A R A P I D A S S E S S M E N T R E S E A R C H R E P O R T

ALCOHOL-RELATED VIOLENCE in Kuruman in the Northern Cape Province

Patience Mungwari Mpani December 2015

PRODUCED BY TSHWARANANG LEGAL ADVOCACY CENTRE TO END VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

A R A P I D A S S E S S M E N T R E S E A R C H R E P O R T

An investigation of the the occurrence and socio-economic context of ALCOHOL-RELATED VIOLENCE in Kuruman in the Northern Cape Province

Patience Mungwari Mpani December 2015

PRODUCED BY TSHWARANANG LEGAL ADVOCACY CENTRE TO END VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN acknowledgements

We thank the following people Affairs, Trade and Development and organisations who made this (DFATD) and USAID. It emerged rapid assessment possible. The from a commitment to enhance the women and men of Bathlaros and impact of funding in the field of Wrenchville for their kind gender-based violence (GBV) in cooperation and participation in South Africa. The Fund works to the research. Our gratitude also build cohesion and strengthen the goes to: Chief Toto for her support sector's response to GBV by of the project, Iteke O' Direle helping to bolster the capacity for Sechaba Home Based Care and more integrated, comprehensive Wrenchville Home Based Care for and transformative approaches. facilitating the recruitment of the research participants, Rural This report was made possible development Agency (DOCKDA) by the generous support of the our implementing partner, Lorato American people through the Makatong, Kelebongile Mogara, U. S. Agency for International Ruth Molaowe and Tebogo Leremi Development (USAID), under the for data collection. Fanny Thindwa, terms of AID 674-A-14-00009 Skhona Ngcobo, Welekazi Stofile through the United States and Judith Merckel for their Government's President's contribution to the finalisation of Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief the report. (PEPFAR), operated by FHI360. The contents and opinions We also express our gratitude to expressed herein do not necessarily The Joint Gender Fund who, in reflect the views of USAID or the collaboration with the U.S. Agency United States Government. for International Development (USAID), provided the funding for Contact: this project. FHI360 for technical Patience Mungwari Mpani support. Tshwaranang Legal Advocacy Centre The Joint Gender Fund (JGF) is a collaborative funding mechanism [email protected] consisting of Irish Aid, Ford +27 (0) 11 403-4267 Foundation and Hivos (as primary www.tlac.org.za contributors), working in partnership with DG Murray Trust, the Department of Foreign

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ACRONYMS iv

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 contents 1. Organisational Background 3 1.1 Tshwaranang Legal Advocacy Centre 3 1.2 DOCKDA Rural Development Agency 4

2. Context of Violence Against Women and Alcohol Use in South Africa 5 2.1 Socio-economic context 5 2.2 Psycho-social and health consequences of alcohol use 7 2.3 Law and policy framework 8 2.4 The Northern Cape - SA’s largest Province 9

3. Kuruman Rapid Assessment 10 3.1 Problem statement 10 3.2 Objectives 10 3.3 Research questions 10 3.4 Methodology 10 3.5 Data analysis 13 3.6 Ethics considerations 13 3.7 Study limitations 13

4. Findings of the Rapid Assessment 14 4.1 Alcohol use in the community 14 4.2 Factors encouraging alcohol use 16 4.3 Alcohol use and violence against women 18 4.4 Types of alcohol-related violence 19 4.5 Surviving the violence 23 4.6 Support services 24

5. Conclusion 25 6. Recommendations 27 7. References 28 Annex 31 AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome CAB Community Advisory Board CBO Community Based Organization CDA Central Drug Authority acronyms DBE Department of Basic Education DEVAW UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women DOCKDA Rural development Agency DSD Department of Social Development DTI Department of Trade and Industry DV Domestic Violence DVA Domestic Violence Act FAS Foetal Alcohol Syndrome FCS Unit Family Violence, Children and Sexual Offences Protection Unit FIC Financial Intelligence Centre GBH Grievous Bodily Harm GBV Gender-based violence HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HSRC Human Sciences Research Council IPV Intimate Partner Violence ITEKE Iteke O' Direle Sechaba Home Based Care MCH Maternal, Child Health MRC Medical Research Council NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NPC National Planning Commission PEPFAR The United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief RTMC Road Traffic Management Coordination SCA Supreme Court of Appeal SOA Sexual Offences Act SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences TCC Thuthuzela Care Centre USAID United States Agency for International Development VAW Violence against Women VAWC Violence against Women and Children VEP Victim Empowerment Program WHO World Health Organization

iv Alcohol abuse refers to the regular or disposal of household effects or other occasional excessive consumption of property4. alcohol, causing harm to self and others. Emotional, verbal and psychological D E F I N I T I O N O F abuse refers to any pattern of Alcohol dependence includes degrading or humiliating conduct spending a great deal of time using, towards another, including repeated key terms unsuccessful attempts to control the insults, ridicule or name calling, substance use and, for some, the repeated threats to cause emotional presence of tolerance and pain, or the repeated exhibition of withdrawal1. obsessive possessiveness or jealousy, such that it constitutes a serious Alcohol use includes both invasion of privacy, liberty, integrity experimental and regular use of wine, or security5. beer and hard liquor. Excessive alcohol use is heavy Child abuse refers to the drinking, which is also referred to as mistreatment by an adult of a child or “at risk” drinking. It is alcohol young person that harms or consumption that exceeds the endangers that child or young recommended daily limits: for men - person's physical or emotional health, more than 4 standard drinks on any 2 development or well-being . one day or more than 14 standard drinks in any one week. For women - Domestic Violence (DV), the more than 3 standard drinks on any Domestic Violence Act (DVA) one day or more than 7 standard provides a broad definition of drinks in any one week6. domestic violence as any physical, sexual, emotional, verbal, Gender-based violence is a term that psychological and economic abuse. It specifically refers to any harm that is also includes intimidation, perpetrated against a person's will harassment, stalking, damage to that has a negative impact on their property, entry into the complainant's physical or psychological health, residence without consent, or any development and identity of the other controlling or abusive person because of their gender. This behaviour towards the complainant, violence has its roots in the gendered where such conduct harms, or may power inequities that exploit cause imminent harm to the safety, distinctions between males and health or wellbeing of the females, among males and among 3 complainant . females7. Violence against women, which is the central focus of this Economic abuse is the unreasonable study, is a specific form of GBV. deprivation of economic or financial resources that a person is entitled to Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is under law or which the complainant defined as behaviour within an requires out of necessity, including intimate relationship that causes household necessities for the physical, psychological or sexual complainant and mortgage bond harm to those in the relationship. repayments or payment of rent in Such behaviour includes acts of respect of the shared residence, the physical aggression such as slapping, unreasonable hitting, kicking and beating;

1. American Psychiatric Association, 1994 2. Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability, 2010-2015 3. Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998 4. Ibid 5. Ibid 6. http://thinkingaboutdrinking.msu.edu 7.Bloom, 2008 v psychological abuse such as sexual act or other act directed intimidation, constant belittling and against a person's sexuality using humiliation; forced intercourse and coercion, by any person regardless of D E F I N I T I O N O F other forms of sexual coercion; their relationship to the victim, in any various controlling behaviours such setting. It includes intimate partner as isolating a person from their family violence, sexual assault, forced key terms and friends, monitoring their prostitution, exploitation, human movements and restricting their trafficking, bondage, infanticide and access to information or assistance8, neglect13,14. Coercion is a central withholding resources, preventing element of sexual violence and it partner from working or confiscating refers to 'a whole spectrum of degrees their earnings9. An intimate partner of force. Apart from physical force, it includes a companion in formal may involve psychological partnerships such as marriage as well intimidation, blackmail or other as informal partnerships, including threats – for instance, the threat of dating relationships and unmarried physical harm, of being dismissed sexual relationships in both from a job or of not obtaining a job heterosexual and same sex that is sought15. relationships10. Shebeen is an unlicensed drinking Physical abuse can be defined as any establishment. act or threatened act intended to cause feelings of physical pain, injury, Tavern is a building with a bar that is or other physical suffering or bodily licensed to sell alcoholic drinks. harm towards another person. Children and women are the most Violence against Women (VAW) – 11 affected by this kind of violence . the term violence against women encompasses an array of abuses Sexual assault - the South African targeted at women and girls Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and throughout their lives; this violence Related Matters) Amendment Act, has its roots in sex inequality16. The 2007, provides a broad and expansive UN Declaration on the Elimination of definition of the term 'sexual assault' Violence against Women (1993) to include all non-consenting sexual (DEVAW) defines VAW, as, 'Any act activity from fondling to penetration of gender-based violence that results and includes attempts at penetration in, or is likely to result in, physical, to any extent whatsoever by the sexual or psychological harm or genital organs of one person into the suffering to women and girls, anus, mouth or genital organs of including threats of such acts, another person, or by any object, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of including any part of the body of an liberty, whether occurring in public animal, or part of the body of a or in private life17. person, into the anus, mouth or 12 genital organs of another person . Underage drinking is the consumption of alcohol by persons Sexual violence is broadly defined as who are under 18 years of age. 18 any sexual act, attempt to obtain a years is the legal age of alcohol consumption in South Africa. 8.Krug et al., 2002 9.WHO, 2004 10.WHO, 2013 11.Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998 12.Sexual Offences Act 2007 13.Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998 14.Krolikowski and Koyfman, 2012 15.Sigsworth, 2009 16.Watts and Zimmerman, 2002 vi 17.UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women 1993 executive summary

