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Honors Theses Undergraduate Research
2014
The Diversity of Color: an Analysis of Cross-cultural Color Symbolism
Erica L. Bradfield
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Running Head: THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 1
J. N. Andrews Honors Program Andrews University
HONS 497 Honors Thesis
The Diversity of Color: An Analysis of Cross-Cultural Color Symbolism
Erica L. Bradfield 31 March 2014
Advisor: Øystein LaBianca Department: Behavioral Sciences
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 2
Abstract
Does a person’s perception of color symbolism depend on their cultural geographic origin?
As color is often connected to different cultural elements, this study is intended as a contribution to advancing cross-cultural understanding in a globalizing world. The hypothesis states that the color perceived to be symbolic of various life events such as weddings, births, and deaths as well as emotions such as happiness or sadness, will vary based on a person’s cultural geographic origin. Using eleven basic color terms, as determined by Berlin and Kay (1969), subjects’ perceptions of color symbolism was explored through responses to an online survey shared with a global convenience sample.
The findings have shown a dependence on the construct to which color symbolism is being attributed. Data was found to both support and refute this hypothesis. In the constructs of contempt, disgust, happiness, birth and wealth, the hypothesis was supported while it was refuted through the data collected for anger, sadness, fear, surprise, death, weddings, divorce, poverty, work, education. THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 3
The Diversity of Color: An Analysis of Cross-Cultural Color Symbolism
Does color symbolism differ in regards to cultural geographic origin? The iconic images that first come to mind are often synonymous with the colors which are found to be important in your culture. According to the Institute of Color Research, “all human beings make an unconscious judgment about a person, environment, or item within ninety seconds of initial viewing and that between 62 percent and 90 percent of that assessment is based on color alone” (cited in Morioka & Stone, 2006). While many people may not be explicitly aware of the symbolism they attach to a color, decisions or perceptions are often influenced based on the presence of color.
Color bears meaning in many ways including natural meanings (i.e. sky or grass), commercial significance (i.e. Nikon or John Deere), informational signals (i.e. caution, stop, or go), or emotional connections (i.e. anger or happiness). “More than just a visual phenomenon, color has emotional and cultural dimensions that can enhance – or impede – communication efforts” (Morioka & Stone, 2006). As an enhanced understanding of the cultural significance of colors can increase our understanding and communication cross- culturally, the purpose of this study was to better understand how various cultures react to eleven basic color terms.
Literature Review
A 1969 study by Berlin and Kay discussed the usage of color names in various languages worldwide. Their findings stated that every language has a word for both black and white. A third color term, if it exists in the language, is always red. The forth and fifth terms interchangeably are green or yellow with the sixth being blue and the seventh THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 4 brown. After brown, each language will include pink, orange, purple, and grey in varying orders. These eleven colors were the colors utilized in the present study.
While there are numerous studies done in Western Societies on color, few were found that deal with colors across multiple cultures. Some informal charts on cultural color symbolism can be found on the Internet providing a basis on which to begin the present study (Scott-Kemmis, n.d.; Kyrnin, 2008). Several studies link to color symbolism through their research of color usage in flags (Bernhard, 2011; Podeh, 2011; R.F., 2006). As flags are a symbol of national identity, the colors used also bear cultural meaning. Three articles were found on the topic of color symbolism in direct relation to culture. In Chinascope, the author writes about popular colors used in Chinese culture and their meanings to the people of China (Colors in Chinese Culture, 2007). A more extensive study done by Jingyi, looked at the official colors of each empire throughout Chinese history (Jingyi, 2012). An article in Military Review, First Sergent António Rodrigues of the Portuguese Army, discusses the importance of colors and their symbolism and roots among Islamic Cultures
(Rodrigues, 2008).
From a psychological standpoint, colors can elicit an emotional response and therefore represent feelings or major life events (Karp & Karp, 1988; Zentner, 2001). A study by Burkitt, Barrett and Davis found that children used their preferred colors when describing positive stimuli and their least preferred colors when describing negative stimuli, with black being the most frequently associated with negativity (Burkitt, Barrett, &
Davis, 2003). Karp and Karp studied the color symbolism responses of children to emotional and non-emotional stimuli. They found that while the color responses to THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 5 emotions were consistent between the boys and girls, responses to the non-emotional stimuli varied between the two genders (Karp & Karp, 1988).
