered U.S. was 25.9±5.5 years (range=13-40 years). The mean years of education was 19.2+2.9 (range=14-
26 years). The mean of length of residence in U.S. was
3.2+2.6 years (range=0.4-10 years). Most of the subjects were employed (51.1% were part-time employed and 15.6% were full-time employed). Although the majority of subjects were
Muslims (97.8%) and they fast during Ramadan in their home countries, some of them (6.7%) did not fast in year 2001.
Most of the subjects always adhered to religious dietary practices in U.S. (60%) and they lived with family (60%).
The mean income (before tax) was $23706.7+$21289.9
(range=$9,600-120,000). The mean monthly food expenditure per person was $205.1+$102, with range from $50-600. Of these 45 subjects, 3 (6.7%) reported that they were on a special diet in their countries of origin; (2 had weight loss diets and 1 had a vegetarian diet). The number of subjects having a special diet increased from 3 (6.7%) to 8
(17.8%) after they lived in U.S., with 4 having a weight lost diet (50%) and 3 a medical condition (37.5%). Most of the subjects did not have any type of chronic disease
(95.6%), and they reported a change in their weight after
53 immigrating to U.S. (80%). The majority of subjects gained
5-15 pounds (58.3%); influencing factors included availability of fattening food in U.S (50%), the U.S. life style such as eating more and sleeping well (67.9%), and no time to exercise (10.7%). In general, dietary supplements were not widely used by this population: only 12 (26.7%) of subjects took vitamin and/or mineral supplements, and only
5 (11.1%) took them fairly regularly.
The subjects' levels of acculturation are presented in
Table 2. Scale of 1-5, with 1 being "only Arabic" and 5 denoting "only English (American)." The means for reading, speaking, and thinking in language were 3.1, 2.6,and 2.2, respectively. The average of reading newspapers was 3.1.
The means for choosing close friends and health professionals were 2.0 and 2.7, respectively. The mean for preferring types of food was 2.1. The means for kinds of food usually eat at home and favorite restaurants were
2.1 and 2.7, respectively. The overall mean for degree of acculturation for was 2.5.
Table 3 shows correlation coefficients for acculturation scores and demographic characteristics
54 Table 2. Acculturation level of subjects (n=45).
Item Mean+SD^
What language (s) do you read? 3.1+0.8''
What language(s) do you speak? 2.6+0.7
What language do you think in? 2.2+1.0
What newspapers do you usually read? 3.1+1.3
Your close friends are: 2.0+0.9
If you choose a family doctor or other health 2.7±0.9 professionals, whom do you prefer?
What kinds of food do you prefer? 2.1+0.7
What do you usually eat at home? 2.1+0.8
What is/are your favorite restaurant(s)? 2.7+1.2
Overall 2.5±0.5
^SD=standard deviation.
''Scale: l=only Arabic; 2=Arabic more than English; 3=both equally; 4=English/American more than Arabic; 5=only English (American)
55 0)
:3
•H o 'C3 •H a H 0> o m o n 4J O o o H o o o nS H O o « o o ri I •H 0) h 0) ft - (U o ni • E to CO C>J CN M c/3 CN CN o H o o o cv CN tn • o o o o H 0) C IH 0) 0 O tt) P) U a OS Jj xi tn-H .VD cn cn CO o^ d CQ cs- CN H CM o 0) •H u CQ o (U u m M 4-1 o O •H 0 4J cn cn U3 •H .0 nj CTl CTi 04 o o o o O o n o o rH o (d U o o O J (U ^ 1 I V H :3 - •it o • VD o 00 VJ3 00 H O Ui CQ H o o n H o o CN (d - • o O o o o o O U 1 I I I I o •n 1 M-l .Q
to CQ in Lf) H H CN M cn o O o CN o o CN o o G M-l 0) (U 'O tn o o o o o •rH 1 I I I I O •H P CQ U-l rH (U V (U 0) Jd n nJ > Oi > u u U. o -K 56 for age, age entered United States, education, length of residence in the United States, income, and food expenditure. There was a significant and negative correlation coefficient between the acculturation score of reading newspapers and age entered United States, indicating Younger subjects read more American newspapers than the older subjects did. Significant and positive correlation coefficients were found between the acculturation scores for prefer family doctor or other health professionals and years of education and of kinds of food eat at home and length of residence in the United
States. Thus preference for American doctor or health professionals was associated with more education, and subjects living in the United States longer consumed more
American food and less Arabic food. A significant and positive correlation coefficient found between the acculturation score of close friends and monthly food expenditure; subjects spent more money on food when they had more American friends. A significant and positive correlation coefficient was found between overall acculturation score and length of residence in the United
States; longer residence in the United States was associated with more acculturation. 57 Changes in Eating Patterns and Food Practices
Table 4 shows the results of change in eating patterns of Arab students between time living in country of origin and in the United States. The number of meals consumed per day by Arab students decreased significantly (P<0.01) while living in the United States. Pan et al. (1999) also found that the number of meals consumed per day by Asian students decreased after immigrating to the United States. Meal time changed significantly (P<0.01) while breakfast time did not.
The subjects ate lunch and dinner earlier in the United
States than in country of origin. Lunch was eaten around 2 p.m and dinner around 9 p.m in country of origin while in
United States they were eaten around 1 p.m and 8 p.m, respectively. Packard and Williams (1993) stated that meals were eaten late in the Arab countries. The number of times per month subjects ate snacks had increased States but not significantly after living in the United. The number of times per month subjects ate out had increased although not significantly after living in the United States. Subjects shopped only one-half as frequently in the United States as in country of origin (P<0.01).
58 Table 4. Means and standard deviations of eating patterns of Arab students in country of origin and in United States (n=45).
Variable In country In United of origin States
Meals per day 2.8+0.6 2.4±0.8**
Meal time (hr) Breakfast 8.7±1.3 8.5±1.4 Lunch 14.3±1.2 13.4±1.8** Dinner 20.8+1.2 19.8±2.0**
Snacks per month 28.0+24.2 32.8±33.0
Eating out per month 6.7+6.3 8.9±7.8
Shopping times per month 16.3+15.5 8.1+5.1**
*, ** Means in a row differ (P<0.05, P<0.01, respectively)
59 Table 5 shows chi-square analysis results concerning eating patterns. There was a significant difference in skipping meals in country of origin and in the United
States More than half of the subjects stated that they skipped breakfast more often than the other 2 meals in country of origin and in the United States (60% in country of origin, 55.5% in the United States). Lunch was also commonly skipped in the United States (26.7%), while dinner was commonly skipped in country of origin (33.3%). The present finding that breakfast is the most skipped meal agrees with previous research (Pan et al., 1999; Story and
Harris, 1988) that found that breakfast was the most frequently skipped meal by Asian students and southeast refugee adolescents after immigration to the United States.
The main meal of day changed significantly (P<0.01) after living in the United States. Most of subjects reported that lunch meal was the main meal in country of origin (71%) while dinner meal was the main meal after living in the
United States (55.6%). There was no significant difference in fats used in country of origin and in the United States, although fewer subjects indicated that they used olive oil and more subjects used other vegetable oil in the United
60 Table 5. Chi-square values of eating patterns of Arab students (n=45) in country of origin and in United States.
Variable In country In United Total df Chi- of origin States square value Number of subjects
Skip meals Breakfast 27 25 52 2 7.60* Lunch 3 12 15 Dinner 15 8 23 Main meal Lunch 32 13 45 2 16.37* * Dinner 9 25 Varies 4 7 11 Fats used for cooking/serving food Olive oil 35 24 59 3 2.31 Vegetable oil 37 42 79 Butter 20 19 39 Shortening 4 5 9 Eat snacks between meals Yes 34 33 67 1 0 .80 No 11 12 23 Snack items Potato chips 22 21 43 9 6 .51 Cookies 12 22 34 Crackers 6 9 15 Chocolate candy 14 17 31 Ice cream 17 18 35 Fruits 25 20 45 Fruit juice 19 24 43 Soft drinks 21 26 47 Coffee 15 20 35 Other 4 1 5
61 Table 5.Continued.
Variable In country In United Total df Chi- of origin States square value Number of subject
Kinds of food eaten out Arabic 43 13 56 51.82** American 18 41 59 Chinese food 5 22 27 Indian food 3 8 11 Mexican food 1 20 21 Other 4 2 6 Gender of person responsible for food preparation Men 1 17 18 21.06** Women 42 23 65 Both 2 5 7
**P<0.05, P<0.01, respectively.
62 States. Almost equal numbers of subjects ate snacks betwe en meals in country of origin and in the United States (75.5 in country of origin, 73.3% in the United States. After living in The United States, more subjects consumed cooki es (66.65%), crackers (27.8%), chocolate candy (51.5%), fruit juice (72.7%), soft drinks (78.8%), and coffee (60.6%) and fewer students consumed fruits. Kinds of food eaten out differed significantly (P<0.01). After living in the United
States, more subjects ate American food (91.1%), Chinese food (48.9%), Indian food (17.8%), and Mexican food (44.4%) when they ate out, while fewer subjects ate Arabic food
(28.9%) and other (Italian) food (4.4%). Gender of person responsible for food preparation was significantly different in the United States than in country of origin.
Most of subjects reported that women were responsible for food preparation in their country of origin, while in the
United States more men were preparing food, more both men and women were responsible for food preparation.
Table 6 shows general food habits of subjects after living in the United States. Breakfast was the meal that had changed most. The majority of subjects consumed both
Arabic and American meal for breakfast (60%) since living
63 Table 6. General food habits of Arab students (n=4 5) after living in United States.
Variable Number
Meal type usually eaten Breakfast Arabic meal 10 22. 2 American meal 8 17. 8 Both 27 60. 0 Lunch Arabic meal 17 37. 8 American meal 7 15. 5 Both 21 46. 7 Dinner Arabic meal 18 40. 0 American meal 2 4. 4 Both 25 55. 6 Herbs and spices used for cooking All spices 26 57. 8 Black pepper 3 8 84. 4 Cinnamon 23 51. ,1 Garlic 37 82, ,2 .1 Mint 14 31, 4 .4 Nutmeg ^ 11 .1 Oregano ^ .9 Other herbs or spices 4 8 Type of meals more economical to prepare Arabic meals "^ 15 .6 American meals 2 8 62 .2 Both are the same 10 22 .2 Consume more Western/American dishes 53 .3 Yes 24 46 .7 No 21 Reasons for Consuming more Western/American dishes 64 .3 Availability J-^ 14 50 .0 Convenience 0 0'. 0 Preference Like to try new food "^ 25 ;.o
64 Table 6. Continued.
Variable Number
Kind of supermarket is used for buying food Arabian supermarket 0 0.0 American supermarket 45 100.0 Avoid eating certain food because of religious beliefs in country of origin Yes 40 88.9 No 5 11.1 Maintain same religious dietary regulation is in U.S. Yes 31 97.5 No 1 2.5 Consume the food generally served in U.S on Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays Yes 24 53.3 No 21 46.7 Feeling about overall diet in U.S. compared with in country of origin More healthy 11 24.5 Less healthy 23 51.0 Just healthy as in my country 11 24.5 Change eating habits in U.S. 37 82.2 Yes 8 17.8 No
65 in the United States, whereas more subjects ate Arabic meals at lunch and dinner. Chau et al. (1990) found that a mix of American and Chinese foods were consumed at breakfast whereas afternoon and evening meals were predominantly composed of traditional Chinese food.