South Africa continues to battle the twin problems of violence against women and alcohol abuse. The Northern Cape is not immune to these, with the province ranking third nationally for high levels of hazardous or harmful drinking and first among pregnant women18. The Northern Cape also has some of the highest rates of violent crime19. In addition, alcohol use has been linked to an increased occurrence of violence against women and children as well as the occurrence of other risky behaviours and socially undesirable activities within communities.

Tshwaranang partnered with VAW lives, with most youth drinking DOCKDA in an investigation to n contribute to the knowledge on due to peer pressure. Failing map the occurrence, prevalence and the occurrence of alcohol-related grades, school dropout, death due socio-economic context of alcohol- violence in Kuruman and similar to alcohol related illness, risky related violence against women in rural areas in order to develop sexual behaviours, petty crime and Kuruman, in the Northern Cape appropriate community responses. violence were some of the prob- Province. The study (a rapid lems related to consumption of assessment) focused on the Alcohol Use alcohol by the under 18 years age Bathlaros and Wrenchville commu- group. Other negative conse- nities which are located within the The rapid assessment found that quences of alcohol use reported Ga-Segonyana local municipality. more than half of the participants included loss of employment, The purpose of the study was to surveyed consumed alcohol with misuse of income, physical, inform the development and men being the majority of consum- domestic and sexual violence, implementation of context specific ers, drinking mainly at taverns and breakdown of family units, and community-led interventions to shebeens. While male consumption including divorce and loss of reduce this kind of violence. of alcohol was recognised as custody of children. problematic it was acceptable and The objectives of the rapid assess- tolerated. On the other hand, ment were to: women's consumption of alcohol n highlight community perceptions was seen as unacceptable behav- Violence Against Women around the problem of alcohol- iour pointing to gender stereotyp- related violence against women ing. Alcohol consumption was and Children (VAW) mainly for stress relief, entertain- Alcohol use was highly associated n understand the occurrence of ment, to boost morale and give with all forms of interpersonal alcohol-related VAW courage. Underage and youth violence in general and, in particu- n explore the psycho-social, drinking emerged as a serious lar, domestic violence. The commu- economic and gender-related concern for the community because nity's perception was that fighting factors that drive alcohol-related of its impact on the young people's

18.Peltzer & Ramlagan, 2009 19.Leggett, 2004 1 in the home was the most common was noted, the mother was mainly problem. Both Kuruman and type of violence subsequent to to blame. Participants also reported Bathlaros have no shelters for excessive consumption of alcohol. that it was more common for survivors of domestic violence This manifested in intimate partner young children to be beaten up in making it difficult for women in violence or family violence occur- households where violence against violent settings to move to places of ring between siblings or between women occurred. Violent and safety and care. parents and their children. Older abusive partners were more likely children under the influence of to beat up children when they beat Recommendations alcohol were reported to be up their partners. The study uses the Socio- aggressive and violent towards Ecological Model from the World their parents (mainly mothers) and The study found underreporting Health Organisation (WHO) to other family members in the of all forms of violence. Women understand and respond to household. Physical violence in survivors of violence did not violence against women. The domestic relationships was always report incidences of model recognises that vulnerability consistently reported. This violence violence to the police or even talk to violence is context specific, multi was always accompanied with about them with friends or family. layered, driven by individual, various forms of psychological and Economic dependency on a relational, community and societal verbal abuse. Rape and other forms partner, preferring to deal with the factors. Consequently, effective of sexual violence were also a issue within the family, lack of interventions should also target . confidence in the ability of the serious concern for the community these four levels. Therefore, this police to act and the justice system Reports of rape by unknown study recommends community-led all deterred women from reporting assailants were discussed where interventions to reduce alcohol- violence. either the victim or the perpetrator related violence against women had been consuming alcohol. The and children. These interventions Support Services for Alcohol community also differentiated must target men, women and Dependency and Survivors of between “forced sex” and rape. underage youth at both individual Violence “Forced sex” was defined by the and relationship levels. These participants as involving a known include responsible drinking, perpetrator such as an intimate The study also highlighted a referrals for both victims and partner or by someone who had general lack of adequate services perpetrators and awareness-raising bought alcohol and expected sex in for survivors of violence as well as on the laws and policies relating to return. The community were more support services for people with VAW and alcohol use. At a likely to report rape and not “forced alcohol dependency problems who community and societal level, the sex”. Women participants also wished to stop drinking. Some study recommends interventions reported sexual harassment in the participants in the study did not aimed at changing negative gender form of unwanted touching, even know of services that assist norms that encourage violence sexually explicit language and with alcohol dependency. The against women, lobbying relevant verbal assaults at taverns and nearest rehabilitation services are stakeholders for service provision shebeens. in Kimberly which is about 280km and implementation of policy. away. Social workers within the Child abuse was closely linked to communities are over loaded, alcohol consumption by the mother. having to cover large geographical The community regarded child care distances and multiple issues and to be the primary responsibility of therefore are not able to effectively women. Where neglect or abuse respond to the gravity of the

2 1. organisational background

This report presents findings of a rapid assessment study conducted by Tshwaranang Legal Advocacy Centre (Tshwaranang) in conjunction with DOCKDA Rural Development Agency.

1.1 Tshwaranang Legal Advocacy Centre

Tshwaranang is a national non- focused on increasing access to is considered. The results of the governmental organisation based in justice for survivors of sexual project will build upon the work Braamfontein, Johannesburg. violence. Tshwaranang has become Tshwaranang was formed in 1996 known for (research, and its primary focus is access to Tshwaranang is advocacy and legal justice for women survivors of committed to a services) and allow violence. This is achieved through world where the organisation to research, capacity building and women assert and enrich dialogues on advocacy to shape national policy enjoy their rights to holistic responses to and law reform. safe and violence- violence against free lives. women. We prioritise capacity building in communities and creating networks Tshwaranang has This project is of women's non-governmental established a large body of therefore directly in line with the organisations (NGOs) and knowledge and has enjoyed a organisation's strategic objectives, community based organisations positive reputation for the last 15 focus and overall vision of (CBOs) to ensure grassroots input in years. However, much of the defending the rights of women to all aspects of legislation on violence organisation's work has largely be free from violence and to have against women. In this respect, our been in urban areas and we see the access to appropriate and adequate work on the Sexual Offences Bill is importance of responding to services. illustrative. We have also conducted violence against women in more a number of research studies rural areas and ensuring the context

3 1. 2 DOCKDA Rural Development Agency

Tshwaranang partnered with the DOCKDA Rural Development Part of Tshwaranang's role was Agency20 in implementing this to build capacity of local NGOs and project. DOCKDA is a non-profit CBOs to ensure that the gains from organisation (NPO) based in the this project continue being Northern Cape Province working felt long after the project on issues that include GBV and HIV ends. This partnership and AIDS. DOCKDA works with enhanced DOCKDA's research women and men to change societal capacity for effective and Development and cultural norms with the aim of efficient service delivery. towards self-reliance ensuring gender equality. The DOCKDA's staff were organisation also works on issues of trained as research alcohol and drug dependency. assistants, conducted Rural Development Agency DOCKDA's expertise and high level field work and contributed to community involvement, including the development of the final its peer learning processes, play an report. Through this important role in addressing GBV collaboration, Tshwaranang gained in the communities. Given their easy access to DOCKDA's existing programming and networks, expertise and knowledge structures in the communities, of the rural communities in DOCKDA was thus identified as Kuruman. the key partner in this project to ensure future sustainability.