According to Paul Ekman in Emotions Revealed, humans have seven basic emotions – happiness, anger, contempt, disgust, sadness, fear, and surprise (Griffiths, 2003). Birth, weddings, divorce, wealth, poverty, work, education, and death have been chosen by the researcher as indicative of basic life events present in most cultures. This study uses these seven emotions and eight basic life events in order to provide the basic constructs to which colors can be attributed.
Methodology
The hypothesis under investigation states that the color perceived to be symbolic of each element of human life, represented in this study by events such as weddings, births, and deaths, and emotions such as happiness and sadness, will vary based on the cultural geographic origin of an individual.
The dependent variable, color symbolism, is defined as the quality of hue, saturation, and brightness of an object as used for or regarded as representing elements of human life such as emotions and major life events (www.dictionary.com). The independent variable, cultural geographic origin, is defined as the beliefs, customs, arts, etc., of a particular society, group, place, or time as belonging to or characteristic of a particular region from which a person originates (www.merriam-webster.com).
Data for this study was gathered in a short online survey hosted on www.cognopod.com. Participants were asked to indicate which color they associate with each construct listed in the survey. The colors listed in the survey were the eleven basic color terms found in Berlin & Kay’s study on color names in various languages (Berlin & THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 6
Kay, 1969). In order to explore the relationship between the variables, minimal biographical information was requested (i.e. age, country of birth, cultural identity, places they have lived) as the independent variable.
Color symbolism was measured by asking the participants to indicate which one of the eleven colors (black, white, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, pink, orange, grey, and purple) they deemed to be representative of the construct of human life listed in the question. Each question stated, “what color do you primarily associate with” followed by one of the fifteen constructs (happiness, anger, contempt, disgust, sadness, fear, surprise, birth, weddings, divorce, wealth, poverty, work, education, and death). The responses to these questions determined what color each cultural group primarily deemed to be symbolic of that construct.
The independent variable, cultural geographic origin, was informed by participants’ answers to biographical questions such as cultural background, places they have lived, age, gender, country of birth, and the culture to which they most strongly associate. Cultural origin was determined by response to the following question: “the culture to which you most strongly associate is in which geographical region?”
The convenience sample consisted of voluntary participants both at Andrews
University and at other locations globally. Participants at Andrews University were recruited through social media, word of mouth, and the Department of Behavioral Sciences research pool. Other participants were similarly recruited through social media, word of mouth, and at the request of personal contacts in Africa, Europe, Australia, and North and
South America. Any participants who were above the age of legal consent were accepted in THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 7 the study. Participants were asked to indicate their consent and that they were of legal age to participate.
In order to maximize validity the researcher sought to obtain as large a sample size as possible through continuous recruitment. To avoid bias, participants were provided with the same eleven colors in a randomized order for each construct. Biographical information collected allowed the researcher to categorize the participant’s cultural geographic origin in order to determine the culture to which their views of color symbolism can be attributed.
Once collected, the data was organized into tables. The columns in each table list the eleven colors while the rows list the cultural regions. Each construct was represented in a separate table. These tables allowed the researcher to analyze the answers to each construct and compare the frequency of responses of each color by group of cultural geographic origin. A chi squared statistical approach, as a measurement of how expectations compare to results, with a Monte Carlo Simulation (to correct for cells with less than five responses), was used to measure the relationship between the dependent variable, color symbolism, and the independent variable, cultural geographic origin.
Subject risk was minimal as subjects simply filled out an online survey at their convenience. Information gathered did not include any sensitive information. The data gathered can only be reached by entering a username and password held by the researcher and the research administrator, Dr. Karl Bailey. Participants were recruited between
January 2014 and March 2014. Participants were not asked any identifying characteristics, aside from age and gender. Each data entry is differentiated by a specific date and time stamp recorded at the survey’s submission. THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 8
Results
A total of 465 people across 14 geographical zones participated in the online survey.