Subjects reported that they use a variety of herbs and spices to season foods in the United States. These include all spices (57.8%), black pepper 84.4%), cinnamon (51.1%), garlic (82.2%), mint (31.1%) nutmeg (4.4%), oregano
(11.1%), parsley (4.2%), and basil (4.2%). The majority of subjects (62.2%) said that American meals were more economical to prepare. More than half of subjects (53.3) stated that they consume more western/American dishes
(e.g., steak, pizza, hamburger, hotdogs) since living in the United States. The reasons most commonly given to this change were availability (64.3%), convenience (50%), and
like to try new food (25%). All of the subjects (100%)
indicated that they purchased most of their food at
American supermarkets. Most of subjects (88.9%) avoided
eating and drinking certain foods such as pork and
alcoholic beverages because of religious beliefs in their
country of origin, and the majority of them (97.5%) maintain the same religious regulation in the United 66 states. In addition, more than half of the subjects (53.3%) consumed the food generally served in the United States on
Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. Most of the subjects
(51%) indicated that their overall diet was less healthy in the United States than in their country of origin. The reasons most commonly given for that were more fat and less fruits and vegetables. The majority of subjects (82.2%) indicated that their eating habits had changed since living in the United States. Influencing factors included no time to prepare traditional foods (62.2%); convenience (62.2%); unavailability of Arabic foods (78.3%); poor quality of
Arabic food (35.1%)); Arabic foods being more expensive in the United States (67.6%); not knowing how to cook (16.2%); seafood, lamb, and vegetables being more expensive in the
United States than in Arab countries (29.7%); chicken and beef being cheaper in the United States (40.5%); drinking more milk in the United States (29.7%), good quality of some foods in the United States (10.8%), exposure to nutrition related information (10.8%), and un availability of halal meat in the United States (43.2%). Betts et al.
(1994), using focus group interviews with young adults 18 to 24 years old, similarly found that convenience, lack time to cook, expense, quality of food, taste, health 67 concern, and the availability of food were the most common factors influencing food choice.
Table 7 shows the chi-square test for independence of change in eating habits and other items. There were no significant differences between change or not change in eating habits and gender, marital status, country of origin, state of residence in U.S., education, length of residence in U.S., employed, religion, fasting during
Ramadan in 2 0 01, degree of adherence to religious dietary practices in U.S., living alone or with family or friends, number of people in family, annual income before taxes, monthly food expenditure, special diet in U.S., have any type of chronic disease, change in weight after living in
U.S., take any vitamin or mineral supplements, read language, speak language, think language, read newspapers, close friends, choose health professionals, prefer kinds of food, kind of food eat at home, or kind of restaurant.
There were significant differences (P<0.05) between change or not change in eating habits and age and age entered
United States.
68 Table 7. Test for independence of change in eating habits and discrete variables (n=45).
Variable Change eating habits Chi Yes No Total df square value
Age (years) 20 or less 0 1 1 3 8.99* 21-30 29 3 32 31-40 7 4 11 41 or more 1 0 1 Gender Men 28 8 36 1 2.43 Women 9 0 9 Marital status Single 17 2 19 1 5.3 Married 20 6 26 Country of origin Jordan 19 5 24 8 7.66 Egypt 5 0 5 Yemen 2 2 4 Lebanon 3 0 3 Syria 3 0 3 Morocco 2 0 2 Oman 1 1 2 Saudi Arabia 1 0 1 Sudan 1 0 1 State of residence in U.S. Texas 26 5 31 3 4.00 Iowa 4 1 5 Kansas 5 0 1 New Mexico 2 2 4 Age entered U.S (years1 ) 20 or less 3 1 4 2 7.53* 21-30 30 3 33 31-40 4 4 8 Education (years) c; •^ 1 6 2 0 . 01 >13-16 16 3 19 >16-19 17 3 20 >19 69 Table 7. Continued.
Variable Change eating habits Chi- Yes No Total df square value
Length of residence in U.S. (years) 1 or less 4 3 7 3 4.83 >l-2 14 2 16 >2-3 8 1 9 >3 12 1 13 Employed Full-time 5 2 7 2 2 .67 Part-time 21 2 23 Unemployed 11 4 15 Religion Islam 36 8 44 1 0.22 None 1 0 1 Fast during Ramadan in 2001 Yes 34 8 42 1 0.70 No 3 0 3 Degree of adherence to religious dietary practices in U.S. 4 4.53 Always 23 4 27 Almost always 10 1 11 Usually 2 2 4 Seldom 2 0 2 Never 1 0 1 Live in U.S. Alone 10 3 13 2 0 . 88 With family 23 3 26 With friend 5 1 6 Number of people in family 4 3.19 1 14 4 18 2 9 3 12 3 8 0 8 4 3 0 3 5 3 1 4 70 Table 7. Continued.
Variable Change eating habits Chi- Yes No Total df square value
Annual income ($) 9,000-18000 22 7 29 3 2.80 18,001-27,000 6 1 7 27,001-36,000 4 0 4 >36,000 5 0 5 Monthly food expenditure ($) <5 0 1 0 1 4 5.32 51-100 7 0 7 101-150 10 2 12 151-200 6 4 10 >200 13 2 15 Special diet in U.S Yes 8 0 8 1 2.10 No 29 8 37 Have any type of chronic disease Yes 2 0 2 1 0.45 No 35 8 43 Change in weight after living in U.S. 0.15 Yes 30 6 36 1 No 7 2 9 Take any vitamin or mineral supplements 3.54 Yes, fairly 5 0 5 2 Regularly Yes, but not 7 2 7 Regularly No 25 8 33
71 Table 7. Continued.
Variable Change eating habits Chi- Yes No Total df square value
Read language Only Arabic 0 0 0 3 4.78 Arabic more than 6 4 10 English Both equally 17 3 20 English/American 13 1 14 more than Arabic Only English 1 0 1 (American) Speak language Only Arabic 0 1 1 3 5.52 Arabic more than 13 3 16 English Both ecjually 20 4 24 English/American 4 0 4 more than Arabic Only English 0 0 0 (American)
Think in language -^ 1 •^ T Only Arabic 8 3 11 3 1 . 77 Arabic more than 14 3 17 English Both ecjually 10 2 12 English/American 5 0 5 more than Arabic Only English 0 0 0 (American) Read newspapers 5 0 5 4 4.91 Only Arabic 1 1 Arabic more than 8 3 11 English Both equally 9 3 12 1 r\ English/American 10 0 10
more than Arabic r-J Only English 5 2 7 (American)
72 Table 7. Continued,
Variable Change eating habits Chi- Yes No Total df scjuare Value
Close friends Only Arabic 11 2 13 3.57 Arabic more than 16 6 22 English Both equally 6 0 6 English/American 4 0 4 more than Arabic Only English (American) Choose family doctor or other health professionals Only Arabic 4 2 6 6.35 Arabic more than 4 3 7 English Both equally 25 2 27 English/American 3 1 4 more than Arabic Only English (American) Prefer kinds of food Only Arabic 7 2 9 1.01 Arabic more than 21 3 24 English Both equally 9 3 12 English/American 0 0 0 more than Arabic Only English (American)
73 Table 7. Continued.
Variable Change eating habits Chi- Yes No Total df square value
Kind of food eat at home Only Arabic 9 1 10 2.28 Arabic more than 17 6 23 English Both equally 10 1 11 English/American 1 0 1 more than Arabic Only English 0 0 0 (American) Kind of restaurant Only Arabic 7 2 9 2 .26 Arabic more than 7 3 10 English Both equally 11 2 13 English/American 9 1 10 more than Arabic Only English 3 0 3 (American)
*P<0.05.
74 Food Frequency and Preferences
Two-way analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of treatment (in country of origin, in the United
States), gender, and of their two-factor interaction on consumption frequency of each of 109 foods. The results are shown in Tables 8 and 9.
Table 8 shows the means and standard deviations for food consumption frequency of subjects in country of origin and in United States. For the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta group, white bread, pita bread, and bulgur were consumed significantly less (P<0.05) in the United States. There was a significant increase (P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of dinner rolls, hotdogs or hamburger rolls, pies, ready- to-eat cereals, and pizza in the United States. There was no significant difference in total consumption frequency for the group in the United States and in country of origin. For the vegetable group, there was a significant decrease (P<0.05) in consumption frequency of green beans, tomato, cauliflower, eggplant, cucumber, squash, cabbage, olives, okra, and total in the United States, while broccoli and ketchup or salsa were consumed significantly more (P<0.05) in the United States.
75 Table 8. Means and standard deviations for food consumption frequency of subjects (n=42) in country of origin and in United States.
Food In Country In United of origin States
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta White bread 37.6 +28.3'' 25.7±24.3* Brown or whole wheat bread 14.4+27.8 15.7+21.8 Dinner rolls 1.2+4 . 8 5.2+8.7* Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls 3.4±6.3 10.4+16.1* Cakes 8.4+13.3 11.2+28.7 Cookies 12.1+25.6 13.3+19.2 Doughnut 1.6+5.0 3.0+3.7 Pies 0.6+1.6 2.4+4.2* Ready-to-eat cereals 2.8+7.1 7.2+10.1* Muffins 0.8+2.4 1.3+2.5 Pancakes 3.3+18.5 2.6+5.6 Pizza 1.5+2.2 3,5+2.6* Tortilla 2.4+5.6 6.1+11.0 Pita bread 53.2+30.1 18.4+23.8* Pasta 4.9+5.5 4.6+4 . 4 Rice 18.6+9 .4 14.5+10.6 Bulgur 1.7±3.2 0.5+0.9* Popcorn 1.4+1.5 2.0+3.0 Total 157.7+60.3 147.5+68.7
Vegetables French fries 7.1+6.8 8.6+6.9 Baked potato 1.4±2.4 2.0+3.1 Potato chips 5.8+7.6 6.6+6.5 Beets 1.4+5.6 0.4+2.0 Green beans 3.8+5.0 1.5+2.2* Carrots 10.7+11.7 10.6+11.7 Corn 4.1+7.8 4.6+9.7 Spinach 4.4+7.9 1.9+4.8 Tomato 29.0±16.4 20.7+17.5*
76 Table 8. Continued,
Food In Country In United of origin States
Green salad 20.7+15.1 16.1+13.5 Cauliflower 3.3+3.3 1.7+2.7* Broccoli 0.310.9 1.3+2.7* Eggplant 5.1+5.1 1.6+2.5* Cucumber 25.9±26.5 9.1±9.0* Squash 6.0+6.3 1.6+2.7* Cabbage 5.5+10.2 2.0+4.5* Olives 27.8+26.2 11.5+23* Okra 4.2+5.8 1.1+1.9* Ketchup, salsa 5.1+6.9 12.0+12.0* Total .72.0+83 .2 116.0+68.9*
Fruits Apples 14.3+13.8 16.3+14.4 Bananas 13.1+11.9 17.5+14.3 Orange 14.7+16 .4 6.9+7.3* Orange juice 8.5+10.1 21.0+19.6* Peach 4.6+4 . 8 2.3±2.8* Strawberries 2.1+4.4 4.3+6.5* Watermelon 11.3+9.5 4.8+8.0* Cantaloupe 5.5+5.6 2.8+4.8* Mango 3.8+6.8 1.4+1.5* Guava 4.4+6.3 0.9+3.0* Cherry 2.4+3.7 0.7+1.4* Grapes 9.8+10.9 4.6+5.0* Figs 5.7+10.1 0.1+0.3* Total 96.6+58.9 82.9+46.4
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry beans. Eggs, & Nuts Hamburger 2.2+5.0 6.8+8.1* Steak 3.2+4 . 0 4.6+7.8 Other beef 9.0+7.9 5.9+5.0*
77 Table 8. Continued,
Food In Country In United of origin States
Fried chicken 4.5+4.4 5.8+5.7 Other chicken 7.7±7.2 10.9+9.2 Lamb 8.5+6.5 3.2+4.7* Fish (fresh) 4.7+6.0 2.4+4.2* Fish (canned) 1.9±3.2 3.3+4.5 Pork 0.02+0.15 0.02+0.1 Veal 4.0+3.7 1.7+2.8* Shrimp 0.8+1.6 1.411.6 Hot dogs 0.8±1.8 1.6±2.7 Lunch meat 4.2+7.0 3.016.1 Frozen dinner 0.05+0.21 1.313.2* Liver 2.1+2.3 0.711.1* Legumes 15.0+10.5 6.416.7* Eggs 16.8+12.0 12.719.7 Nuts 7.1+7.3 4.717.0 Peanuts 7.0+14.8 4.918.7 Seeds 9.2+10.9 1.0+1.8* Total 109.7+4 8.5 81.9+38.6*
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese Whole milk 10.8+15.4 12.0+16.2 2% milk 2.216.9 5.4+10.0 Low-fat milk (1% or less) 2.7+7.9 2.517.0 Skim milk 1.3+5.1 1.314.9 Buttermilk 3.3+5.4 1.614.2 Chocolate milk 2.1+5.2 3.116.1 White cheese 17.4+14.0 4.916.6* Process cheeses and spreads 10.8+12.6 10.4114.0 Cottage cheese 0.1+0.5 0.511.5 Cheddar cheese 3.417.3 6.6112.0 8.6+9.1 9.719.5 Ice cream Plain yogurt 15.2+11.4 7.917.4* Flavored yogurt 1.5+3.4 3.515.3*
78 Table 8. Continued,
Food In Country In United of origin States
Labaneh (drained yogurt) 12.8110.9 5.018.0* Total 91.0149.1 69.9145.0*
Fats, Oil, & Sweets Olive oil 27.5116.3 18.0116.9* Other vegetable oil 19.0117.7 13.4111.4 Butter 5.918.2 2.9+5.8 Ghee 4.616.5 0.5+2.0* Cream cheese 4.417.1 4.217.0 Salad dressing 2.817.9 5.917.6 Mayonnaise 2.013.8 4.715.1* Tahini 10.0+9.4 2.513.9* Chocolate candy 7.9+9.1 7.818.5 Honey 8.1+11.6 4.616.1 Dates 7.9+9.9 2.916.5* Baklava 4.6+6.1 0.611.4* Total 110.6157.8 72.4141.0*
Beverages 31.1121.3 Soft drinks 24.2117.0 2.817.7* Arabic coffee 19.6123.3 18.0122.9* American coffee 2.416.8 21.4119.4* Hot tea 4 0.512 8.5 2.016.5* Ice tea 0.0510.31 2.719.5 Herbal tea 1.913.5 0.211.3 Beer, wine 0.412.0 8 0.213 5.9 Total 90.1146.1