The Eye of Kuruman (Afrikaans: Die Oog) is a spring in the town of Kuruman (part of the Ga-Segonyana Local Municipality) in the province of Northern Cape, South Africa. It is the largest known natural spring in the southern hemisphere. The spring forms a small lake in the middle of the town, directly on the N14 road and is located in a fenced park. It has a daily flow of about 20,000 m³ of crystal-clear, potable water. Water from the spring supplies the town of Kuruman.

20.www.dockda.org.za

4 2. context of violence against women and alcohol use in south africa

The study mapped out the occurrence, prevalence and the contextual factors which contribute to alcohol-related violence against women in Kuruman in the Northern Cape. The context specific issues relating to alcohol-related violence in the community were highlighted, providing an evidence base useful for the community's understanding of the forms of violence taking place and to inform the development of appropriate interventions.

2.1 Socio-Economic Context

According to the World Health least once in their lifetime, both involve children under the age of Organisation (WHO), South Africa within and outside their intimate 18 and it is suggested that 25% of has one of the highest rates of relationships23. The same report girls are likely to be raped before violence against women in the suggests that a large proportion of the age of 1626. Rape victims in the world21. A study conducted by the the men surveyed (Gauteng - 78%; country were more likely to be Medical Research Council (MRC) in Limpopo - 48%; Western Cape - young women aged between 16 three provinces of South Africa 35% and Kwa-Zulu Natal - 41%) and 25 years27. Studies in the showed that one in four women in admitted to committing some form general adult male population the general population has of violence against women in their estimate rape perpetration rates of experienced physical violence at lifetime24. between 28 and 37%, while 7-9% some point in their life22. Similarly, have engaged in multiple a 2013 study conducted by Gender Rape is a particularly prevalent perpetrator rape28. In the 2013/2014 Links in four provinces of South form of VAW in the country. financial year, 62 649 sexual offence Africa reported that all the Estimates suggest that up to half of cases were reported to the South participants had experienced some all women in South Africa will be African Police Services (SAPS)29. form of violence (emotional, raped in their lifetime25. Over 41% Relatives of victims or intimate economic, physical or sexual) at of rapes reported in South Africa partners committed 34.6% of all

21. http://www.unicef.org/southafrica/hiv_aids_729.html 22.Jewkes et al., 2001 23.Machisa, et al., 2011 24.Ibid 25.Cox S, Andrade G, Lungelow D, et al., 2007 26.Ibid 27.http://www.unicef.org/southafrica/hiv_aids_729.html 28.Naidoo, 2013 29.SAPS Report, 2014 5 rrapes, casual acquaintances 26.1% Along with gender-based while 24.4% of all victims did not Studies by the MRC in 200335 and violence, alcohol abuse is one of the know their attackers. 64% of rapes 200936 show a correlation between most pressing problems in the occurred either at or near home30. men's violence and their use of Northern Cape. This is closely The statistics reported by SAPS for alcohol but suggest the need for linked with the high levels of the past three financial years have further studies in this area. Alcohol unemployment in the province and remained consistently high with consumption is associated with few recreational activities for the very little sign of the numbers increased risk of all forms of public at large. Despite the decreasing significantly31. interpersonal violence and intimate extremely high levels of alcohol partner violence in particular. abuse40 and the high rates of In addition, South Africa has Studies of abused women show violence against women41, there is a recently been named as having the that substance use was significantly dearth of research and information highest level of adult per capita associated with the violence on the issue of alcohol-related alcohol consumption in Africa32. perpetrated against them. violence in rural areas of South Alcohol abuse has been associated Specifically, women reported Africa. Therefore, this study will with increased levels of both greater instances of physical contribute to knowledge in this gender-based violence and HIV intimate partner violence and area whilst at the same time infection. Alcohol abuse often leads psychological abuse when the providing an evidence base for to risky sexual behaviour such as perpetrators grappled with a appropriate interventions aimed at inconsistent condom use, coercive drinking problem or drug use37,38. reducing the problem of alcohol- sex or rape and multiple sexual The fact that perpetrator abuse of related violence against women in partners33, all of which increase alcohol contributes significantly to particular. Many interventions still vulnerability to HIV. The most violence against women and girls occur in urban areas with the rural recent UNAIDS country data show in the domestic and social sphere in areas largely neglected. While that South Africa has an estimated South Africa is clear. A study of interventions relating to violence 6,800,000 people living with HIV rape perpetration in South Africa against women are not new to and an adult (15 to 49) prevalence found that half of the perpetrators South Africa, the socio-economic rate of 18.9%, making it one of the were under the influence of alcohol context and drivers of violence countries with the highest rates of when they committed the crime39. against women often do not receive infection in the world34. much reflection. Additionally at a

The province is dominated by the Karoo Basin and consists mostly of sedimentary rocks and some Dolerite intrusions. The south and south-east of the province is high-lying. The west coast is dominated by the Namaqualand region, famous for its spring flowers. The central areas are generally flat with interspersed salt pans. Kimberlite intrusions punctuate the Karoo rocks, giving the province its most precious natural resource, diamonds. The north is primarily Kalahari Desert, characterised by parallel red sand dunes and acacia tree dry savanna.

30.http://www.unicef.org/southafrica/hiv_aids_729.html 31.SAPS Report, 2014 32.WHO 2014 Global Status Report on Alcohol and health, 2014 33.Townsend et al., 2011 34.UNAIDS, 2014 35.Jewkes et al., 2003 36.Jewkes et al., 2009 37.Tshiguvho, et.al., 2008 38.Peltzer and Pengpid, 2012 39.Freeman & Parry, 2006 40.Rehm et al.,2004 6 41.Jewkes et al.,2009 2.2 Psycho-Social and Health Consequences of Alcohol Use

There is a clear association ill health, especially their sexual usual epidemiological model between alcohol consumption and and reproductive health. Violence should be widened since drinking the health of individuals. There is constrains women's choice and can also harm the health of non- also a clear association between autonomy when engaging in sexual drinkers. For instance, maternal alcohol and all types of injuries42. In activity. Sexual violence is drinking can affect the health of the South Africa 58% of homicide associated with increased risky foetus, while driving under the deaths and 57% of road accident sexual behaviour that leads to poor influence of alcohol can harm fatalities are associated with alcohol sexual and reproductive health pedestrians and other road users. use43. Despite the fact that many outcomes such as unplanned The effects of alcohol use extend South Africans do not consume pregnancy and risk to other beyond the consumer. alcohol, alcohol abuse results in a sexually transmitted infections. The above problems must also considerable health burden in This risky behaviour includes early 44 be seen within the broader socio- South Africa . According to the sexual debut, multiple concurrent economic circumstances in the WHO Global Status Report on partnerships and unprotected sex. country. South Africa as a nation Alcohol (2014), alcohol use has Non consensual sex is linked to faces serious problems as far as consequences to the individual genital trauma and coital injury poverty and inequality are drinker, his/her environment and which facilitate HIV 47,48,49 concerned. This is supported by the the society as a whole. Socially, transmission . National Planning Commission alcohol abuse has been associated (NPC) Diagnostic Report of 2011 with unemployment, neglect of Literature also shows that men which listed poverty and inequality family, absenteeism at the who use high levels of alcohol are as the most pressing problems. This workplace, loss of earnings, traffic more likely to engage in risky is not surprising considering that accidents, foetal alcohol syndrome, sexual behaviour, for instance, South Africa has a Gini Coefficient risky sexual behaviour and social multiple sexual partners, 45 of 0.67 indicating high inequality in stigma for heavy drinkers . inconsistent condom use, coercive income distribution. On the other sex or rape and transactional sex, 50 hand, it is estimated that about 48% Where alcohol abuse is present, increasing the risk of HIV . of the population live below the family relationships are often Research shows that these men are poverty line, with 61% of those in difficult because of the associated also more likely to be violent in and poverty being women51. According mood swings, presence of violence outside of their relationships, to the NPC Diagnostic Report, the and deprivation of resources to implying that the linkages between three major problems in South support the consumption of alcohol intake and violence against Africa are: poor education alcohol. Therefore, living with women need to be more outcomes, unemployment and high addiction can put family members specifically addressed. disease burden. A study by under unusual stress. Normal Kalichman, Simbayi, Kagee, Toefy routines are constantly being However, the full impact of et al. (2006) found that experiences interrupted by unexpected or even alcohol on the health of the of poor education, unemployment, frightening kinds of experiences individual and the wider discrimination, violence and crime that accompany the abuse of community is difficult to estimate 46 are related. Specifically, they found alcohol . due to many hidden effects that poverty-related stressors were resulting from its use. Rehm et al. Violence against women is a associated with a history of alcohol (2009) state that, for alcohol, the significant contributor to women's and drug use52.