Table 1 shows the distribution of participants’ geographical origins. As participants were not specifically selected based on geographical area, an uneven distribution is seen between the geographical regions. No participants stated their geographical origins to be
Northern Africa, Central Africa, Middle East (Western Asia), or Russia – Asia.
Table 1: Participants by Region North America 312 Eastern Africa 6 Central America 10 Western Africa 4 South America 16 Southern Africa 48 Northern Europe 11 Southern Asia 4 Eastern Europe 2 Southeastern Asia 4 Western Europe 23 Eastern Asia 9 Oceania 14 Central Asia 2 N: 465
A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relationship between color symbolism and culture. A p value of less than 0.05 indicated a statistical significance. The relationship between the variables was sometimes found to be significant and sometimes insignificant, depending on the construct involved.
Ten constructs were found to be statistically insignificant, as shown in Table 2: anger, sadness, fear, surprise, death, weddings, divorce, poverty, work, and education.
Therefore these ten constructs did not support the hypothesis of color symbolism being related to a person’s cultural geographic origin.
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 9
Table 2: Statistically Insignificant Findings Χ2 p Χ2 p
Anger 113.87 0.21 Weddings 125.68 0.10 Sadness 145.03 0.29 Divorce 134.17 0.39 Fear 122.79 0.54 Poverty 145.31 0.20 Surprise 92.36 0.62 Work 158.20 0.12 Death 135.16 0.16 Education 130.21 0.24
The remaining five constructs were found to be statistically significant, as shown in
Table 3: contempt, disgust, happiness, birth, and wealth. These constructs did indicate a color symbolism based on the participants’ geographical origins. Complete tables of the responses to each construct can be found in the appendix.
Table 3: Statistically Significant Findings Χ2 p
Contempt 235.65 < 0.01 Disgust 250.97 < 0.01 Happiness 139.64 0.02 Birth 414.00 < 0.01 Wealth 237.81 < 0.01
Discussion
The five constructs which were found to be culturally significant – contempt, disgust, happiness, birth, and wealth – all exhibit characteristics of being culturally dependent. As these are things which vary in expression from culture to culture, it is understandable that the symbolism attributed to them will also vary based on culture.
Wealth, for example, is relevant to the culture in which a person resides. In a North
American culture, a large house and a plethora of expensive possessions may represent wealth. In a Western African society wealth may be symbolized by the possession of many THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 10 cows. This difference in how wealth is viewed may be why different colors are attributed to it based on how that culture sees the topic. Each of these five constructs may differ in this way based on societal and cultural norms of the individual. From an emotional standpoint, a culture which is more reserved about showing emotions may have a more subdued or negative perception to the symbolism attributed to these emotions. In cultures where emotions are freely displayed, perceptions of color may change accordingly.
The reasons for some constructs being found to be statistically irrelevant could be many and varied. As the field of color research expands, there is a growing volume, whether in scientific research or in trends among social media, of suggestions for what various colors should be attributed to. Therefore, responses to the constructs of anger, sadness, fear, death, and weddings may be influenced by these cultural trends (i.e. I have heard that anger should be red, so I will answer red). This might also be attributed to the growing influence of the Internet, the entertainment industry, and the ease of sharing information between cultures, thereby creating a more uniform response.
The construct of poverty may be inherently the same throughout various cultures because of the realities of what people see in the world. 49% of the respondents, associated poverty with brown, 11% selected black, and 30% grey. As poverty is generally portrayed as dirty, dusty, or muddy no matter where you go, people may connect this to these earth tones, regardless of their cultural affiliations.
Events such as divorce are generally seen as a negative and therefore can be related to sadness, anger, and general malaise. It is understandable then that the color symbolism attributed to it is related to the responses of sadness and anger. The colors of black, grey, THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 11 and red, all also attributed to sadness, and anger, comprised 75% of the responses to divorce.
Limitations
A total of 67% of the participants in this study were of North American Origins, therefore it is understandable that the results of this study are influenced by that overwhelming majority. Shared ideas and influences between cultures may also be responsible for this presence of similarity among cultures.