79 Table 8. Continued.
Food In Country In United of origin States
Arabic dishes Houmous 13.6110.2 4.216.4* Falafel 14.8114.4 1.112.0* Tabouleh 4.115.5 1.1+1.8* Shawerma 6.115.7 0.7+1.4* Stuffed grape leaves 2.713.0 0.5+1.0* Total 40.9125.1 7.2+8.5*
*Food consumption frequency is number of times eaten per month.
*Means in a row differ (P<0.05).
80 For the fruit group, there was a significant decrease
(P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of orange, peach, watermelon, cantaloupe, mango, guava, cherry, grapes, and figs, whereas the consumption frequency of orange juice and strawberries increased significantly (P<0.05) in the United
States. There was no significant difference in the total consumption frequency for the group in the United States and in country of origin.
For the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts group, there was a significant increase (P<0.05) in consumption frequency of hamburger and frozen dinner. Beef other than hamburger and steak, lamb, fresh fish, veal, liver, legumes, seeds, and total were consumed significantly less (P<0.05) in the United States. Other researchers reported that fresh fish was consumed significantly less by immigrants group in the United States and in the United Kingdom because of the cost (Crane and
Green, 1980; Reeves and Henry, 2000; Story and Harris,
1989).
For the milk, yogurt, and cheese group, there was a significant decrease (P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of white cheese, plain yogurt, labaneh, and total in the
81 United States, while the consumption frequency of flavored yogurt increased significantly (P<0.05).
For fats, oil, and sweets group, there was a significant decrease (P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of olive oil, ghee, tahini, dates, baklava, and total in the United States, while consumption frequency of mayonnaise increased significantly (P<0.05). For Asian students in the United States, Pan et al. (1999) similarly found no significant change in frequency consumption of grains, a decrease in consumption of vegetables and meat/meat alternatives, but conversely found an increase in consumption of dairy products and of fats and sweets.
For beverages, there was a significant decrease
(P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of Arabic coffee and hot tea in the United States, while consumption frequency of American coffee and ice tea increased significantly
(P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the consumption frequency of the total group in the United
States compared with in country of origin.
For Arabic dishes, the consumption frequency of all
Arabic dishes decreased significantly (P<0.05) in the United
States. Possible explanations for the decreased in the
82 consumption frequency of Arabic dishes included unavailability of ingredients, cost, not knowing how to
cook, and limited time to prepare them.
Approaching significance between the frequency of
consumption in county of origin and in the United States
occurred for 12 foods. There was an increase in the
consumption frequency of tortilla (P=0.06), other chicken
(P=0.08), shrimp (P=0.09), 2%milk (P=0.08), and salad
dressing (P=0.07) in the United States. The consumption
frequency of rice (P=0.06), spinach (P=0.09), eggs
(P=0.09), other vegetable oil (P=0.09), butter (p=0.06),
and honey (P=0.08) decreased in the United States.
Table 9 shows means and standard deviations for food
consumption frequency by men and women. Men consumed
pancakes and rice more frequently and bulgur less
frecjuently than women did (P<0.05) . Weaver and Brittin
(2 001) similarly found that men consumed more pancakes than
women did. Women consumed eggplant and cucumber more
frequently than men did (P<0.05). Weaver and Brittin (2001)
reported that women consumed more vegetables than men did.
Women consumed peach, watermelon, and cherry more
83 Table 9. Means and standard deviations for food consumption frequency by men and women (n=42).
Food Men Women
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta White bread 33 .7±27.7^ 24.0± 23.0 Brown or whole wheat bread 15.8±24 .0 12.4 + 28 .3 Dinner rolls 3.3±7.2 2.6±7.9 Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls 7.8±13 .6 3 .7±7.3 Cakes 15.1±20.0 8.3±29.4 Cookies 19.8±15 .8 10.8±38.0 Doughnut 2.6±4 .8 1.2±2.3 Pies 1.6±3.4 1.1+3.1 Ready-to-eat cereals 5.0±9.0 4.8±8.8 Muffins 1.3±2.4 1.0±2.8 Pancakes 9.3±2.7 1.2±28.6* Pizza 2.7 + 2 .8 1.8±1.6 Tortilla 4.2±9 .1 4.6±8.4 Pita bread 34.4 + 28 .9 41.0±42 .7 Pasta 4.7±3 .9 5.0±7.8 Rice 17.7±10.4 12.4±8.6* Bulgur 0.8±1.3 2.1±4.6* Popcorn 1.6±2.5 2.1±1.9 Total 154.9±60.7 144.3±77.9
Vegetables French fries 8.2±6 .9 6.5±6 .7 Baked potato 1.9±3 .0 1.0±1.6 Potato chips 6.2±7 .2 6.1±6.6 Beets 1.1±4.7 0.1±0.3 Green beans 2.4±2 .8 3.4±6.9 Carrots 10.3±12.2 12.3±9.5 4.2 + 9 .2 4 . 9±6 .7 Corn Spinach 3.3±6.6 2.7±6.9 24.7±16 .8 25.2 + 19 .7 Tomato Green salad 19.1±15.3 15.6±10.1 Cauliflower 2.5±3.3 2.5±2.2 Broccoli 1.0±2.3 0.2±0.4 2.7 + 2 . 7 5.6±7.6* Eggplant
84 Table 9. Continued.
Food Men Women
Cucumber 15.2±16.0 26.0±34.2* Squash 3.5±4.7 5.1±7.2 Cabbage 3.5±8.3 4.8±7.5 Olives 18.6±23.9 23.5±32.7 Okra 3.0±5.0 1.2±1.4 Ketchup, salsa 9.5±11.0 5.0±5.9 Total 141.5±79.0 155.1±88 .9
Fruits Apples 15.1±14.8 16.2±11.2 Bananas 15.2±13.9 15.7±10 .7 Orange 11.0±13.9 10.0±10.6 Orange juice 15.7+17.1 11.4±15.3 Peach 3.0+3.8 5.1±4.6* Strawberries 2.6+4.4 5.3±8.5 Watermelon 6.9±8.5 12.2±11.1* Cantaloupe 4.0±5.6 4.7±4.2 Mango 3.0 + 5 .6 1.4±1.6 Guava 2.9±5.7 1.7±2.9 Cherry 1.2±2.1 3.0±4.7* Grapes 7.8+9.5 5.0±5.2 3.2±3.2 Figs 1.7+8.4 91.2±45 .4 Total 89.4+55.3
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry beans. Eggs, & Nuts Hamburger 1. 8±7. 7 5. 1±2. 4 2 .2± 2 .4 Steak 4. 3±6. 8 7. 4±9. 1 Other beef 7.,5±6 . 1 4,, 5±4, .1 Fried chicken 5,.4±5 ., 4 5,.8±5 ,.3 * Other chicken 10,.3±8 .. 8 8 .4±7 .4* Lamb 5 .2±5,. 8 4 .4±6 .0 Fish (fresh) 3 .3±5 .1 1 . 1±2. 2 Fish (canned) 2 . 9±4. 2 .0±0 .0 0 .1±0 .3* Pork 0 . 0±3. 4 2 .4 + 3 .6 Veal 3
85 Table 9. Continued.
Food Men Women
Shrimp 1.1+1.7 0.8±1.2 Hot dogs 0.9±1.9 2.3±3.2* Lunch meat 3.8±6.9 2.9±4.8 Frozen dinner 0.7±2.6 0.4±1.1 Liver 1.4±2.0 1.3±1.7 Legumes 10.5±9.4 11.5±11.2 Eggs 14.8±10.8 14.5+12.2 Nuts 5.3+6.4 8.1±9.4 Peanuts 5.4±12.4 8.1±11.2 Seeds 4.5±8.1 7.2±11.0 Total 96.0±45.4 95.2±48.6
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese Whole milk 12.4±16.6 7.8±11.7 2% milk 3.1±7.7 6.2±11.7 Low-fat milk (1% or less) 2.6±7.3 2.7±7.9 Skim milk 1.3±5.4 1.3±3.5 Buttermilk 2.8±5.4 0.9±2.2 Chocolate milk 2.7±6.1 2.2±3.5 White cheese 10.0±12.4 15.4±12.5 Process cheeses and spreads 9.2+12.3 15.6±15.5 Cottage cheese 0.4±1.3 0.0±0.0 Cheddar cheese 4.6±10.0 6.2±10.0 Ice cream 8.2±8.8 12.7±10.2 Plain yogurt 11.1±10.1 11.8±11.6 Flavored yogurt 2.7±4.6 1.9±4.4 Labaneh (drained yogurt) 7.8±9.7 12.8±11.6* Total 76.1±49.9 96.4±37.1
Fats, Oil, & Sweets Olive oil 20.4±16.2 31.2+18.5 * Other vegetable oil 16.4±16.0 15.4±11.6 Butter 4 .4 + 6.5 4 . 5 + 9.6 Ghee 2.5±4.6 2.6±7.3 8.1±17.0 1.7+2.4 Margarine Cream cheese 4.5+7.0 3.5±7.2
86 Table 9. Continued,
Food Men Women
Salad dressing 4.9±8.6 2.0±3 .6 Mayonnaise 3.7±5.1 2.3±2.3 Tahini 6.1±7 .7 6.7±9.3 Chocolate candy 7.8±8.6 7.7±9.8 Honey 6.6±9.8 5.4±7 .9 Dates 5.0±8.2 6.9±10 .6 Baklava 2.7±4 .8 2.3±5.0 Total 91.2±52 .9 92.3±56.8
Beverages Soft drinks 28.8±20 .6 23.3±14 .4 Arabic coffee 11.8±20.7 8.9 + 12 .2 American coffee 10.1±19.1 10.5±16.7 Hot tea 31.1±26.3 30.6±25 .7 Ice tea 0.9±3.9 1.7±7.1 Herbal tea 2.6±7.9 1.0±2.2 Beer, wine 0.3±1.5 0.6±2.4 Total 87 .5±43.1 76.5±34.0
Arabic dishes 8.8±9 .9 9.2±9 .2 Houmous Falafel 7.9±12 .8 8.0±10.6 Tabouleh 2.5±4.1 2.9±5.2 3.7±5.4 2.3±2.5 Shawerma Stuffed grape leaves 1.4+1.9 2.5±4.0 23.9±26.2 24.7±22.0 Total
-Food consumption frequency is number of times eaten per month.
row for differ (P<0.05). *Means m a
87 frequently than men did (p<0.05). Men consumed chicken
(other than fried chicken) more frequently than women did, whereas women consumed lamb and hot dogs more frequently than men did (P<0.05). The results showed that women consumed pork, whereas the men did not (P<0.05); the explanation is that all subjects held Muslim beliefs except the one woman who consumed pork. Women consumed labaneh more frequently than men did (P<0.05). Women consumed olive oil more frequently than men did (P<0.05). There was no significant difference for individual beverage and for the total of the group between men and women. There was no significant difference for individual Arabic dish and for the total between men and women.