42.Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi & Luzano, 2002; Rehm et al., 2004 43.Matzopoulos, 2005 44.Schneider et al., 2007 45.WHO 2014 Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health, 2014 46.Dayton, 2008 47.Davids et al., 2006 48.Klot & Delargy, 2007 49.Jewkes et al., 2001 50.Townsend et al., 2011 51.NPC Diagnostics, 2011 7 52.Kalichman et al., (2006) 2.3 Law and Policy Framework

It is widely acknowledged that times for many different types of other body interested in tackling South Africa has some of the most establishments with most drinking substance abuse. The provincial progressive laws and policies in the venues operating between 10am forums support member world, however, the problem lies in and 2am, with exceptions for organisations in carrying out their implementing these laws and pol- establishments such as hotels and substance abuse programmes and icies to protect women and provide theatres55. keep substance abuse issues high on comprehensive services to victims53. the provincial public/political The legal framework governing the THE PREVENTION OF AND agenda. The Department of Social sale and consumption of alcohol are TREATMENT FOR SUBSTANCE Development contributes to the the Prevention of and Treatment for ABUSE ACT NO. 70 OF 2008 human and material resources of Substance Abuse Act (Act No. 70 of The objectives of the Act are to the forums and also provides 2008). The Liquor Act (Act No. 59 of combat substance abuse (including technical assistance. 2003 and The Liquor Act (Act No. 27 alcohol) in a coordinated manner of 1989). including the provision of preven- THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ACT tion, early intervention, treatment, NO. 116 OF 1998 Two prominent laws relating to re-integration and after care The main purpose of the Act is to violence against women are the services. The Act provides for the provide the highest form of protect- Domestic Violence Act (Act No. 116 registration and establishment of all ion from domestic violence. The law of 1998) and the Criminal Law: Sex- programmes and services and sets places responsibility on state organs ual Offenses and Related Matters conditions for the admission into and in particular the police, to Act (Act No. 32 of 2007). treatment centres. ensure that survivors of domestic violence are able to apply for THE LIQUOR ACT 59 OF 2003 The Act also mandates the Central protection orders to prevent abusers AND THE LIQUOR ACT 27 OF Drug Authority56 to monitor and from entering a mutual home or the 1989 oversee the implementation of the survivor's home or place of work. The liquor industry in South National Drug Master Plan, pro- The order can also allow for the Africa is governed by an over- mote a collaborative approach seizure of weapons and the arrest of lapping regulatory framework. Two amongst government departments violence perpetrators. national liquor acts are currently in and other stakeholders involved in force: the Liquor Act 59 of 2003 and combating substance abuse, THE CRIMINAL LAW: SEXUAL the Liquor Act 27 of 1989. The provides for the registration, OFFENCES AND RELATED Liquor Act, 2003 governs the macro- establishment and deregistration of MATTERS ACT NO. 32 OF 2007 manufacturing and distribution of halfway houses and treatment This is a framework to ensure the alcohol in all provinces, while the centres. The Master Plan serves as provision of adequate and effective micro manufacturing, retail, sale and the country's blueprint for pre- protection to all persons who consumption of liquor is governed venting and reducing alcohol and become victims of sexual offences either by the Liquor Act, 1989 or substance abuse and its associated and especially vulnerable groups provincial legislation. At present the social and economic consequences such as women, children and people Liquor Act of 1989 remains in force on South African society and builds who are mentally disabled. The Act in the Northern Cape Province54. on the foundation laid down by the places legal obligation to act on the government's Programme of Action South African Police Services, the Both of the national Acts set the on alcohol and substance abuse. National Prosecuting Authority, minimum drinking age at 18 years Correctional Services, Justice and and the Liquor Act, 2003 prohibits Provincial forums have to be Constitutional Development, Social any manner of advertising targeting established in each province in Development and the Department minors. The Liquor Act, 1989 makes accordance with the Act. These of Health. provision for the restriction of the comprise various stakeholders from hours or days during which alcohol relevant government departments, may be sold. It sets specific closing the business community and any

53.Moosa, 2012 54.http://www.soulcity.org.za/projects/advocacy/phuza-wize/resources/research/soul-city-legal-literature- review 55.Ibid 56.The CDA is mandated to drive and coordinate the fight against substance abuse in the country. 8 2.4 The Northern Cape - South Africa's largest Province

The project focused on the has a 34% unemployment rate. of pure alcohol a year61. In the 2007 Northern Cape with Kuruman as an While the Northern Cape is the South African Household Survey it entry point into the Batlharos and largest province geographically was reported that approximately Wrenchville communities. The (almost 30% of the country's land 50% of men and 20-30% of women Northern Cape is South Africa's mass), it is the most sparsely consume alcohol excessively62. A largest province but the least populated59, resulting in a difficult study conducted by Peltzer & populated and is mostly rural. The terrain for intervention and Ramlagan in 2009 posits that province is home to only 2.2% of services relating to violence against among the provinces with high the South African population. The women. In terms of services levels of hazardous or harmful unemployment rate is 28.1% with provided by government relating drinking, the Northern Cape (8.9%) 38% of the population receiving to alcohol abuse and violence ranked third in the country and social grants57. It consists of five against women, these are few and first for hazardous or harmful district municipalities which are far between. Thuthuzela Care drinking levels among pregnant subdivided into 27 local Centres (TCC), which are one-stop women (24.9 %)63. The province municipalities. Kuruman is located centres for survivors of sexual also had the highest levels for within the Ga-Segonyana local violence, are based in the major weekend risky drinking by municipality which forms part of towns and this means that this females64. According to a study on the John Taolo Gaetsewe district specialised service is not easily social fabric crimes (murder, rape, municipality. The majority of Ga- accessible due to great distances indecent assault, assault, gender- Segonyana local municipality between places60. based violence) the province has a consists of villages (80%) and is an Although the Northern Cape has higher than average incidence of agricultural and mining area the second lowest prevalence rate these crimes65. It has also been according to the Ga-Segonyana, of HIV in the country, it has very found that there is a correlation IDP, 2013/2014 Report58. This high levels of alcohol abuse and between high rates of alcohol and municipality has just over 200 000 violence against women. South substance abuse and a high inhabitants and is 85.3% Black Africa has the highest prevalence of incidence of GBV among African, 7.2% Coloured, 0.4% alcohol use in Africa with a person farmworkers in the province66. Indian or Asian and 5% White. It consuming an average of 9.5 litres

57.IDP Review Report, 2014 58.Ibid 59.http://www.gov.za/about-sa/south-africas-provinces 60.https://www.npa.gov.za/sites/default/files/resources /public_awareness 61.Rehm et al., 2004 62.Schneider et al., 2007 63.Peltzer & Ramlagan, 2009 64.Parry, 2001 65.Mistry et al., 2001 66.Women on Farms Project 9 3. kuruman rapid assessment 3.1 Problem Statement Despite the high levels of the twin problems of alcohol abuse and violence against women, very little, if any, context specific and systematic studies on the occurrence and gravity of alcohol abuse and related violence against women have been conducted in rural communities. Added to that, interventions based on such studies which are community led are rare. This study attempted to understand the prevalence of and the contextual factors that contribute to alcohol-related violence in the rural communities surrounding Kuruman in the Northern Cape.