Many of the constructs which are less obvious in their color connections (such as birth, divorce, wealth, poverty, work, and education) may have been influenced by the uncertainty of the respondent. In future research, a “no color connection” response should be added to the list of eleven colors so that participants are not forced to make an arbitrary choice when they truly have no preference.
A complication faced in this study was that of individuals who are influenced by multiple cultures. In a growing global society, more and more people are being exposed to different cultures, whether through the Internet, television, and other media, or first hand through travel or living in various cultures. Historically, culture would have been a distinct and unique experiences as the travel and information industries were much more difficult to access. With today’s increased access to information through technology, cultural lines are becoming blurred as individuals are more and more able to choose where they want to live and to which culture they want to assimilate. This influences people’s perceptions of symbolism through their exposure to ‘foreign’ ideas and acceptance of a more global portrayal. Further research may benefit by studying those individuals who have not been exposed to cultures apart from their own. THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 12
Future Research
A better distribution among the cultural origins of the participants could have greatly benefitted the outcome of the study. Literature reviewed before gathering data discussed some color usage differences among Eastern Asian and Indian societies that were not shown in this research simply because of a lack of respondents. Literature repeatedly showed white to be a color of mourning among Asian cultures and Red to be both a lucky color and a wedding color among Indian and Asian societies. Further research would benefit by ensuring that a more even distribution of cultures, specifically among oriental and Indian populations, are included.
The findings of this study have showed a dependence on the construct to which color symbolism is being attributed. The hypothesis stated that the color perceived to be symbolic of each element of human life, represented in this study by events such as weddings, births, and deaths, and emotions such as happiness and sadness, will vary based on the cultural geographic origin of an individual. The data in the present study was found to both support and refute this hypothesis. In the constructs of contempt, disgust, happiness, birth and wealth, the hypothesis was supported while it was refuted through the data collected for anger, sadness, fear, surprise, death, weddings, divorce, poverty, work, education. More extensive future research is needed to further explore this subject. THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 13
References
Berlin, B., & Kay, P. (1969). Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley,
California: University of California Press.
Bernhard, J. (2011). Three Cheers for Red, White, and Blue. Phi Kappa Phi Forum , 91 (2),
16-18.
Burkitt, E., Barrett, M., & Davis, A. (2003). Children's Colour Choices for Completing
Drawing of Affectively Characterized Topics. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines , 44 (3), 445-455.
Colors in Chinese Culture. (2007). Chinascope , 30-31.
Griffiths, P. (2003). Smile, and the Whole World Smiles With You. New Scientist , 178
(2400), 56.
Jingyi, G. (2012). Official Colors of Chinese Regimes: A Panchronic Philological Study with
Historical Accounts of China. Trames: A Journal of the Humanities & Social Sciences ,
16 (3), 237-285.
Karp, E., & Karp, H. (1988). Color Associations of Male and Female Fourth-Grade School
Children. The Journal of Psychology , 122 (4), 383-388.
Kyrnin, J. (2008). Visual Color Symbolism Chart by Culture: What Different Colors Mean in
Different Cultures. Retrieved from webdesign.about.com:
http://webdesign.about.com/od/colorcharts/l/bl_colorculture.htm
Morioka, A., & Stone, T. (2006). Color Design Workbook. Beverly, Massachusetts: Rockport
Publishers. THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 14
Podeh, E. (2011). The Symbolism of the Arab Flag in Mmodern Arab States: Between
Commonality and Uniqueness. Nations & Nationalism , 17 (2), 419-442.
R.F., W. (2006). The Green Flags. Civil War Times , 45 (8), 31.
Rodrigues, A. (2008). Islam and Symbolism. Military Review , 88 (3), 106-114.
Scott-Kemmis, J. (n.d.). Cultural Color: Cultural Meanings of Color & Color Symbolism.
Retrieved from Empower Yourself With Color Psychology: www.empower-yourself-
with-color-psychology.com/cultural-color.html
Zentner, M. (2001). Preferences for Colours and Colour-Emotion Combinations in Early
Childhood. Developmental Science , 4 (4), 389-398.