Approaching significance between frequencies of consumption by men and women occurred for 6 foods. Women consumed hamburger (P=0.07), white cheese (P=0.06), process cheeses and spreads (P=0.07), ice cream (P=0.07), and stuffed grape leaves (P=0.06) more frequently than men did.
Men consumed canned fish more frequently than women did
(P=0.09) .
A significant interaction (P<0.05) occurred for 2 of the 109 foods. These foods were cherry and white cheese.
88 The mean of consumption frequency of cherry was 5.3+5.8 by women and 1.612.5 by men in the country of origin while in
the United States was 0.611.4 by women and 0.711.5 by men.
The mean of consumption frequency of white cheese was
26.0+6.4 by women and 15.1114.6 by men in country of origin,
while in the United States was 4.816.1 by women and 4.916.8
by men.
Table 10 shows the mean and the standard deviations of
hedonic scores for foods by total subjects, men, and women.
Most of the foods in the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta
group were liked (means 5.5 or higher on 9-point hedonic
scale). Dinner rolls, pies and muffins were neither liked
nor disliked (means 4.8, 5.3 and 4.9, respectively). The
total of the group was liked slightly (mean 6.1). No
significant difference between foods likes or dislikes
among men and women occurred in the bread, cereal, rice,
and pasta group.
All of the foods in the vegetables group were liked
(means 5.7 or higher on 9-point hedonic scale) by total
subjects, with the exception of beets and broccoli which
were disliked (means 4.1 and 4.6, respectively). The total
of the group was liked slightly. Women liked tomato and
89 Table 10. Means and standard deviations of hedonic scores for foods by total subjects, men, and women (n=42).
Food. Total Men Women
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta White bread 6.611.5- 6.711.3 6.112.1 Brown or whole wheat bread 5.711.9 5.812.0 5.311.4 Dinner rolls 4.811.6 5.Oil.5 4.Ill.8 Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls 5.511.5 5.511.6 5.611.0 Cakes 6.811.3 6.711.3 7.411.1 Cookies 6.611.5 6.711.4 6.212.1 Doughnut 5.711.9 5.911.8 5.012.2 Pies 5.311.9 5.311.9 5.211.9 Ready-to-eat cereals 5.612.0 5.512.0 5.912.1 Muffins 4.912.1 5.012.1 4.712.5 Pancakes 5.511.8 5.411.8 5.712.1 Pizza 7.Ill.1 6.911.9 7.610.9 Tortilla 6.Ill.6 6.Ill.5 6.Oil.9 Pita bread 7.311.7 7.511.3 6.712.7 Pasta 6.611.7 6.511.8 6.911.3 Rice 7.411.1 7.511.0 7.311.2 Bulgur 5.612.0 5.611.9 5.812.5 Popcorn 6.Ill.6 6.011.7 6.411.1 Total 6.110-7 6.110.7 6.010.5
Vegetables French fries 7.Ill.3 6.911.4 7.610.7 Baked potato 5.911.8 5.811.9 6.211.4 Potato chips 6.611.3 6.611.4 6.710.9 Beets 4.112.1 3.912.1 4.812 . 2 Green beans 5.911.6 5.711.7 6.411.0 Carrots 6.511.4 6.411.4 6.811.5 Corn 6.311.4 6.Ill.4 7.111.4 Spinach 6.Ill.8 5.911.7 6.811.9 Tomato 7.211.2 6.911.1 8.011.1* Green salad 7.411.2 7.211.2 7.811.1 Cauliflower 5.912.0 5.912.0 5.911.8
90 Table 10. Continued,
Food Total Men Women
Broccoli 4.612.1 4.712.1 4.611.9 Eggplant 6.5+1.5 6.411.2 6.712.2 Cucumber 7.0+1.4 6.711.4 8.011.0* Squash 6.5+1.6 6.311.7 6.911.1 Cabbage 6.711.5 6.511.6 7.411.1 Olives 7.311.4 7.211.4 7.811.6 Okra 5.712.2 5.912.0 5.113.0 Ketchup, salsa 5.812.0 6.112.0 5.012.1 Total 6.210.9 6.Ill.0 6.610.6
Fruits Apples 7.Oil.1 7.111.0 6.911.4 Bananas 7.311.1 7.311.1 7.411.4 Orange 7.411.2 7.411.1 7.311.4 Orange juice 7.311.5 7.311.5 7.211.5 Peach 6.811.7 6.611.8 7.410.9 Strawberries 7.Oil.4 7.011.4 7.311.2 Watermelon 7.311.5 7.211.6 7.811.0 Cantaloupe 7.Oil.4 6.811.4 7.411.4 Mango 7.411.3 7.4+1.2 7.4+1.5 6.7+1.2 7.6+1.4 Guava 6.911.8 6.7+1.8 7.2+1.5 Cherry 6.811.7 7.2+1.3 7.3+1.1 Grapes 7.311.2 7.1+1.7 7.0+1.7 Figs 7.Ill.7 7.110.9 7.310.5 Total 7.110.9
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry beansans. Eggs, & Nuts. 6.411.3 6.311.4 6.711.3 Hamburger 6.811.6 6.911.7 6.311.4 Steak 6.611.3 6.711.0 6.112.2 Other beef 6.911.6 7.011.5 6.711.9 Fried chicken 7.Ill.2 7.Ill.1 6.811.5 Other chicken 7.411.7 7.411.8 7.711.6 Lamb
91 Table 10. Continued,
Food Total Men Women
Fish (fresh) 7.211.9 7.212.0 7.Oil.6 Fish (canned) 5.412.3 5.5+2.2 4.912.8 Pork 1.711.9 1.5+1.7 2.312.7 Veal 6.512.0 6.811.7 5.212.5* Shrimp 6.212.5 6.412.2 5.713.3 Hot dogs 4.412.1 4.412.0 4.612.8 Lunch meat 5.112.2 5.212.3 4.812.0 Frozen dinner 4.012.2 4.012.1 4.012 .5 Liver 5.612.4 5.712.3 5.312.7 Legumes 7.Ill.7 7.Oil.8 7.710-7 Eggs 6.6+1.4 6.611.4 6.611.6 Nuts 7.3+1.2 7.411.1 6.911.4 Peanuts 6.5+1.8 6.512.0 6.910.8 Seeds 6.0+2.3 5.812.5 6.811.4 Total 6.1+0.9 6.Ill.0 5.910.6
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese Whole milk 5.6+2.3 5.312.2 6.412.7 2% fat milk 4.7+1.9 4.6+2.0 5.211.4 Low-fat milk (1%: or less) 4.1+2.0 4.112.0 4.Ill.9 Skim milk 3.6+2.0 3.612.1 3.711.7 Buttermilk 4.9+2.7 5.112.7 4.212.8 Chocolate milk 5.8+2.1 5.712.0 6.112.7 White cheese 7.3+1.2 7.Ill.1 8.210.8* Process cheeses and spreads 6.7+1.8 6.612.0 7.Ill.3 Cottage cheese 4.0+2.2 4.212.2 3.312.2 Cheddar cheese 5.512.1 5.412.1 6.112.3 7.411.3 7.Ill.2 8.410.7* Ice cream 6.711.7 6.711.6 6.812.0 Plain yogurt Flavored yogurt 5.711.9 5.712.0 5.711.7 Labaneh (drained yogurt) 6.911.9 6.712.0 7.711.2
92 Table 10. Continued.
Food Total Men Women
Total 5.611.1 5.511.2 5.910.7
Fats, Oil, Sc Sweets Olive oil 7.311 .3 7 211 ,3 7. 311.2 Other vegetable oil 5.811 ,3 5 811 .5 5. 610.9 Butter 5 ,511 .7 5 611 .6 4 .8+2. 0 Ghee 5 .112 .4 5 312 .3 4, 4+2 .7 Margarine 5 .311,. 6 5 311 .7 5 1+1.5 Cream cheese 5..6+ 2 .3 5 512 .4 5 8+1 Salad dressing 5,.3+ 2 .3 5 612 .1 4 ,1+2 Mayonnaise 5,.6+ 1 .7 5 511.8 5 .8+1 Tahini 6 .4+1 .6 6 , 111.6 6 .2+1 Chocolate candy 6 .4+2.0 6 ,412 6 .411 9+2.0* Honey 6 .8+1.5 7.111 5 8+0.8 Dates 7.511.2 7.511 7 Baklava 7.212.0 7.211 7 .0+2.4 .711.2 Total 6.111.0 6.310 5
Beverages 7.211.2 811.0 Soft drinks 7.Ill.1 6.712.1 112.1 Arabic coffee 6.6+2 . 0 6.311.7 Oil.4* American coffee 6.0+1.7 7.211.4 911.4 Hot tea 7.2+1.4 4.1+2.0 4.112.0 111.8 Ice tea 4.9+2.2 4.912.3 911.8 Herbal tea 1.511.6 1.511.5 1.712.0 Beer, wine 5.310.8 5.410.8 5.010.9 Total
93 Table 10. Continued,
Food Total Men Women
Arabic dishes Houmous 7.311.7 7. , 111.8 8. 111. 12 Falafel 7.611.5 7, .511.7 8. ,010. ,9 Tabouleh 7.212.0 6 .912.1 8, ,210, .7 Shawerma 7.711.2 7 .711.1 7 .811 .3 Stuffed grape leaves 7.212.2 6 .912.4 8 .211 .1 Total 7.4+1.4 7 .311.5 8 .110 .9
-Scale: l=dislike extremely; 2=dislike very much; 3=dislike moderately; 4=dislike slightly; 5=neither like nor dislike; 6=like slightly; 7=like moderately; 8=like very much; 9=like extremely.
*Means m a row for men and women differ (P<0.05)
94 cucumber more than men did (P<0.05) . Wyant and Meiselman
(1984) and Weaver and Brittin (2001) found that women liked vegetables more than men did.
All foods in fruits group were liked (means 6.8 or higher on 9-point hedonic scale). The total of the group was liked moderately. No significant difference, between foods likes or dislikes among men and women occurred in fruits group.
Most of the foods in meat poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts group were liked (means 5.6 or higher on 9- point hedonic scale). Canned fish and lunch meat were neither liked nor disliked (means 5.4 and 5.1, respectively). Pork, hot dogs, and frozen dinner were disliked (means 1.7, 4.4, and 4.0, respectively).