3.2 Objectives 3.3 Research 3.4 Methodology n To highlight community Questions The study was done using a perceptions around the problem rapid assessment methodology. of alcohol-related VAW n What is the nature of the This method can draw on both problem of alcohol-related qualitative and quantitative n To understand the occurrence of VAW in the community? techniques in situations where data alcohol-related VAW in two are needed quickly, where local Kuruman communities - n What factors encourage alcohol resource constraints rule out more Bathlaros and Wrenchville use and violence towards conventional research approaches women in this community? and where the project requires n To explore the psychosocial, information to develop, monitor economic and gender-related n What are the individual and and evaluate intervention factors that drive alcohol-related community attitudes towards programmes67. VAW alcohol-related violence against women? This rapid assessment employed n To contribute to the knowledge both qualitative and quantitative on the occurrence of alcohol- n What are the possible methodologies. The rapid related VAW in Kuruman and interventions to reduce alcohol- assessment was a cross sectional similar rural areas. related violence against descriptive study providing an women? overview of the problem of alcohol-

67.Manderson, 1996

10 related violence against women in INCLUSION CRITERIA the Kuruman area. The sample was Informed consent conveniently selected, therefore, the Voluntary participation rapid assessment did not intend to Women and men of drinking provide a statistically age (above 18) representative sample. Residents of the two study communities

The following was the inclusion and exclusion criteria in the EXCLUSION CRITERIA selection of research participants: Under age of 18 years Figure 1 History of mental illness Inclusion and Under the influence of exclusion criteria alcohol or drugs at the time of interview of research participants

3.4.1 Interviews d) Non-consumers of alcohol and violence against women. The The participants who were were selected in order to assess the focus group discussions conducted interviewed included the perceptions of the relationship were grouped by sex. The following: between misuse of alcohol and separation of males and females violence against women. was an attempt to allow a level of a) Key informants who have comfort in discussions around a direct contact and in-depth 3.4.2 Focus group sensitive topic such as violence knowledge of the target discussions against women in a context of a population. These included a The overall purpose of the focus common understanding that men teacher, a tavern owner, a police group discussions was to are the majority of perpetrators and official in charge of domestic determine group norms and women the main victims. violence issues, a representative behaviours pertaining to alcohol se from the Department of Health, representatives of a community based organisation (CBO) working Figure 2 Number of research participants with women survivors of violence and a traditional leader. Data Collection Information Instrument Provider Men Total b) Women survivors of violence Women were selected on the basis of their personal and first-hand experiences Interviews Key Informants 4 2 6 of violence. They were recruited Women Survivors through home based care groups Of Violence 0 10 10 working in the community. Consumers Of Alcohol 7 7 14 c) Consumers of alcohol were Non Consumers purposefully selected to provide Of Alcohol 7 7 14 their experiences as consumers of 12 - 12 alcohol and in so doing enabled the Focus Group Men Focus Group - 13 13 further understanding of Discussions Women Focus Group behavioural patterns.

11 3.4.3 Questionnaire Perceptions on the relationships between alcohol and violence against women were elicited through a questionnaire.

Attribute Total The relationship or interpersonal Sex Men Women level refers to the interactions in 44 58 102 proximal social relationships such as Community Community those between intimate partners and within families, friends and other Bathlaros Wrenchville 48 small groups. In youth violence, for 54 48 102 example, having friends who engage in or encourage violence can Marital Status 66.7% Married increase a young person's risk of Single 24.4% being a victim or perpetrator of 70 6.7% violence . Divorced 2.2% Widowed Risk at a community level may be Employment Status 25.5% affected by factors such as the Employed absence of social networks and pov- 57.4% 71 Unemployed erty . The Centre to end VAW (2013) 17% explains that institutional norms Volunteer exist which promote or perpetuate Figure 3 Demographics of research participants’ data beliefs that sanction the occurrence of particular violence, for example, 3.4.4 Framework for Understanding Violence bullying in schools or gang membership72.

Broad societal factors also help to create a climate in which violence is SOCIETY COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP INDIVIDUAL encouraged or inhibited. The legislative environment is an example of societal factors. Laws and polices available to control the use and sale of alcohol impact on Figure 4 Socio-ecological model for the prevention of violence68 who has access to alcohol. They also The rapid assessment frames the interplay and complexity of the place an obligation on the state to violence against women using the four levels and that action should be ensure compliance. The government socio-ecological model developed by across the four levels in South Africa has been accused of the World Health Organisation simultaneously. failure to implement policy and (WHO). The model provides a enforce laws relating to alcohol use. framework for understanding the Individual or intrapersonal The legacy of apartheid was also factors that put people at risk of or drivers are the biological and per- identified as a driver of violence in protect them from violence. It also sonal history factors that influence South Africa at a societal level. The exposes factors that predispose some how individuals behave and in- apartheid society resulted in the individuals to become perpetrators crease their likelihood of becoming a marginalisation of non-white of violence. The model posits that victim or perpetrator of violence. communities, denying them a violence is the result of a complex Alcohol consumption is an example political voice and ensuring interaction between individual, of an individual factor. Exposure to systematic economic disempower- relationship, societal and comm- alcohol in the home, early initiation ment. Violence was used to control unity factors. Figure 4 shows the into alcohol use and excessive con- and subjugate these communities. relationships between the levels. sumption are associated with in- The resultant dehumanisation has This implies that interventions for creased risk of all forms of inter- fundamental implications for the sustained change should consider personal violence69. capacity of individuals to engage in acts of violence and brutality. 68.CDC Injury Prevention and Control 69.Tshiguvho, et al. 2008 70.Krug et al., 2002 71.Krug et al., 2002 12 72.Ibid 3.5 Da ta Analysis

Descriptive and thematic using thematic analysis as outlined questionnaire was done using the analyses were done. All interviews by Attride-Stirling (2001). This Statistical Package for Social and focus group discussions were involved close reading, coding and Sciences (SPSS). This mainly recorded and transcribed. The data sorting of data into themes that elicited descriptive analysis was collected in Afrikaans and were related to the central research inferring both univariate and Setswana and translated into questions. bivariate relationships to provide English. It was then analysed for an in-depth understanding of the emergent themes and patterns Analysis of the completed variables under study. 3.6 E thics Considerations

Ethical clearance for the study were treated as active participants The interview process ensured that was granted by the Human and beneficiaries of the research. no distress or secondary Sciences Research Council (HSRC); Privacy and anonymity were of victimisation occurred in the REF: (REC 8/22/04/15). Special primary importance for women research process. Provisions were consideration was taken to ensure survivors of violence and were also made that distressed interview that participation was voluntary prioritised to protect the participants be linked to available and based on informed consent. participants' identities as well as services for counselling and other The women survivors of violence protect them from potential relevant intervention activities. identified for one-on-one interviews retaliatory violence by the abuser. 3.7 Study Limitations

There are a number of limitations which they are spoken is very according to the culture using the that must be viewed in light of the important. Through translation, language”. rapid assessment method. Because some of the information will be rapid assessments employ non- lost. To minimise this, there was a Youth under the legal drinking probability sampling methods, their deliberate effort to source research age were excluded from findings are context specific and assistants who knew the participating in the rapid cannot be generalized to other community well and who could assessment due to ethical populations. write and speak Setswana and considerations relating to Afrikaans fluently. This is in line interviewing minors and children The use of several languages also with recommendations by Squire involved in the illegal activity of presents problems of data quality. (2008: 267), that translators and underage consumption of alcohol. In this rapid assessment interviews interpreters must have a minimum However, drinking by this age were conducted in either Afrikaans of sociolinguistic competence that group was identified as a serious or Setswana and then translated allows them to “converse and concern by the community into English. In qualitative follow everyday conversations indicating that there is need to interviewing the ability to without difficulty and have the investigate alcohol use by this age understand nuanced language ability to express and negotiate the group. This is recommended as a complexities and the context in meanings of words and phrases key area for further study.