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Appendix: Participant Response Counts Based on Geographical Origin
Anger Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 16 0 275 0 4 1 3 0 7 3 3 C. America 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 S. America 1 0 10 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 N. Europe 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Europe 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 0 0 20 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 S. Africa 5 0 37 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 3 E. Africa 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Africa 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Oceania 2 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S. Asia 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 1 0 7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 C. Asia 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 25 0 402 0 6 3 6 0 10 6 7
Contempt Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 51 4 90 16 38 15 18 3 21 32 24 C. America 1 1 3 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 1 S. America 1 2 1 0 1 2 3 3 2 1 0 N. Europe 0 0 3 0 4 0 0 1 0 2 1 E. Europe 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 4 0 3 2 6 1 1 0 1 3 2 S. Africa 6 4 6 3 3 2 4 0 2 8 10 E. Africa 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 W. Africa 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Oceania 1 0 4 1 4 0 2 0 0 2 0 S. Asia 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 E. Asia 1 1 1 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 C. Asia 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 67 15 112 26 58 27 31 10 30 50 39
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 16
Disgust Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 24 0 17 15 72 1 114 4 6 30 29 C. America 1 0 0 1 4 0 3 1 0 0 0 S. America 3 0 1 1 2 0 7 0 0 1 1 N. Europe 2 0 0 0 4 1 3 1 0 0 0 E. Europe 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 2 0 3 4 2 0 6 0 0 1 5 S. Africa 6 0 5 6 4 0 19 0 0 1 7 E. Africa 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 W. Africa 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 Oceania 0 0 0 2 2 0 6 0 0 1 3 S. Asia 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 E. Asia 0 0 0 1 2 0 3 0 1 0 2 C. Asia 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 TOTALS 38 0 27 32 97 3 169 9 8 34 48
Sadness Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 38 0 4 2 3 134 15 2 2 1 111 C. America 2 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 S. America 7 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 5 N. Europe 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 E. Europe 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 6 0 0 1 0 6 1 0 1 0 8 S. Africa 9 1 0 2 0 8 1 2 2 0 23 E. Africa 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 W. Africa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 Oceania 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 9 S. Asia 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 SE. Asia 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 E. Asia 2 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 1 C. Asia 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 70 1 5 6 3 175 19 4 8 1 173
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 17
Happiness Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 0 4 6 194 28 28 0 24 6 22 0 C. America 0 0 0 9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 S. America 0 3 1 6 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 N. Europe 0 0 0 8 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 E. Europe 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 0 0 1 10 3 2 0 3 2 2 0 S. Africa 0 3 2 19 4 12 0 4 1 3 0 E. Africa 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Africa 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oceania 0 1 0 9 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 S. Asia 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 3 0 2 0 C. Asia 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 TOTALS 0 12 14 272 41 49 0 38 9 30 0
Fear Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 110 16 62 26 10 10 6 2 11 23 36 C. America 4 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 S. America 8 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 N. Europe 3 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 E. Europe 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 8 2 3 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 4 S. Africa 20 1 8 5 0 1 2 0 1 4 6 E. Africa 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 W. Africa 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Oceania 5 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 5 S. Asia 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 SE. Asia 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 4 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 C. Asia 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 TOTALS 169 25 92 34 14 14 9 2 20 30 56
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 18
Surprise Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 1 8 43 121 11 10 0 45 10 63 0 C. America 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 S. America 0 0 1 4 1 1 0 5 0 4 0 N. Europe 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 E. Europe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 W. Europe 0 0 1 9 1 3 0 2 0 7 0 S. Africa 1 1 6 14 2 3 0 12 2 7 0 E. Africa 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 W. Africa 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 Oceania 0 1 0 4 0 2 0 2 2 3 0 S. Asia 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 SE. Asia 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 E. Asia 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 C. Asia 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 TOTALS 2 10 56 172 16 19 0 78 15 97 0
Death Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 286 5 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 15 C. America 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S. America 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N. Europe 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 E. Europe 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 W. Europe 20 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 S. Africa 38 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 5 E. Africa 5 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Africa 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oceania 12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 S. Asia 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 SE. Asia 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 C. Asia 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 417 9 1 2 0 1 4 0 4 0 27