Inconsistent with another study (Weaver and Brittin, 2001), we found that subjects liked liver. The total of the group were liked slightly (the mean was 6.1). Men liked veal more than women did (P<0.05) . Wyant and Meiselman (1984) reported that men liked meat than women did.
Most of the foods in the milk, yogurt, and cheese group were liked (means 5.5 or high on 9-point hedonic scale). Two % fat milk and buttermilk were neither liked
95 nor disliked (means 4.7 and 4.9, respectively). Low-fat milk, skim milk, and cottage cheese were disliked (means
4.1, 3.6, and 4.0, respectively). The total of the group was liked slightly (mean 5.6). Women liked white cheese and ice cream more than men did (P<0.05).
Most foods in the fats, oil, and sweets group were liked (means 5.5 or higher on 9-point hedonic score). Ghee, margarine, and salad dressing were neither liked nor disliked (means 5.1, 5.3, and 5.3, respectively). The total of the group were liked slightly (mean 6.1). Men liked honey more than women did ((P<0.05).
In the beverage group, soft drinks, Arabic coffee,
American coffee, and hot tea were liked (means 6.0 or higher on 9-point hedonic scale). Herbal tea and total of beverages were neither liked nor disliked (means4.9 and
5.3, respectively). Ice tea and beer, wine were disliked
(means 4.1 and 1.5, respectively). Men liked American coffee more than women did (P<0.05).
All Arabic dishes were liked (means 7.2 or higher on
9-point hedonic scale). The total of Arabic dishes was like moderately (mean 7.4). No significant difference in food likes/dislikes between men and women occurred in Arabic
96 dishes. Overall, women liked more foods significantly more than men did, in agreement with previous research (Weaver and Brittin, 2001)
Pizza, French fries, orange juice, fried chicken, steak, ice cream, and soft drinks were the most liked
American foods in the present study. Crane and Green (1980) and Story and Harris (1989) found that steak was the most preferred American food among immigrant groups.
Table 11 shows the correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and frequency of consumption for foods in the United States for total subjects, men, and women. For the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta group, significant positive correlation coefficients were found for brown or whole wheat bread, dinner rolls, hot dogs or hamburger rolls, doughnut, pies, ready-to-eat cereals, muffins, tortilla, pasta, and bulgur. For the vegetables group, significant positive correlation coefficients were found for baked potato, cauliflower, broccoli, and ketchup and salsa. For the fruits group, significant positive correlation coefficients were found for apples, bananas, orange juice, and peach. For the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts group, significant positive
97 Table 11. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and frequency of consumption for food in United States by total subjects, men, and women (n=42).
Food Total Men Women
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta White bread 0.08 0.01 0.19 Brown or whole wheat bread 0.36* 0.34 0.55 Dinner rolls 0 .49** 0.48 0.58 Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls 0.38* 0.39 0.37 Cakes -0.21 -0 .20 -0.42 Cookies 0.18 0.14 0.26 Doughnut 0 .38* 0.26 0.78 Pies 0.39* 0.37 0.47 Ready-to-eat cereals 0.33* 0 .40 0.09 Muffins 0.39* 0.43 0.24 Pancakes 0.22 0.19 0.28 Pizza 0.23 0.34 0.001 Tortilla 0.37* 0.38 0.37 Pita bread 0.03 -0.09 0.21 Pasta 0 .42** 0.40 0.65 Rice 0.29 0 .23 0.59 0.67 Bulgur 0 .44** 0.31 Popcorn 0.26 0.30 -0.26 -0.17 Total -0.14 -0.14
Vegetables 0.25 French fries -0.01 0.03 0.41 Baked potato 0.32* 0.34 0.51 Potato chips 0.29 0.27 0.55 Beets 0.25 0.29 0.22 Green beans 0.25 0.28 0.38 Carrots 0.25 0.22 0.21 Corn 0.1 0.07 0.54 Spinach 0.29 0.33 0.33 Tomato 0.19 0.18 0.52 Green salad 0.1 0.06 0.39 Cauliflower 0.43** 0.44 0.71 Broccoli 0.41** 0.42
98 Table 11. Continued,
Food Total Men Women
Eggplant 0.14 -0 .12 0.30 Cucumber 0.27 0.26 0.40 Squash 0.26 0.13 0.66 Cabbage 0.13 0.19 -0.27 Olives 0.20 0.24 0.22 Okra 0.24 0.19 0.73 Ketchup, salsa 0.39* 0.35 0.48 Total 0.01 0.02 0.29
Fruits Apples 0 .49** 0.57 0.33 Bananas 0.31* 0.34 0.25 Orange 0.14 0.35 -0.05 Orange juice 0.46** 0.45 0.53 Peach 0.38* 0.42 0.25 Strawberries 0.24 0.17 0.63 Watermelon 0.22 0.28 0.25 Cantaloupe 0.21 0.28 0.41 Mango 0.27 0.36 0.54 Guava 0.30 0.06 0.12 Cherry 0.19 0.26 0.55 Grapes 0.05 0.17 0.43 0.22 Figs -0.03 -0.02 0.09 Total -0.01 0.27
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry beans. Eggs, & Nuts 0.65 Hamburger 0.09 0 .15 0.61 Steak 0.15 0.36 0.22 Other beef 0.23 0.26 -0.21 Fried chicken 0.08 0.16 0.77 Other chicken 0.51** 0.46 0.22 0.36 Lamb 0.25 0.17 Fish (fresh) 0.06 0.07 0.25 Fish (canned) 0 .42** 0 .47 0.51 Pork 0.35*
99 Table 11. Continued,
Food Total Men Women
Veal 0.01 -0.08 0.001 Shrimp 0 .40** 0.35 0.58 Hot dogs 0 .45** 0.47 0.46 Lunch meat 0.27 0.27 0.22 Frozen dinner 0.36* 0.46 -0.30 Liver 0.39* 0.41 0.47 Legumes 0.21 0.32 -0.26 Eggs 0.24 0.37 -0.12 Nuts 0.15 0.15 0.17 Peanuts 0.36* 0.41 0.09 Seeds 0.22 0.26 -0.04 Total 0.22 0.31 -0.57
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese Whole milk 0.56** 0.68 0.45 2% fat milk 0.51** 0.45 0.81 Low-fat milk (1% or less) 0 .45** 0.42 0.60 Skim milk 0 .45** 0.48 0.29 Buttermilk 0.33* 0.35 0.37 0.07 Chocolate milk 0 .42** 0.16 -0.53 White cheese 0.05 0.16 0.08 Process cheeses and spreads 0.26 0.31 Cottage cheese 0 .45** 0.49 0.45 Cheddar cheese 0.49** 0.47 -0.06 Ice cream 0.37* 0.44 0.52 Plain yogurt 0 .42** 0.40 0.51 Flavored yogurt 0.51** 0.51 0.28 Labaneh (drained yogurt) 0.27 0.25 0.37 0.49 Total 0.39*
Fats, Oil, & Sweets 0.26 0.73 Olive oil 0 .37* 0.24 0 .28 •0.03 Other vegetable oil 0.27 0.33 0 .27 Butter 0.07 0.06 0.49 Ghee 0.14 0.04 Margarine 0.13
100 Table 11. Continued.
Food Total Men Women
Cream cheese 0.40* 0.44 0.16 Salad dressing 0.56** 0.54 0.77 Mayonnaise 0.31* 0.36 0.03 Tahini 0.07 0.06 0.13 Chocolate candy 0.33* 0.39 -0.01 Honey 0.22 0.18 0.43 Dates 0 .26 0.32 0.1 Baklava 0.16 0 .18 0.01 Total 0.06 0.03 0.16
Beverages Soft drinks 0 .52** 0.44 0.79 Arabic coffee 0.25 0.22 0.40 American coffee 0 .42** 0.40 0.64 Hot tea 0.33* 0.23 0.71 Ice tea 0.31* 0.38 0.20 Herbal tea 0.27 0.28 0.35 Beer, wine 0.63** 0.77 Total 0.17 0 .14 0.15
Arabic dishes ,0.19 0 .28 -0.72 Houmous Falafel 0.10 0.13 -0 .21 Tabouleh 0.09 0.11 0.60 Shawerma 0.03 -0.01 0 .16 Stuffed grape leaves 0.09 0.09 0 .19 Total -0.001 0.03 -0 . 23
tp 101 correlations were found for other chicken, canned fish, pork, shrimp, hot dogs, frozen dinner, liver, and peanuts. For the milk, yogurt, and cheese group, significant positive correlation coefficients were found for all foods in the group and the total except white cheese, process cheeses and spreads, and labaneh. For the fats, oil, and sweets group, significant positive correlation coefficients were found for olive oil, cream cheese, salad dressing, mayonnaise, and chocolate candy. For beverages, significant positive correlation coefficients were found for all foods except Arabic coffee, herbal tea, and total. No significant positive correlation coefficients were found for Arabic dishes. Weaver and Brittin (2001) found that food liking and consumption were related. Table 12 shows correlation coefficients for frequency of consumption for food in the United States and general information for age, age entered United States, length of residence in the United States, years of education, income, food expenditure, and overall acculturation score by total subjects. There were significant positive correlation coefficients between age and frequency of consumption of white bread, rice, carrots, green salad, okra, apples. 102 d rH 0 _ nS •H -d u 4J (U o (ti t> a li H •H -H d ^ >^ 4J * D 0) ^ H (U CM cn cn (o t^ CO CM cn «;}< CM -Jf <* u d u o o H H CM d d a> U 0 O H rH O Tt* •H (U h u o o o o o o o o o o O O O T) 0 rt! CQ 1 -d -H o 0 CQ to O Q) 4H M d a) d U 4-1 -oH 4J O 0 .u •H 4-1 nj •d r^ o CN CN VD H o ro t^ vo CN H O H o H H ro OHO O O O O o o O o o o o o 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 io n ngt h Itu r 8^ 1 4J 0) d b (U ftr-l u * B u a) CN d - (0 CO O rH CO CO T}| CO VD CQ • B (» 0 O O O o H O (O •^ d cn T) ro O o • d d o o O o o O o O o O O O o D nJ H 1 1 1 1 4-1 -d - . 0 H OJ d 0 u U JJ .u d * d d -rH J3 103 d 0 •H jj (ti u d 4-1 CN * H a> 00 o o Ln t^ ^ fo d u coror^'*or~~orot^ooLnvD u 0 CN O) O ro rH rH C^a rHrHOrHrOOCMrHOOrHrO C) C) o o o o o o o OOOOOOOOOOOO <: CQ I I I I I I I I (U u d 40 •H vo CN H CN H (O t^ t~-[^LnCNVOCNrO[^VOrOCMLn -d (O CM O rH CN O H OHOOOOHOHHHCN d Tl Q) O O O O O O O OOOOOOOOOOOO o ft III I III It I 0 5^ Ii. al d) * H B Ln cn r>) o o in ro incno (0(X)rHovoinr~-cN 0 'd* O H O H O CM o HOrOOiOHOHHHOrO fl o o o o o o o OOOOOOOOOOOO H I I I I I I I I 4-1 a) 0 o d x: c>qvocNrocovorO'^'*rHcn 0) (O O H ro rH rH rH rHOfsIOOrvJOrHHrOHH JH (U O O O O O O O OOOOOOOOOOOO d) 4J m I I III I I I I I I I m d fa: (U •K -d ^ o tn H CN H •'1' rHOOCMOVOCOt^OOVO^t-CO (U CNrHCNCNrHCOrHrHO'^OO CN H O ro CN o o cn o o o o o o o OOOOOOOOOOOO •H III I I I I .U d 0 CQ O CQ u Q) AJ ft CQ -d M T! CQ •rl (ti -H d (ti 0) (ti ttJ !H 40 .d (ti H > CN (ti tt) rH 4H O U tt) (ti O -H H U d ft ,y CQ .d CQ H H r-^ J3 ^ )H ^ Xi 0 40 U O 4H O •H (ti d 0 H 40 U -d 40 CQ d O n3 40 d -H O -d 4J (ti |) 0) &1 U Iti Q) d ttj (ti 40 tt) U d d (ti 0) H U U 4-> cn o H C:4 40 m H (ti >H O b m 04 EH fri Cu 04 Pi m a. EH > PQ Ci) u u cn EH Ci) U CQ 104 d o •H 40 (ti U d 40 * rH 0) CNOOCSt^HLOrO Ol CNi'^r-rHvocovorNocncN d H r^OOHOr^^r^ o OHrHOCNrHOOHH^ O 0 OOOOOOO o O O OOOOOOOOOO o u II I I I I t^ CQ I III I I I I 1) 40 •H Tl in d O Ul (N o n CN O n rH oo'=j * * * CO H •* tn VO + H H 00 rHHCnOC-VOrOOOLOrOrSVD O H o o rH n O (O rs C^lmOOOOOOOr^r^O u in d O o o O O O o OOOOOOOOOOOO 1 1 o 1 I I I I I I I I I MH (U O U ^ a * '1' xi (U H(X5Ln>*(00co in cs vo cn o cn r- t~- o cn r^^ H 40 T) rHrHOH'sl'HH CNl H fS O O O rH O 01-H rH H H O d w OOOOOOO O OOOOOOOOOOOO 0) (U I I I I I III I I I I II c 0 -H 40 Iti r^covDoooinro CN r-.ovor^cnrHt^vovoc^ •d •K * •It 0) cno\c-Lncn^in •<* r^(MmHOr^^(OCNr^^OVO )H "^CNCNrHrHOOOrtHOJO Q) . OOOOCN';fCN o tt) 40 CQ OOOOOOO o OOOOOOOOOOOO fs; tt) tD I III r^ H VD H o * c^ * cNmvonoo'S 105 d o •H 40 (ti ^4 d 40 rH tt) * H 00 r- O) VD vo in IH [-- tn vo n in in es o d O H H CM rH o CO O rH o o o 0 CM O H o U O o o o o o o o o o o o o «< CQ I tt) M d 40 -H •a * d ^ ro •<^ 00 •* H H CO H 00 CN H vo OI Tl tt) o o o H H ro CN O O H H O O p, 0 ^ o o o o o o O o O o O o o o ft4 tt) 1 1 1 1 1 i) •K •K e cn * ro 1< VD •* in CN VO VO 00 H * 0 o H cn o rH O O H O CN O H H O o '^i d o o • o o O o o O o O o o • H 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 4-4 tt) 0 O d J3 Q) 40 T) o o H Ln vo ro CO CO ro H CO o cn •H H CN CN CO H CN rH rH H o o H CN dm CO tt) tt) O O O o o O O O O o o o o o id ^4 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 d 0 -H 40 tti (O H cn CN o O O H t^ CN in ro VD O O o H C\] O rH O H O O H O O CN d O H -d O o o o o o o o o o o o M o o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 TJ tt) M H tn 00 ro (O CO ro o 34 * tt) • o ro 32 * o H o H o o o H H H tt) 40 CO H CO ID d • o o o o o o o o o o o o < tt) D 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -d VO 00 Lri' cn CN tn CO CO c- o VD o o CN 0) o r>l O) H o o o o o H tt) o o o o o o o o o o o o o -H I I I I I I I I I 40 d o fc CJ CQ tn M-l CJl 0) CM .