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Journal of International Women's Studies Volume 21 Issue 5 Women as Enablers of Change Article 7 August 2020 Enrolment of Women in Higher Education: A Comparative Study on Women's Equity in Governance and Employment Status in India Anita C. D. Ravindran Follow this and additional works at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws Part of the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation C., Anita and Ravindran, D. (2020). Enrolment of Women in Higher Education: A Comparative Study on Women's Equity in Governance and Employment Status in India. Journal of International Women's Studies, 21(5), 65-78. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol21/iss5/7 This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2020 Journal of International Women’s Studies. Enrolment of Women in Higher Education: A Comparative Study on Women's Equity in Governance and Employment Status in India By Anita C.1 and D. Ravindran2 Abstract Many research studies, globally, suggest that a rise in the rates of higher education of women enhances their living standards and decision-making powers. Education has served as a powerful tool for empowering women. Having higher women’s representation in governance should enable the empowerment of women. The Gross Enrolment Ratio [GER] of Indian women has shown a steady rise in the past two decades. The GER of women has surpassed men in the age group of 18 to 23 in the year 2018-2019 (All India Survey of Higher Education [AISHE] Reports, 2019). In the year 2019, only 48.20 % of the Indian population are women. India shows a negative trend concerning women entering the workforce despite their increasing literacy rate and GER of women in higher education. In the Indian parliament, only 14.36 % of elected representatives in the lower house (The Lok Sabha) are women in the year 2020 (www.loksabha.nic.in). These statistics raise an important question on whether the efforts taken to empower women are yielding the intended results in terms of their equity in workforce and governance. This study is an analysis of the relationship between the enrolment of women in higher education and literacy level of women with their representation in governance and the workforce in India. Keywords: Women's equity, Higher education, Governance, Employment status, Women in India Introduction It is a generally accepted notion that a woman's education has a direct relationship with her empowerment. Research studies conducted all over the world substantiate this assumption. Women’s education directly influences the improvement of the socio-economic and health status of the society at large. (Bhagavatheeswaran et al., 2016; UNESCO, 2013). In the Indian scenario, almost all governments have taken initiatives to increase the enrolment of women in education starting from the school level leading to secondary and higher education. These initiatives have been largely successful as the enrolment ratio of women has steadily increased over the past years. The very need for improving the enrolment ratio is to ensure the enhancement of the living standards of women by empowering them with education, thereby helping them to enter the workforce as well as take part in governance. 1 Ms. Anita C. is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science, Kristu Jayanti College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. Her areas of interest are technology based educational enhancements and quality initiatives in the field of education. She can be contacted at [email protected] 2 Dr. D. Ravindran is currently working as Assistant Professor, School of Management, Kristu Jayanti College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka. He was awarded doctorate in Management from Pondicherry (Central) University in 2018. His areas of Interest are retailing, rural development, women empowerment etc. He is an active researcher, social thinker and an activity-oriented academician. He has authored two management books. 65 Journal of International Women’s Studies Vol. 21, No. 5 August 2020 Women entering the workforce and representation of women in governance are essential for voicing the concerns and needs of women. This study analyses the relationship between the literacy level and GER of women in higher education with their representation in the workforce and governance. The representation of women in the Indian parliament’s lower house - The Lok Sabha, the upper house of parliament – The Rajya Sabha, the central and state legislatures and local self-government (Panchayati Raj bodies) are considered for this study. Select Literature Review The participation of women with secondary education in the labour force with is low in India compared to many other countries. Among the 14 countries having lower labour force participation of women with secondary education, India stands second. (Chatterjee, Esha, Sonalde Desai & Reeve Vanneman, 2018). The literacy level of women is increasing but has not yet reached the desired level. (Maitra-Sinha, 1993). The overall literacy rate of women is increasing in India every year. The literacy rate of women was 29.8 in the year 1981 and had increased to 65.5 in the year 2011 (Source: www.census.gov.in). The enrolment of women in higher education had increased from 17.9 in the year 2010-2011 to 26.4 in the year 2018-2019 (AISHE Report). Therefore, the decrease in the number of women joining the workforce despite the increasing GER is a matter of great concern. The female workforce participation in India had fallen from 36.7 percent in 2008 to 26 percent in 2018 (The Hindu, March 8, 2019). Women hold only a meagre 7% of the senior management roles in India which is much lower than the global average. (Grant Thornton press release, 2017). Women enrolling in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics-related education stands at 39 percent (Source. Girlsintech.org). The representation of women in the lower house of Indian parliament remains at 14.36 % despite nearly half of the Indian population being women. 44.37 % of elected representatives are women in Panchayati Raj, the institutions of local self-government in India. (Source: www.panchayat.gov.in) Objectives of the Research • To establish the relationship between the literacy level, gross enrolment of women in higher education and their representation in governance and workforce. • To analyse the factors influencing the empowerment of women in India. Research Methodology This is a descriptive study that has taken into consideration the analysis of secondary data hosted by the various open data platforms of the Government of India and other international bodies. Observations Trends in the Female Literacy Rate in India The female literacy rate in India had increased from 8.86% in the year 1951 to 65.46 % in the year 2011, a whopping increase of 638%. Even though this is a substantial increase, India is 66 Journal of International Women’s Studies Vol. 21, No. 5 August 2020 still lagging, behind the global female literacy level of 80.33% in the year 2011. As per the latest census data (Census, 2011), there is a gap of 16% between male and female literacy rates in India. Figure 1: Trends in Literacy Rate of Women in India 70 65.46 60 54.16 50 40 39.29 Percentage 30 29.76 20 21.97 15.35 10 8.86 0 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Year Table 1: Gap between male and female literacy levels in India Census – Male – Literacy Rate Female – Literacy Rate Gap Year 1951 27.16 8.86 18.3 1961 40.4 15.35 25.05 1971 45.96 21.97 23.99 1981 56.38 29.76 26.62 1991 64.13 39.29 24.84 2001 75.85 54.16 21.69 2011 82.14 65.46 16.68 [Source: census.gov.in] Trends in Gross Enrolment Ratio of Women in Indian Higher education The enrolment ratio of women shows a steady increase in India. All the Indian states show a steady increase in enrolment of women in higher education except for the states of Goa and Nagaland. 67 Journal of International Women’s Studies Vol. 21, No. 5 August 2020 Figure 2: Trends in Gross Enrolment Ratio of Women in Higher Education in India (2010 – 2018) [Source: Based on AISHE reports] Table 2: GER of Men and Women in Higher Education in India [2010 - 2018] Year Men Women Gap 2010-2011 20.8 17.9 2.9 2011-2012 22.1 19.4 2.7 2012-2013 22.7 20.1 2.6 2013-2014 23.9 22 1.9 2014-2015 25.3 23.2 2.1 2015-2016 25.4 23.5 1.9 2016-2017 26 24.5 1.5 2017-2018 26.3 25.4 0.9 2018-2019 26.3 26.4 -0.1 [Source: Based on AISHE reports.] The GER of women in higher education has surpassed that of men in the year 2018-2019. This trend should actually increase the avenues of job opportunities for women. Representation of Women in the Work Force of India The decline of women in the Indian workforce is a matter of concern. The percentage of women aged 15 or above participating in the labour force in India is just 23.6% while that of men in the same age group stands at 78.6%. (World Bank Group, “Labour Force Participation Rate, Male (% of Male Population Ages 15+) (Modelled ILO Estimate), India) Despite the increase in GER in higher education and an increase in literacy levels, the percentage of women entering the workforce is declining.
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