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 19
Birth Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 0 36 42 16 7 35 0 168 4 2 2 C. America 0 0 3 1 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 S. America 0 4 1 6 1 1 0 3 0 0 0 N. Europe 0 3 0 2 1 1 0 4 0 0 0 E. Europe 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 W. Europe 0 4 3 3 3 2 0 8 0 0 0 S. Africa 1 11 6 2 6 6 0 15 1 0 0 E. Africa 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 W. Africa 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 Oceania 0 4 3 1 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 S. Asia 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 E. Asia 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 C. Asia 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 1 66 61 38 18 51 1 217 5 4 3
Weddings Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 0 298 3 1 1 2 0 5 2 0 0 C. America 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S. America 0 14 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 N. Europe 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Europe 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 0 20 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 S. Africa 0 43 0 1 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 E. Africa 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Africa 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oceania 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S. Asia 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 0 7 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 C. Asia 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 TOTALS 0 434 8 5 3 2 0 8 5 0 0
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 20
Divorce Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 126 4 46 5 7 18 24 2 7 2 71 C. America 5 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 S. America 5 1 4 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 4 N. Europe 2 2 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 2 E. Europe 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 W. Europe 10 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 1 6 S. Africa 18 2 5 2 2 0 3 1 3 3 9 E. Africa 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 3 W. Africa 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Oceania 4 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 S. Asia 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 SE. Asia 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 E. Asia 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 C. Asia 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 TOTALS 175 11 66 9 12 22 36 3 15 8 108
Wealth Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 14 16 14 38 130 17 3 0 78 0 2 C. America 1 1 0 1 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 S. America 0 2 0 8 2 1 0 0 2 1 0 N. Europe 0 0 1 5 3 0 0 1 0 0 1 E. Europe 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 1 0 2 4 3 3 2 0 6 1 1 S. Africa 5 3 1 3 11 3 0 0 18 3 1 E. Africa 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 W. Africa 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 Oceania 0 1 1 4 5 2 0 0 1 0 0 S. Asia 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 SE. Asia 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 0 1 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 C. Asia 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 22 25 24 67 173 27 5 3 108 6 5
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 21
Poverty Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 31 1 7 2 3 2 152 0 2 9 103 C. America 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 3 S. America 1 0 1 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 2 N. Europe 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 3 E. Europe 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 W. Europe 3 1 1 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 8 S. Africa 8 1 1 1 0 1 23 0 0 1 12 E. Africa 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 W. Africa 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 Oceania 1 1 1 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 3 S. Asia 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 SE. Asia 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 2 0 0 1 0 1 3 0 0 0 2 C. Asia 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 53 5 11 4 4 5 229 0 3 10 141
Work Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 18 19 15 18 45 75 43 1 9 6 63 C. America 3 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 3 S. America 2 1 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 2 4 N. Europe 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 3 E. Europe 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 W. Europe 2 1 3 0 2 6 3 0 0 1 5 S. Africa 8 3 4 1 9 8 2 0 1 2 10 E. Africa 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 1 W. Africa 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Oceania 3 0 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 3 S. Asia 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 SE. Asia 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 E. Asia 0 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 3 C. Asia 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 37 29 25 23 66 105 54 1 14 13 98
THE DIVERSITY OF COLOR 22
Education Black White Red Yellow Green Blue Brown Pink Purple Orange Grey N. America 14 18 15 17 80 127 14 0 13 8 6 C. America 0 2 1 2 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 S. America 1 2 1 2 3 7 0 0 0 0 0 N. Europe 1 0 1 0 3 4 1 0 1 0 0 E. Europe 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 W. Europe 0 1 0 0 10 11 1 0 0 0 0 S. Africa 2 5 3 3 10 18 3 0 2 1 1 E. Africa 0 1 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 W. Africa 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oceania 2 0 1 1 2 6 0 0 1 1 0 S. Asia 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 SE. Asia 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 E. Asia 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 0 C. Asia 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 22 33 23 28 120 183 19 0 18 12 7