& (U rH ^ Q XI «. tt) •K 4u0 v w M r-{ n cn (ti 40 r-i xi tt) o cn 40 (ti d to s 0) rd -H -H d -H o •H O 0) O •H fl) (ti 40 40 M .d 40 d -3 fa ft to W CO H &4 H s ^ O fc U ~ " 106 d o •H 40 rti U d 40 * 'J' •* •(t rH (U 'Jl to CN H ro vo r^ o CM o cn Ln r~ •^ o d n O CO H H o o o rH O o o ro ro rH H O O o o o o o O O o o o O fOj CQ 1 1 1 1 o o o •(t * •It •It •H * * •It 00 in •^ in •* o H in tn VD CO <* VD CM O M< H CN H CM H ro O H O vo in CM o OOOOOOO O O o o o o o II I I I I 1 1 1 in CO o 0 00 rH rn vo 00 vo rH rH vo cn H o 01 O CM H H O O O O o o o OI o OO OOOOOOO O O o o o o o I I I I I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 44 (U O O d d tt) 40 TJ «;1<00 CnrHCnOOrOCMrH in c^ (o H VD -* vo cn^H OO OCMOOOOO o o o O O O O d ra tt) 0) OOOOOOO J (H I I I d o •rl 40 (ti ^ (N r- in ^ in 00 ro rH 00 H in CM 00 O CM O CO O CN rH rH rH CM H o rH o H o H OOOOOOO o o o o o o o w 1 1 1 T3 tt) U ^ H tn CM m CM CO CO in o CO H 00 tt) CM rH CN O O O O CN rH H o CM CM H tt) 40 CO tn d OOOOOOO o o O o O O O Tt CN CM tn CM CO VD 00 tn' VO CN O •5l« c~- tn cn 0) H H CO O CM O O O O 38 * CM H o CM O) H tt) o o OOOOOOO o o O o O o O •H I 1 1 1 1 1 40 d o u 40 •H tt) (ti i« tt) CM tt) d e CQ CQ 40 0 Cl tt) 40 4J tt) (ti Si (1) (1u) U d M rH 1^ CO '4-1 tt) B ^ I Tl o N (1) d cn M c n (ti .V d tt) 40 O fl & 01 40 rti tt) 40 rH o tt) •H n •H ->H tt) cn d OJ tt) O o rH >; O u o ^ CO m u d EH UA T) id 1-5 w !zi P4 UJ H 6 1-q 107 § •H 40 (ti )H d 40 m ro H Ln CM VD t-- ^ CM CN "* HH tt) O rH o oi ro H O CN rH O O H d iH o o o O o o o o o o O O O O u u I 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 i< CO tt) d ' 40 -H TJ VD in vo o ro Ln CN CM LO CM O CM Ol o o 04 CN CO rH o d H .32 * Tl tt) o o o o o O o o O O O o fa tt) 1 1 1 1 1 tt) 0> CO ro c^ H CM CM VD ro cn cn B O o o o o CN CN O O O H O o u d o o o o O O O O o o 1 1 I 1 1 1 *»H tt) CN .d tt) o •K in tn •t*> •* O VD cn o (O 40 Ti CO CM o r- O o o H (O H N CN (O OHO Cn-H H O O d m O o o o o o o o I I tt) 4) I 1 1 1 1 1 id M d o •H 40 cn -^ CN H rN cn o H •* (ti VD H o o o O o H H O o o o o o o o o o o I I I I I ea I •K •K 4) r- o O VO CO •5}! VD CO o in CM CN ro H o o ^ ro o tt) H o tt) -u CO- O o o O O O o o o o o cn d I I ra; tt) I CM TJ «^ oo vo O VO in in cn cn 00 O rH O O CN O CN o ro o CM o o CM O rH tt) o o O O O O O O O •H o I I I I I O tijl CJ Tl U d rH rH tt) tt) (ti ^^O Tl -H •H rH d N tt> d O 0 •H cn CO tt) IH M ^4 tt) TJ cn tt)- (ti tt) CQ •3 d 40 tt) M 40 tt) Cti (ti c"n Tl ., tt; tt) 40 tt) Ol tt) TJ 3 (ti (ti to ttJ Tl 40 tt) ->H d DlrH 40 tt) U 40 tt) tt) &i^ •P O ft 0 d d o (3 0 rti ^ rH 40 tt) -H d .d (ti O tn O O U >nid H fo CO O m CD s EH o > o 108 d 0 •H 40 rti (H d •K •K •K O CN cn 00 ro cn -^ o CO (M M" H 00 CN rH VD VD rH rH O CM CN O rH rH CN rH (O ro rH CO CM H CM cul t or e o u O O o o o O O O O O O o o o o o o i< cn 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 tt) V4 d 4J •ri Tl cn o tn CN o CM VD a^ in ^31 00 in VD o 00 cn ro T^l tt)?> H CN H CN H O O O rH O O H rH H O CN O O O o o o O O O o O O o O O O O O Cii tt) 1 1 1 1 1 1 tt) •te cn tn CN 00 r~ oa o tn o 00 00 cn CN -It OO cn in e T-i O o o o O H O H CN O o CN vo O O O o • in • • • du O O o o o O O O O O * O• o • o • O O O H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O 1 I 44 tt) o U d •X ^ tt) •It •K 40 T) O rH f^ c^ en H 00 cn CN CM 00 CM OJ CO rH cn o Cn -H CN CN O rH O o o CN ro O H CM CM in rH O CM d cn tt) tt) O O o o o o o o o o o• o • O o o o . o. id u 1 1 1 1 1 1 a 0 •ri 40 (ti O ^ CN CM "i" CN cn ro CM r- [^ t^ en cn cn CN cn H H H H H O CN CM CN o o o O H H H H o o o o o due . O O o o o o o o o o o o M 1 1 1 1 1 1 T) •K tt) in CO o r- t~- 00 (O Ol rH CN r- CM cn *O J r*- c*n rH ro utt) • H O rH O H O O O rH H o o ro -^ ro rH CN tt) 40 CO O o O o o O O O O o o o o o o o o 01 d • <; tt) tl 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •K * T) rH CN VD CN vo CN •* r- ^ ^ r~ CN tn cn •It 109 d o •H 40 (ti d 40 ro H tt) 00 o CM O ro vo d M CM H H o H CM o 0 o o o o O o o o l< [Q 1 1 1 1 tt) u d 40 •rl TI d o m VD in r~ TJ 0 rH H CN O CN o 0 O O O o o tt) II II tt) •»t •X a 00 ro •K •K ro o H H H>» '* O O o "* C^ d o o o O I o » o• 44 tt) O O d •* xi tt) •K 4J ro H •* H *O VO 00 Cn-H CM H O ^ CO o d rn tt) tt) o o o o o I I d o •H 40 (ti '^ PI CM •* rH u OJ O O rH H o o o o o o 1 1 1 1 1 1 Tl tt) iH o CN o tt) o H O CM H tt) 40 CO .32 * o O o o o o ri^ tt) D 1 1 1 1 T5 CO CO cn 00 tt) o o o H tt) .1 7 H a O O O O O O I •H O 40 V d CQ Ol o tt) •It u •K (M Xi tt) tt) m CQ d tt) rH o (1) 0 4H d tt) 4H tt) rH Tl d g (ti O ft (ti o 0 CQ d rH .5 cti d (ti 40 V -H (H O 134 O 0 (ti (ti 01 EH * EH O W fe H 110 total fruits, liver, whole milk, ghee, and herbal tea. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found for cakes and pancakes, indicating that frequency of consumption of these foods was associated with younger age, There were significant positive correlation coefficients between age entered United States and the consumption frequency of rice, green salad, okra, apples, total fruits, ghee, hot tea, and herbal tea, indicating that these foods were consumed less frequently by younger subjects. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found for cakes, pancakes, tortilla, hamburger, hot dogs, flavored yogurt, ice tea, and stuffed grape leaves, indicating that these foods were consumed more frequently by younger subjects. There was a significant positive correlation coefficient between years of education and frequency of consumption of liver. A Significant negative correlation coefficient was found for education and white bread. There were significant positive correlation coefficients between length of residence and frecjuency of consumption of doughnut, muffins, pancakes, tortilla, popcorn, total breads, baked potato, beets, green beans, corn, broccoli, olives, steak, flavored yogurt, ice tea, 111 shawerma, and stuffed grape leaves. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found for pita bread, other vegetable oil, and total fats, oil, and sweets. There were significant positive correlation coefficients between income and frequency of consumption of pancakes, pizza, tortilla, broccoli, olives, ketchup and salsa, hamburger, hot dogs, ice tea, shawerma, and stuffed grape leaves. There were significant positive correlation coefficients between monthly food expenditure and frequency of consumption of tortilla, mango, frozen dinner, low-fat milk, skim milk, and chocolate milk. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found for lamb, seeds, and olive oil. There were significant positive correlation coefficients between acculturation scores and frecjuency of consumption of ready-to-eat cereals, broccoli, frozen dinner, low-fat milk, skim milk, flavored yogurt, American coffee, and ice tea. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found for rice, cherry, other chicken, and Arabic coffee. Table 13 shows the correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and overall acculturation 112 Table 13. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and acculturation scores for food by total subjects (n=42). Food Acculturation score Bread, Cereal, Rice, Sc Pasta White bread 0. 23 Brown or whole wheat bread 0. 07 Dinner rolls 0. 19 Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls 0. 003 Cakes 0. 07 Cookies 0. 27 Doughnut 0. 02 Pies 0. 26 Ready-to-eat cereals 0. 37* Muffins 0. 32* Pancakes •0 . 12 Pizza -0. 09 Tortilla 0. 33* Pita bread -0. 32* Pasta -0. 15 Rice -0.,1 1 Bulgur 0,,0 1 Popcorn -0,.1 9 Total 0 .17 Vegetables French fries 0 .01 Baked potato 0 .13 Potato chips -0 .17 Beets -0 .06 Green beans 0 .06 Carrots 0 .06 Corn -0 .07 Spinach 0 .31* Tomato -0 .10 Green salad -0 .15 Cauliflower -0 .13 Broccoli 0 .20 Eggplant 0 .37* Cucumber -0 .28 113 Table 13. Continued, Food Acculturation score Squash 0. 02 Cabbage 0. 13 Olives 0. 02 Okra 0. 06 Ketchup, salsa 0. 16 Total 0. 02 Fruits Apples 0. 16 Bananas 0. ,29 Orange 0, ,01 Orange juice 0, ,05 Peach •0 .14 Strawberries •0 .03 Watermelon •0 .32* Cantaloupe -0 .04 Mango -0 .02 Guava -0 .06 Cherry -0 .17 Grapes 0 .13 Figs -0 .02 Total -0 .14 Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry beans. Eggs, & Nuts Hamburger -0.04 Steak 0.24 Other beef 0.23 Fried chicken 0.22 Other chicken 0.07 Lamb -0.11 Fish (fresh) -0.13 Fish (canned) 0.15 Pork 0.19 Veal -0.12 Shrimp 0.11 Hot dogs 0.22 Lunch meat -0.03 114 Table 13. Continued, Food Acculturation score Frozen dinner 0. 20 Liver 0. 16 Legumes 0. 29 Eggs 0. 16 Nuts 0. 05 Peanuts 0. 07 Seeds 0. 03 Total 0. 19 Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese Whole milk 0. 03 2% milk •0. 