13 4. findings of the rapid assessment 4.1 Alcohol Use in the Community

The study found that more than for the consumer, but extended to half of respondents (59.6%) impact families and the community “Children aged 10 are already consume alcohol. Of this group, it at large. Drunk driving leading to giving birth because they drink alcohol. was found that 53% were male and accidents, physical violence, misuse I have also realised that abused children 47% were female which indicates of income, loss of employment, as young as between 10-13 years are that alcohol consumption is degeneration of morals, breakdown already drinking irresponsibly. They relatively even across the sexes. of family units, child neglect, crime, are drinking alcohol not because they Consumption of alcohol occurred sexual violence and poor health like it, it is because of the life they are mainly at taverns and shebeens, outcomes were associated with living, it's due to the circumstances however it was also a common excessive consumption of alcohol that they find themselves in”. feature at social gatherings such as and alcohol dependency. Men focus group parties, weddings and funerals. Shebeen owners were noted to Participants were also asked The qualitative data showed that sometimes come and set up shop to whether they agreed if alcohol consumption of alcohol by the 10-20 sell alcohol at these functions. consumption by men, women or year age group was a cause of Public drinking in undesignated youth was problematic. concern for the community. places was also reported. Alcohol Respondents overwhelmingly Respondents noted that young consumption was therefore believed that underage alcohol people are exposed to alcohol early common, widespread and tolerated consumption was a problem with on in life and sometimes within the by the community. only 2.5% seeing it as no problem at home. Furthermore, the majority of all. Young people's alcohol alcohol users indicated that they However, there was concern consumption was perceived as started drinking at an early age. about excessive consumption of particularly problematic and was One participant related the alcohol and alcohol dependency also viewed as a catalyst to other circumstances of a family he knew: within the community. When asked social ills such as petty crime, whether they agreed that alcohol violence, risky sexual behaviour “… when you arrive there at 6 am consumption was problematic, all and teenage pregnancy. Alcohol … you will find the mother and father already drunk and the children too. participants identified alcohol as a was also noted to be indicative of Sometimes a fight erupts and you will serious problem, with 95% strongly other underlying social problems find the whole family in commotion. If agreeing and 5% somewhat such as child neglect, a history of it is 6am it means that these people agreeing. Study participants noted family substance abuse and family never slept…”. that excessive alcohol consumption violence. One male focus group Men focus group had negative consequences not only respondent noted that:

14 These findings are consistent with Teenage pregnancy, for example, is consumption of alcohol was other research studies that show a a major reproductive health chal- perceived as a serious problem and growing trend of early alcohol use lenge and has social and economic that women who drink were looked initiation with children lower than consequences for young women down upon by the community and 13 years of age consuming alcohol73. that have far reaching effects for seen as deviant and troublesome. Several studies have highlighted both mother and child. For some the dangers associated with youth young women it means single and underage drinking. Abuse of motherhood, disrupted education, alcohol is argued to interrupt the social isolation and repeated cycles 78 5% natural course of brain maturation of unintended pregnancy . SOMEWHAT DISAGREE and key processes of brain development in adolescents and All respondents indicated that STRONGLY AGREE 74 children . Youth who start drinking alcohol consumption by women is a STRONGLY 47% DISAGREE before the age of 15 years are four problem, with 86.1% reporting it as 31% times more likely to struggle with a serious problem and 13.9% alcohol dependency later in life75. considering it a minor problem. SOMEWHAT AGREE Alcohol use is also linked to poor However, while they said men's 17% performance in school and alcohol consumption was a dropouts which has consequences problem, 6.3% said there was no Figure 6 Participants' level of for future outcomes76. Teenagers are problem at all. This indicates that agreement on whether sexual significantly more likely to find there is a greater concern with violence occurs because women themselves in situations that put women's consumption of alcohol have consumed alcohol excessively them at risk of falling victim to acts than with men's. In addition, study One female participant noted of violence, crime or sexual participants were also asked if they that: violence. Adolescents who drink felt that violence happens because are also more likely to be sexually women are drunk. The majority of “Sometimes I do visit the taverns active and alcohol is also associated the participants (64%) agreed and and I have realized the abuse is mostly with high risk sexual behaviour (36%) disagreed. in women. When they start drinking which increases the risk of they never sit down. You even get pregnancy, sexual violence and The qualitative results concurred embarrassed and ask them to sit down sexually transmitted diseases77. with the observation that women's but they won't listen because you are not drinking with them. They talk Figure 5 loudly and they lose control. They Perceptions of alcohol use in the community according to gender and age don't even think about their little children”. Woman non-consumer

One of the key informants also commented that:

“The problem is these women, especially the youngsters. The older men are bringing them to the taverns and this is the cause of the problem because sometimes you just hear a women cry and then we have to run around… the problem is mostly caused

73.Reddy et al., 2013 74.Squeglia, L. M., Jacobus, J., & Tapert, S. F., 2009 75.Smith, 2010 76.Reddy et al., 2013 77.Smith, 2010 78.Glasier, 2006 15 by these young women because they are and narrated struggles of stopping Bathlaros and Wrenchville and the there. Men change their behaviour alcohol use and then relapsing. kinds of interventions to be when they see these young women. considered. Violence against When somebody is drunk he feels that The negativity associated with women has roots in gendered they are entitled to this women”. women's drinking therefore power dynamics and societal Key informant suggests underlying gender norms expectations about what is wrong and stereotypes that chastise and what is right. It is therefore not Women who consumed alcohol women who consume alcohol and surprising that some women also reported feelings of shame and view them as moving away from consumers reported being regret when they reflected on their behaviour that is socially acceptable physically assaulted by their part- drinking, explaining the embarrass- for women. Patriarchal ideals of ners for consuming alcohol. ment it brought to their families. masculinity encourage male alcohol Interventions will need to consider Men on the other hand tended to consumption and discourage fe- the impact of gender norms and describe their drinking in less male consumption. Females who address some of their negative negative ways, regretting negative consume alcohol were regarded as consequences. actions that followed alcohol wayward and associated with loose consumption but rarely regretting sexual morals79. This has important the use of alcohol. Women consequences for the safety and consumers were more likely to treatment of women who consume report a desire to stop consumption alcohol in the communities of

4.2 Factors Encouraging Alcohol Use An essential starting point in were the most common reasons for problems and terrible life addressing the problem of alcohol consumption: experiences were cited as reasons substance abuse is to understand n stress relief, “all this stress that for the 25 to 39 age category; and the reasons for engaging in such we live with. Money, life its feelings of sadness and depression practices and its effects on people's difficult” were cited as the main reason for lives. Research has shown that n entertainment, “to just have a consuming alcohol by the over 40 some of the reasons for alcohol use good time, just have a good time. I age category. This suggests that age include: don't have stress. I just drink” group targeted interventions need n peer pressure “everyone is to be considered which recognise n use as mood changers (e.g. feel drinking, they just want to fit in” the underlying problems that better when depressed, stop “they (youth) think its cool” encourage alcohol use by that n worrying, relaxant) morale and courage boosters particular age group. n for physical effect (e.g. help you “some of them drink because they sleep) have an issue with someone, so As was mentioned previously, n social functioning (e.g. lose alcohol gives them courage to South Africa has major societal confront that person”. inhibitions, make you confident, problems such as poverty, enjoy company) and unemployment and high disease In terms of reasons for n managing the effects of other burden. The study showed that consumption according to age drugs (e.g. improve the effects HIV, poverty and unemployment group: peer pressure and wanting of other substances or ease the were viewed as the major 80 to fit in - “being cool” - were cited effects of other substances) . challenges facing the community. It as the main reasons why youth was found that HIV (56.9 %) was consume alcohol; coping with This study found that the following seen as the major problem,

79.Peltzer et al., 2011 80.Boys A., Marsden J. & John Strang, J., 2001

16 followed by the issues of poverty HIV emerged as the biggest night” sexual encounters were (53.9%) and unemployment (48%). challenge faced in both commun- reported as some of the con- (See Figure 7). Study participants ities. This is noteworthy when sequences of excessive alcohol use. also blamed their consumption of considering the association All of which increases peoples alcohol on the presence of these between alcohol use, violence and vulnerability to HIV. challenges in their lives. It follows risky sexual behaviors. The study that if these underlying problems found that alcohol use was highly While South Africa has one of are not addressed, it will be difficult associated with violence in general the highest HIV prevalence rates in to address alcohol abuse. The study and domestic and participants older than 25 years of intimate partner age linked alcohol use to stress, violence more depression and as a means of specifically. coping with underlying problems Women living in and attributing their consumption violent of alcohol to the presence of these relationships are challenges in their lives. often constrained Interestingly, the majority of the in making [healthy] participants acknowledged that sexual choices. This alcohol consumption was a puts them at great Figure 8 HIV and Alcohol Linkages the world (18.9 %)83 the Northern temporary solution and risk of sexually transmitted infect- Cape has one of the lowest HIV unfortunately one that led them ions, including HIV and further prevalence rates in the country into a vicious cycle of alcohol use. violence. This absence of choice is (7.4%)84. This suggests that the They had to constantly drink to either through direct exposure to linkages between excessive alcohol forget problems or numb forced or coerced sex or because consumption (a feature of the themselves from their pain. In their they are unable to control the right 82 Northern Cape and specifically the study, Kalichman, Simbayi, Kagee, to safer sex . Baltharos and Wrenchville Toefy et al. (2006) found that communities) and risky sexual experiences of poor education, This study, like others, behaviour should not be ignored unemployment, discrimination, highlights poor judgment, poor because of the potential to increase violence and crime are related to decision making and arguably a HIV infection. This is particularly alcohol use. Specifically, they found loss of control accompanying important in these two that poverty-related stressors were excessive alcohol use. Inconsistent communities as current studies on associated highly with a history of condom use, forced sex, concurrent 81 HIV infection suggests that young alcohol and drug use . multiple partnerships and “one women between the ages of 15-24 Figure 7 Perceptions of major problems in society years are most at risk. In South Africa, of the 469 000 new infections in 2012, almost a quarter were amongst young women aged 15-24 years, a figure 4 times that of their male counterparts85. Risky sexual encounters, poverty, age disparate sexual encounters and violence are among the key drivers of the epidemic for this population group.

81.Kalichman, et al., 2006 82.Glasier, 2006 83.UNAIDS, 2014 84.StatsSA, 2012 85.Simbayi et al., 2014 17 Our study found that youth and prevalent in the communities. mentioned were hypertension, underage drinking were a major Additionally, some of the study diabetes and HIV treatment. concern while intimate partner participants also spoke of the violence, alcohol related risky inconsistent uptake of chronic sexual behaviour and inter- disease medication due to excessive generational relationships were also alcohol use. Most commonly

4.3 Alcohol Use and Violence against Women Participants were also asked alcohol is not the only factor for the female consumers of alcohol felt whether they agreed with the violence. Some survivors of that they were easy prey to statement that violence against violence discussed experiences of criminal activities when they were women happened when there is too violence where the perpetrator had drunk. Some reported being much alcohol consumption. The not consumed alcohol. Other robbed at drinking spots, others on majority of participants (83%) drivers of violence identified their way home. Overcrowding, agreed with this statement. This is included social and gender excessive noise and poor lighting consistent with other studies of the inequalities, economic problems were some of the factors that drivers of domestic violence that and socialisation to violence, with encouraged crime at drinking show that “drugs and alcohol use perpetrators having learnt places. Fights were also more are causally linked to the majority aggression from growing up in likely to occur. Safety issues for of incidences”86. In the Northern families where violence was a consumers of alcohol in drinking Cape specifically, it was found that common occurrence. The study establishments should be 90% of perpetrators abused alcohol therefore showed that aside from considered in the interventions. or drugs. alcohol, other factors also contribute to violence against One participant noted that when women. Some participants felt that they are drunk:

SOMEWHAT perpetrators of violence used DISAGREE alcohol as a scapegoat to justify “We fear being raped; you can end 4% their violent behaviour, adding that up being raped if you are drunk or if STRONGLY DISAGREE a deeper issue needed to be you pass out”. 13% Woman consumer of alcohol SOMEWHAT identified and addressed that was AGREE the cause of the violence. Findings 16% STRONGLY Other participants added: AGREE of the study suggest therefore that 67% violence against women is commonly and highly associated “No it is just my boyfriend, when with alcohol use but this is not the I'm drunk and just pass out he beats me when I'm unconscious”. only driver of such violence. Other Woman consumer of alcohol drivers need to be examined and Figure 9 Participants' level of addressed. agreement on VAW and excessive “Yes my friend was forced to have alcohol consumption sexual intercourse because she was Other research found that a large drunk. They were at the tavern proportion of the victims of drinking together with the man who alcohol-related crimes were often Alcohol use was recognised by forced her to sleep with him”. the communities as a key driver of themselves under the influence of Woman survivor of violence 88 violence against women. However, alcohol . This was also found to be 66% of participants argued that true in this study. Both male and

86.Development Research Africa, 2013 87.Ibid 88.Felson & Burchfield, 2004

18 4.4 Types of Alcohol-related Violence following:

“We see a lot of domestic violence every weekend. I have realised that if both man and woman drink alcohol they fight but when they are sober they don’t. Now because they are drunk they fight. The following day there are no fights because they are sober. But after drinking they start all over again”. Men focus group

The majority of participants in Figure 10 Participants' perception of the types of alcohol-related the study explained that usually violence in the community when someone within the house- hold consumed alcohol, violence The community's perception was I was not drunk and had not chal- was a common occurrence. Parents that intimate partner violence lenged this person, I would not have (mainly women) spoke of both (beating of partner) was the most any scar. You understand? I just saw verbal and physical abuse at the common type of alcohol-related stitches, I was stitched. The second hands of their children when the violence (70.6%), followed by rape time was when I got beaten by people children had consumed alcohol or sexual violence (67%) and child who were following me when I was excessively. Male children tended coming back. I didn't even do wrong abuse (57.8%). to be physically violent to the by them”. parents and other people within Male consumer of alcohol Physical Violence the household such as siblings. Consumers of alcohol spoke first Domestic and Intimate Partner hand of how they were more prone “The first time I realised my son was Violence to be violent when they had cons- drinking alcohol, was when he didn't Domestic violence was also umed alcohol in excess than when sleep at home. He came back the noted as a serious and rampant they were sober. Interviewed part- following morning around past 10 am. problem within the community. icipants narrated incidents of fights He started demanding food from his The SAPS lamented the high rates in the taverns and shebeens, some pregnant sister; and when she told him of domestic violence that they occurring between friends and to eat what was there for breakfast, he handled monthly and explained intimate partners and others with got angry and threatened to throw a that in most of the incidences strangers. These fights at times bed at her. I found him carrying the substance abuse was a factor. Both involved the use of weapons such bed and told him to put the bed down women and men alike also spoke of as knives, guns and broken beer and leave his sister alone. While I was the high rates of domestic violence bottles. The injuries steming from still standing at the door, he kicked a and its association with alcohol use: alcohol-related violence included chair that was next to him towards me strangling, stabbings and even and then left the room. After some few “We were at a shebeen, while we death: minutes he came back holding a knife were drinking alcohol, my boyfriend threatening to stab me and his sister accused me of being involved with “Those fights have given me scars. I with it. I screamed for help from the another guy. So, a fight broke out and have scars from being beaten after neighbours and he ran away when they he threw around beer bottles at me”. getting involved in a fight while drunk. arrived. His sister was just crying Woman consumer of alcohol I fought with someone this one time uncontrollably and that's when I and ended up with scars. … Look, I realised my son was drinking alcohol”. Another respondent noted the was sorry when I finally realised that if Woman focus group respondent

19 Women survivors of violence also me. He used to go out drinking and “Truly when he (referring to son) is narrated incidences of intimate come back around 2 o'clock and he drunk like that we are not safe. It's me partner violence. Both verbal and would want to fight with me. You see? and him and his sister. The reason we physical violence were reported. Then we would argue and then he go to are not free is that the other time when When male partners arrived home the tavern. When he went out, I said to he was drunk, we are not free in the after consuming alcohol, they did myself “I know when he comes back he house, reason being that, one day he not want to be confronted about will…”. So I went to buy 'Old buck' slept at the tavern, in the morning their drinking or they would pick a nip [….]. When he came back, did I not when he came back, he wanted to do as fight with their partners. Survivors hit him with fists! He had to go to the he pleases with us. It was that day of violence reported shame and doctor. The doctor gave him 3 days off. when we realised that he had a knife, he […]. He could not eat; he just drank threatened to stab us”. embarrassment in situations where mageu”. Woman non-consumer the violence took place in front of Woman survivor of violence the children, friends or relatives: One woman who consumed Emotional and psychological alcohol also noted that she was “When he starts beating me, I fight abuse was evidenced by the repor- aware that her children were back. We fight with objects & utensils. ting of extreme worry and anxiety anxious and worried about her Even the children are involved, we hurt that non-consumers lived with. our children… he (refers to son) sees all safety whenever she was out They consistently discussed being these fights and bad things. So he is drinking. impacted”. unable to sleep when the member Woman consumer of alcohol of the household who consumed The majority of participants in alcohol was out drinking late at the study reported fear of the Violence against women was night. Some relived traumatic consumer of alcohol when he came also commonly associated with experiences of previously being home after drinking. They were violence against minor children called to hospital when the drinker never sure what to expect, or what within the household. Men who had been assaulted when they had would trigger a violent episode. beat up their partners also beat up gone out drinking: Women described tension within their children: the home and children locking “The challenges of living with themselves in their bedrooms when “My ex-husband would beat me in someone who drinks are that, when he is the household member who front of the kids. Even the children not home, the result is, I as a parent am consumed alcohol came back home: were also beaten up for no reason…. He affected. I get affected because when he is once beat me up for no reason and I gone drinking, he does not come home “I have a child who drinks alcohol. He ended up in hospital. I was blue and on time. I have no idea where he eats becomes very violent when he has been green all over my body. I would go back and I cannot fall asleep at all. drinking at the tavern. I no longer to him and say he is my husband and Everything that moves, if there is a lock my doors at night when I sleep, if the father of my children”. sound of something passing by, I have he comes back and he finds that the Woman survivor of violence this thought because that time when he doors are locked, he will knock to an got stabbed, I was told by his mates at 3 extent that he wakens our neighbours. Some women resorted to drinking o'clock in the morning. So when he is We are not only abused by our men, alcohol themselves in order to out like that, even though I am sleeping but our children too. He would demand gather courage to fight the violent in the house, my mind takes me there be- food when he comes back. If there is no partner. Alcohol use became a cause that time when they came to call food, he would say I ate it with my coping mechanism but possibly me, I found him with blood all over”. friends then I should make a plan. I Woman non-consumer fuelled domestic violence incidents would be anxious and terrified that my as well: son is going to insult me since there is In another interview a partici- no food. I don't know how I can solve “Yes, I used to fight my lover a lot pant noted that: this problem”. because he used to beat me. He abused Woman focus group