07 Low-fat milk (1% or less) •0. 03 Skim milk 0. 14 Buttermilk 0. 15 Chocolate milk 0. 21 White cheese -0. 07 Process cheeses and spreads 0.,1 8 Cottage cheese -0,,1 8 Cheddar cheese -0,.1 5 Ice cream 0 .40** Plain yogurt -0 .07 Flavored yogurt -0 .03 Labaneh (drained yogurt) -0 .03 Total 0 .19 Fats, Oil, & Sweets Olive oil -0 .14 Other vegetable oil 0 .07 Butter 0 .08 -0 .002 Ghee 0 .23 Margarine -0 .08 Cream cheese -0 .004 Salad dressing -0 .13 Mayonnaise 0 .13 Tahini -0i.2 1 Chocolate candy Honey c1.0 1 115 Table 13. Continued. Food Acculturation score Dates 0. 13 Baklava 0. 13 Total 0. 03 Beverages Soft drinks 0. 03 Arabic coffee 0. 02 American coffee 0. 02 Hot tea •0. ,14 Ice tea 0, ,25 Herbal tea •0, .21 Beer, wine 0 .05 Total 0 .18 Arabic dishes Houmous -0 .10 Falafel 0 .01 Tabouleh -0 .22 Shawerma -0 .14 Stuffed grape leaves -0 .08 Total 0 .05 *P<0.05, P<0.01. 116 score for total subjects. Significant positive correlation coefficients were found for ready to-eat cereals, muffins, tortilla, spinach, eggplant, and ice cream. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found for pita bread and watermelon. Thus more acculturation was associated with more liking of ready-to-eat cereals, muffins, tortilla, spinach, eggplant, and ice cream while less acculturation was associated with more likely of pita bread and watermelon. 117 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION The dietary practices and food preferences of Arab students aged 20-41 years was investigated. A significant positive correlation coefficient was found between the overall acculturation scores and length of residence in the United States. The number of meals consumed per day decreased significantly while living in the United States. The main meal of day changed significantly after living in the United States. The subjects ate their meal earlier in the United States than they did in their country of origin. Despite no significant change in the frequency of snack consumption, the majority of subjects were consuming more salty and sweet snack items. No significant change was noted in the frequency of eating out, but subjects were selecting more American style-food when they did eat out because of convenience, availability, and like to try new food. A significant decrease was noted in the frequency of shopping. Subjects shopped only half as frequently in the United States as in country of origin. There were significant differences between change and not change in eating habits based on age and age entered United States. 118 The majority of subjects indicated that they thought their eating habits had changed since their arrival in the United States. Influencing factors included no time prepare Arabic foods; convenience; unavailability of Arabic foods; Arabic foods, seafood, lamb, and vegetables were more expensive in the United States while chicken and beef were cheaper in the United States; and it is hard to find halal meat in the United states. Significant decreases were noted in the consumption frequency of Arabic foods such as pita bread, bulgur, olives, guava, figs, lamb, legumes, seeds, white cheese, plain yogurt, labanah, olive oil, ghee, tahini, dates, Arabic coffee, hot tea, and Arabic dishes after living in the United States. Significant decreases were noted in common food such as green beans, tomato, cauliflower, eggplant, cucumber, squash, cabbage, okra, and total vegetables; orange, peach, watermelon, cantaloupe, mango, cherry, and grapes; fresh fish, veal, and liver since living in the United States. Significant increases were noted in the consumption frequency of American foods such as dinner rolls, hot dogs or hamburger rolls, pies, ready to eat cereals, pizza, broccoli, ketchup and salsa, orange juice, strawberries, hamburger, frozen dinner, mayonnaise, American coffee, and ice tea since living in 119 the United States. Frequency of consumption of some foods was significantly greater for women than men. Pizza, French fries, orange juice, fried chicken, steak, and ice cream were the most liked American foods among subjects. For the foods which were rated significantly different in liking by men and women, women rated the most of foods higher. 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Assoc. 94: 1153-1156. 128 APPENDIX A E-MAIL SOLICITATION 129 REQUEST FOR ARAB SUBJECTS April 17, 2002 Dear Arab student: My name is Bayan Obeidat. I am an Arab graduate student in the Food and nutrition Program at Texas Tech University. My chairperson is Dr. Helen Brittm. We want to study food practices and preferences of Arab students living in the United States. University students who were born m Arab countries, have resided in the United States at least 3 months, and are age 18 years or older are eligible to participate. We request your help in this study. The objectives of this study are to obtain information about general food habits of Arab students living in the United States, factors affecting dietary choices after living in the United States, consumption frequency of selected food items before and after living in the United States, and food preferences. Your opinions are very important. They are needed by food and nutrition professionals working with Arab students, clients, and patients to help them have diets that are enjoyable and healthy. You will be asked to fill out a questionnaire about your food practices and preferences. The questionnaire and a self-addressed stamped return envelope will be mailed to you. Completing this questionnaire will take approximately 45 minutes. The questionnaire will be mailed Wednesday, April 27, 2002. Please complete and mail the questionnaire within two weeks. Your responses will be kept confidential; only a code number will be written on the questionnaire. Your participation is entirely voluntary. You may withdraw at any time. You may refuse to answer any question. If you will participate please complete the following form and return it by email. Thank you for your time and consideration. If you have any questions, please contact me (806-745-4427, evening; bo.beidat®ttu.e<"iu) . Sincerely, Bayan Obeidat I am 18 years old or older. D Yes D No I was born in an Arab country. 0 Yes D No I have resided in the United states at least 3 months. D Yes D No I can read a questionnaire in English. D Yes D No I need a questionnaire in Arabic. D Yes D No Name: Telephone Number: Mailing Address: 130 APPENDIX B FOOD PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES QUESTIONNAIRE 131 SURVEY OF FOOD PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES OF ARAB STUDENTS UVlNe IN THE UNITED STATES Code# A survey is being conducted by the Food and Nutrition program at Texas Tech University. The objectives of this study are to obtain information about general food habits, factors affecting dietary choices, consumption frequency of selected food items, and food preferences in relation to yourself before and after living in the United States. Your opinions are very important. They are needed by food and nutrition professionals working with Arabic students, clients, and patients living in the United States to help them have diets that are enjoyable and healthy. Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You may withdraw without penalty. You may refuse to answer any question. Your responses to these questions will be kept confidential. Thank you for your time Please complete and return this questionnaire to: Bayan Obeidat/Dr.Helen Brittin College of Human Sciences Box 41162 Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX 79409-1162 132 FOOD PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES SURVEY FOOD FREQUENCY AND PREFERENCES ' "" "' Mcate how often you eat the food listed below in a day or week or month or you rarely/never eat whUe you Tf eacS' '"" """'••'^"' '"'*^'" ="" »»"'" *^ ^""^^ StatesTcheek thelrm SS^reJes y'lSg Ifftw Often Pat? «'•*!»« • ( Nuri(l)ernf times; FmidP refei dticei ; IriCimiucy ill t))elJnit e d; •• j Origin ... Sta fcs •1* 1 ^. •=s3 Fo«4 • • u •? '• ' • ^ • ^ • i •i if 15: ;* • M • E X. •,2 1 • CJ ' •»», • 3 CJ! .£• : t •;/3 -£ 5! CJ •S 1 .•^ i •« ni * :} u 'oj •• .^ •*• 2 • Q ] • ft- .« Di.sUk e Vti y Muc h i ;.5: 5 • 3 • CC EXAMl'l.E; \\l)ite bread :— :7 •: ,V •/ ;j ; ; iBread, Cereal, Rice, & Tasla ':l:: h^ While bruad 0£-J't 'T<-i>- Brown or whole wheat hread^yVp^jij. Dinner rolls (Jtyjjj _j^ 1 £.\^ i <^ Hotdogs or hamburger rolls_y^^^_>\* Cakes Q/\S' Cookies ^j^ ,^_^^ GJ*/ Doughnut^.^AASs 0_>1^ <=>1JIJ' Pies crjT^ a_v«i"^ Ready-to-eat cereals Os«^ j ?».> o>^ljy Muffins Pancakes'.»>lilii,<^,.._^ i'f^eptafe;::;;••.-V, ..,,:!;,, :: • French fries =4Xs O'^^Lt," ^1^-^ Backed potato -i^^Jz^ ew> lij Potato chips \A>02Ji O-J..^-^ Beets _''->• i '"•' Green beans >2/-i£i \J_5..« U> 133 'yf'i^^- ' •"• •••'•'i^. ;:: (Nuic}>er of times) f uDcl Pre]fere.aces 111 Cfluiitrv Of 1 til the United ; .Sialen : 1 • '^' —* • • '^^\ p u ,.,.| • •! QJ ' 1- 1 •S t ..F«o*l •••'": ^:i;|iy:i:;;;,;;::,:;,:: - >-3 4^ 2- •.y O 1 -J. 55 H •: Ij '^ 1 >;• >> .-5 ii •iji ^ ; £ Pi •A. 3; a! a Carrots ^?_i-=> ..9 Com JJ J ^ Spinach 'g^\. ... Tomato fJ=[J>/ oj_s>S^ Green salad Al/-6iv <^i_^ Cauliflower ;.FrUitsV::-:-i-:^-';'- ^--•: •••••:::•:••:«••;•:•;:••.•;.•;••.•;; • • ::::••: Apples tXj^ Bananas Jj-* Orange dlijy. Orange juice c^^^*L->! .--C-vs^ Peach C3\^j> Strawberries 5Li_5^_)i Watermelon ^y-'^'\ _sij Cantaloupe _^i.,o'\ plj/^l.4-ij Mango V^ Lo Guava 134 '•'''•'HwOfieii:Eat? ^ :;:CNiTOberi^rtljlies) FfuKl Pretereaces i 111 Couatrj' oi^; In theOniteil • Oriiiln States 4J U. Ol J3 •:•• : 1 E •a '5 • •ij >£•• 3 > :J3. • c •a OJ • •5' •• •'• • |. ••; : .Stilk,; Ypeurt,' ifeiiCheese' .;..;;. • Whole milk (ft--^\ J- l/c.>4i^ 2% milk 5^i—^_.A^ i>i^ <_4^ Low-fat milk (1% or \ess)fj^^c.^ Skimmilk r*—^.>)\ ciU-c.-'J-p Buttermilk (>J) ^ oLlf Chocolate milk cj^^-i c_»4.&- White cheese i ULo 4-L..