20 as the second most common There was a general belief that Another participant explained problem associated with alcohol women who allow men to buy beer that the family lived in fear because use (67.6%). Women spoke of for them must also accept their the member of the household who unwanted touching and groping by sexual advances. When she did not consumed alcohol always threat- men who had been drinking. This willingly comply, “forced sex” was ened to commit suicide whenever was most common at drinking a consequence: they confronted him about his outlets and parties. Women behaviour when he was drunk: consumers of alcohol also reported “….mostly young girls go to the tavern fear of being sexually assaulted without money when they get there “ He (referring to son) just after having excessively consumed they find men who are having money to threatens, but has not yet injured alcohol and that attempts and even buy them alcohol. Later they are forced anyone. Even that day when he actual incidents were higher when to sleep with those men because they threatened us, he came with a rope, they had been drinking. drank their alcohol. Rapes usually start saying he wants to hang himself but in that manner''. when the neighbours were called to Rape and forced sexual inter- Men focus group help, he left”. course were reported by both Woman non-consumer Another participant of the focus women who consumed alcohol and group concurred: those that did not. A few of the Another respondent noted that: women narrated experiences of “...the liquor bought means money forced sexual encounters by “My brother is the one who drinks and at the end of the day she is going to intimate partners who were drunk. in my family. This is a problem for our be taken advantage of sexually whether These incidences were not regarded family as we are not safe. When he is she likes it or not. She must pay for the as rape by the survivors and drunk, he becomes aggressive. He will liquor. She has to agree to sex because therefore were not reported to the come home and cause havoc. We cannot she drank another person's liquor”. police: say anything. Anyone who tries to Men focus group speak to him will be beaten up. We “I was beaten and forced to have sexual leave him to do as he pleases… but Rape and attempted rape were intercourse by my boyfriend. I when he is sober he is a different usually by an unknown perpetrator eventually reported him to the police for person”. or when the perpetrator is known beating me and a protection order was Woman non-consumer but is not in an intimate relation- issued against him and we will be ship with the survivor. One woman survivor of violence going to court on the 12th of August … I felt safe after they gave my boyfriend a explained that: “I nearly got raped when I was protection order”. living at the RDP house, I was sleeping Woman survivor of violence “My ex-husband was drinking. and I don't know how this person got When he was drunk we were always inside the bedroom because I just went Another participant explained: afraid of him, we were living in fear. to sleep and then they entered my bed. I My children were very young, so when just heard movements… I was scared. I “Yes you see, my boyfriend he their father came home they would lock screamed and pushed them away… I sometimes forces me to have sex with themselves in their room. They were so didn't report them, you see I felt sorry him when he is drunk. I just do it but I afraid of him that they would not even for them. I know them. They are poor”. don't like it. It's just that I don't want go to the kitchen to get something to Woman consumer of alcohol eat. We had a dog at our place, when it today but tomorrow… it is not rape you see”. my ex-husband come home even the Participants also reported rape of Woman non-consumer dog would hide because he always minor children by male partners kicked the poor dog when he saw it”. who had excessively consumed “Forced sex” was also reported Woman survivor of violence alcohol. Reports of such sexual when a woman had been drinking Sexual Violence abuse were common when the with a male counterpart who had Sexual violence was highlighted mother had excessively consumed been buying the alcohol for her.

21 alcohol and passed out. When the sleep with their children but she sleeps giving them alcohol to drink: mother was drunk and passed out at the tavern”. then her male partner would Woman focus group “Here in Batlharos children start sexually assault the children: drinking at the age of 13 because elders A male interview participant sent them to buy beer and they drink “When a father sexually abuses a explained that: the left overs”. child we don't report it to the police; Men focus group instead we solve it within the family “Children are abused by their which is not good for the child”. mothers more especially if they drink Violence against women and Woman focus group alcohol. They leave without neither children manifests itself in different cooking nor giving them anything to forms. Interventions need to be One male participant noted that: eat. Most children are abused by their tailored to respond to the different mothers who don't care whether the forms of violence. Not only is there “…and usually those children that children ate or not”. underreporting of the violence but are being abused are the step-children Male non-consumer also silence with survivors not even to this woman's husband. This man confiding in close friends for also abuses the child because they are Another focus group participant support. The reasons why survivors biologically not his. When he is drunk, lamented: do not speak out, report to the he becomes violent and abusive to the police or even withdraw cases need mother and the child and he ends up “I have a daughter who drinks to be explored so that an enabling alcohol a lot. She even goes to the raping both of them.” environment is created that tavern with her new born baby. She is Male non-consumer encourages reporting of violence abusing me because sometimes I have and abuse. Child Abuse to babysit when she goes to the tavern. Child neglect and abuse were She sleeps there and comes back the also reported. Child neglect was following day. I don't know how we common when both parents can solve this problem”. consumed alcohol, or when the Woman focus group mother consumed alcohol. This was associated with the perception that A male focus group respondent alcohol use by women was particu- confessed: larly bad. Child neglect manifested “Well I have accepted. I had children to support here in Batlharos in young children who were not yet but when I was at work I would go to old enough to take care of them- town and spend all my salary on selves and were left alone in the alcohol. The children suffered as I home without supervision and food didn't pay for their transport fares and as well as parents' misuse of income at the crèche and school fees.” resulting in failure to meet chil- Men focus group dren's needs such as the payment of school fees: Some interview respondents also argued that parents and guardians “I have a daughter who neglects her of minor children were complicit in children and if I refuse to babysit, she the problem of underage drinking fights with me. She uses child support because they were the ones grant money to buy alcohol, hair introducing them to alcohol. There products and cosmetics disregarding were reports of sending young the need of her children. Her friends children to buy alcohol and also

22 4.5 Surviving the Violence All the women survivors who themselves, ‘it was the alcohol’, he fought”. participated in the study narrated does not do this when he is sober”, Woman consumer episodes of extreme physical to justify why they remained with violence by intimate partners with partners who abused them. Other Others claimed that they knew different participants saying: participants used religious beliefs to everything they did, and some even understand alcohol abuse and used alcohol as an excuse to justify their behaviour. “He beat me until I was black and dependency by suggesting alcohol SOMEWHAT green” or “He beat me to a pulp” or “He abuse was the work of the devil and DISAGREE hit my head on the wall until blood came 1% seeing the abuser as a helpless SOMEWHAT out of my nose and mouth” or “He broke victim. STRONGLY DISAGREE DISAGREE 51% my arm” and “He stabbed me thirteen STRONGL32%Y STRONGLY AGREE times”. One woman noted: DISAGREE 32% STRONGL51%Y Woman survivor of violence AGREE 51% “We need to pray against this seed of All of the participants endured the devil. Alcohol is a seed of the devil. SOMEWHA16% T many episodes of these violent We must pray for our children so that AGREE 16% attacks before they eventually God is in them. The devil is controlling sought help from the police or left them”. the abusive relationship. A number Woman non-consumer of factors prevented them from tak- Figure 11 Participants' level ing any action against the perpetra- Another consumer of alcohol of agreement on whether people tor of violenc