^ Process cheeses and spreads *)^<:fc./s Cottage cheese Cheddar chee5^asSJ5iiirt/>i>-*i^\ Ice cream ^-^ '->*^ "^ Plain yogurt cSjjVi. t>J Flavored yogurt «=Jj^l, ^Ai. o^ 1 135 ' Mow dftfenlatl?' (Number uf times) : Po"d l*refcrences ' lii In Country of lutheO iiited- , j' •; 1 ,'M Origin Stat cs . .. . ;ii i 'm -a •• Nii^ • •« 5; a.' • ->.; 5" 75 - -J. f b .£' -f .2? ' . ; FotiJ • • V . /M. ..V. ^ ' O Vl ---4 , r: ^ -jy •• ^ W Oi • .5 :t s .f..^ .,© .;f: : ^ • pj p ;p P Oc •• Neithop - Lik e No r Hislik 1 Ubaneh J_J.U C>J / a^i^ Other c_SyvA \ |ps,;Otls;&Syv#ts; .;;'. • / Olive oil *--L3^_3 r-» ; Other vegetable oil t^( -"^U. O^^' Butter 4J Vy.£. o_>-J^ Ghee c3jij G^—^ Margarine ^-vJVJj o>)^ Cream cheese 6>iii; / ri>riy'=Cj' Salad dressing Mayonnaise ^j^^Va Tahini d_;..^.js%i> Chocolate candy «i3j)-S^s-iJV; <3_;A.£> 1 Honey ci—.^.t Dates ^ /_y^^ Baklava 2)_3_>di Other <—t^ ^ ^::-::::;. ipevera-ges;' • •: .• v:' v';;'.'; Ill^ 111 •. .•••• • ,' ••" Soft drinks (i.e. cola) "^^U. t3V.^/-^ j^rabic coffee ^Vi/^ ^L?-v-® American coffee >=>jr^ ( '?_rv-' Hot tea C>i>^ ^ <3Li^ Ice tea s>Lilo c^ ^ '"•' Herbal tea ^J \_-ij. '\ <5 ^-i- Beer, wine =\>i ^^Cj^jtjr^^'-^ Other 136 GENERAL FOOD HABITS AND FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD CHOICE Please fiU in the informaUon requested. Check the answer that best indicates your response. 1. How many meals do you consume in a typical day? (excluding snacks) In your country In the USA_ 2. If you skip meals, which meal is the most commonly skipped? In your country of origin In the United States 0 Breakfast 0 Lunch D Dinner Q Breakfast D Lunch D Dinner 3. What is your main meal? In your country of origin In the United States D Lunch D Dinner D Varies D Lunch D Dinner D Varies 4. Usually at vAxat time do you eat your meals? In your country of origin In tlie United States Breakfest: ^morning Breakfast: ^morning Lunch; afternoon Lunch: afternoon Dinner: evening Dinner: evening 5. What type of meal do you usually eat at breakfest since migrating to U.S? D j^abic meal 0 American meal D Both 6. What type of meal do you usually eat at lunch since migrating to U.S? D Arabic meal D American meal D Both 7. What type of meal do you usually eat at dinner since migrating to U.S? D Arabic meal D American meal D Both 8. What fats are used for cooking /serving food in your home? (check all that apply) In country of origin: D Olive oil D Vegetable oil • Butter D Shortening D Ghee D Other (specify): In the United States; D Olive oil D Vegetable oil D Butter D Shortening D Margarine D Other (specify):_ 9. What herbs and spices are commonly used for cooking in your home in the U.S? (check all that apply) D Allspice D Black pepper D Cinnamon DGarUc OMint D Nutmeg D Oregano D Other (specify): 10. In your opinion, which type of meals are more economical to prepare? D Arabic meals D American meals D Both are the same 11. Are you consuming more Western/American dishes (e.g., steak, pizza, hamburger, hotdogs) since migrating to U.S.? a Yes DNo If your answer is yes, Why? 0 Availabilify D Convenience D Preference D Like to try new foods D Other (specify) __ 12. Do you eat snacks between meals? In your country of origin D yes D No In the United States • Yes • No If your answer is yes, how often? If your answer is j'es, how often? times/day or times/week times/day or times/week If your answer is yes, what snack items? If your answer is yes, what snack items? (check all that apply) (check all that apply) • Potato chips • Cookies • Crackers D Potato chips 0 Cookies D Crackers D Chocolate candy D Ice cream 0 Fruits D Chocolate candy Dice cream • Fruits D Fruit juice D Soft drinks D Coffee • Fruitjuice •Softdrinks • Coffee • Other (specify); . • Other (specify); 137 What kinds of foods did you eat? (check all that apply) • Arabic food Q American food • Chinese food • Indian food D Mexican food • Other (specify): 14. On average, how often do you eat out at restaurants or fast food places in the United States? tunes/week or times/month or times/year What kinds of foods do you eat? (check all that apply) Q Arabic food • j\merican food • Chinese food D Indian food D Mexican food • Other (specify): 15. When you wert living in your country, who was responsible for food preparation in your home' • You D Mother DWife • Husband • Other (specify): 16. In tiieU.S . who is responsible for food preparation in your home? • You •Mother DWife • Husband • Other (specify): 17. How often did you shop for food in your country of origin? times/day or times/week 18. How often do you shop for food in the United States? times/day or timesAveek 19. Where do you buy most of your food? • Arabian supermarket • ji^erican supermarket 20. In your country of origin, did you avoid eating certain foods in because of religious beliefs? • Yes • No If your answer is yes, what foods did you avoid? Have you maintained this religious dietary regulation in the U.S.? • Yes • No 21. Do you consume the food generally served in the U.S. on the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays? • Yes DNo 22. What do you feel about your overall diet in the U.S. compared with in coimtry of origin? • More healthy • Less healthy • Just as healthy as in my country Why? 23. Have your eating habits changed since you arrived in the United States? • Yes • No If your answer is yes, what are important factors that caused these changes? (check all that apply) • No time to prepare traditional foods; American foods are quicker and easier to prepare. • It is easier and more convenient to shop for American foods than for j^ab foods. D Some Arab foods are not available or are hard to find in the U.S. • Arabic foods are available but poor qualify. • Arabic foods are more expensive in the U.S. • I do not know how to cooL • Seafood, lamb, and vegetables are more expensive in the United States than in Arab countries. • Chicken and beef are cheaper in the U.S, so I eat more chicken and beef in the U.S. • 1 drink more milk in the United States because it is cheaper. • The qualify of some foods, such as beef, milk, ice cream, and candy, is better in U.S. than in Arab countries. 138 • Exposure to nutrition related information e.g., nutrition class, TV. • It is hard to find halal meat in the U.S. • Other (specify) GENERAL INFORMATION Please All in the information requested. Check the answer that best indicates your opinion. 1. Age: years 2. Sex; • Male • Female 3. Weight kg or ^Ib 4. Height: cm or ft ^inch 5. Coimtry of origin; 6. Residence in the U.S.; State Cify 7. Age entered United States: years 8. Marital Status; • Single • Married • Widowed • Divorced/Separated If your answer is married, spouse is from: • Arab country OU.S. • Other (specify): 9. Education (years of school and college completed): years 10. Length of residence in the United States: years ^months 11. Employed: • Full-time DPart-time •Unemployed 12. Religion: • Islam D Christianify • Judaism • Other (specify) ^ 13. Did you usually fast during Ramadan in your home country? • Yes • No 14. Did you fast during Ramadan in 2001? • Yes • No 15. Degree of adherence to rehgious dietary practices in the United States: • Always • Almost always • Usually • Seldom • Never 16.DoyoulivealoneorwithyDurfamify/friend(s)intheUSA?DAlone •Withfamity • With friend(s) If your answer is live with family, number of people in family: 17. Amiual income before taxes (for you if hve alone or with friend; for famifyif live with famify): $ 18. Average monthly food expenditure per person; $ 19. Were you on a special diet in the country of origin? • Yes • No If your answer is yes, why were you on a special diet? • Weight loss diet • Vegetarian • For medical condition • Other (specify)__ 139 20. Aie you on a special diet in the U.S.? • Yes • No If your answer is yes, why are you on a special dief? • Weight loss diet •Vegetarian • For medical condition • Other (specify). 21. Do you have any type of chronic disease? • Yes • No If your answer is yes, what type? • Diabetes • Heart disease •Cancer DOther (specify) 22. Have you lost or gained more than 5 pounds since migrating to the United States? •Yes • No If your answer is yes, • Lost 5-15 pounds • Lost 16-25 pounds • Lost over 25 pounds Q Gained 5-15 pounds • Gained 16-25 pounds • Gained over 25 pounds If your answer is gained weight, why do think you gained weight? • Food in the United States is fattening and makes one gain. • The United States life sfyle (eating more and sleeping well, little physical activify) leads to weight gain. • Other (specify) ^ 23. Are you currently taking any vitamin or mineral supplements? (e.g., vitamin A, vitamin C, Zinc) • Yes, fairly regularly • Yes, but not regularly • No If your answer is yes, please hst the kinds and the amounts: ^ For the following questions (1-9), use the scale below and circle the letter which best describes your response. Onfy Arabic Arabic more than Both Equally English/American Only English English More than Arabic (American) A B C D E 1 In general, what language(s) do you read? A B C D E 2 In general, what language(s) do you speak? A B C D E 3 In general, what language(s) do you think in? A B C D E 4 What newspapers do you usualfy read? A B C D E 5 Your close friends are: A B C D E 6 If you choose a family doctor or other health professionals, whom do you prefer? A B C D E 7 What kinds of food do you prefer? A B C D E 8 What do you usually eat at home? A B C D E 9 What is/are your favorite restaurant(s)7 A B C •^ E THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR COOPERATION 140 PERMISSION TO COPY In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master's degree at Texas Tech University or Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, I agree that the Library and my major department shall make it freely available for research purposes. Permission to copy this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Du-ector of the Library or my major professor. It is understood that any copying or publication of this thesis for financial gam shall not be allowed without my further written permission and that any user may be liable for copyright infi-ingement. Agree (Permission is granted.) Disagree (Permission is not granted.) Student Signature Date