A 341200 Challenge to Mars: Essays on from 1918 to 1945

EDITED BY PETER BROCK AND THOMAS P. SOCKNAT

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS Toronto Buffalo London Contents

PREFACE IX ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XV CONTRIBUTORS Xvii

Part One From to War

1 and Military Service in the Soviet Union to 1939 LAWRENCE KLIPPENSTEIN 3

2 Russian and the Military Question, 1918-1929 PAUL D. STEEVES 21

3 Pacifism and Conscientious Objection in Finland, 1918-1945

THOMAS HACKMAN AND KATJA HUUMO 41

4 In Search of a 'Lost' Belarusan Pacifist Leader PETER BROCK 60

5 War Resisters in Weimar Germany GUIDO GRUNEWALD 67

6 The Anarchopacifism of HERMAN NOORDEGRAAF 89

7 The Conviction of Things Not Seen: in France, 1919-1945 PETER FARRUGIA 101 8 Defending the Rights of Man: The Ligue des droits de l'homme and the Problem of Peace NORMANINGRAM 117 vi Contents

9 A Legitimate : The Case of Interwar Britain, 1918-1945

MARTIN CEADEL 134

10 Women Pacifists in Interwar Britain JOSEPHINE EGLIN 149

11 The : From Peace to War, 1936-1945 ANDREW RIGBY 169 12 J.S. Woodsworth and War KENNETH MCNAUGHT 186

13 'Practical' and Absolute Pacifism in the Early Years of the U.S. Women's International League for Peace and Freedom ANNE MARIE POIS 199

14 The Fight against War of the Historic Peace Churches, 1919-1941 DONALD F. DURNBAUGH 218

Part Two The Second World War

15 in Uniform: The Friends Ambulance Unit LYN SMITH 243

16 Conscientious Objection in Canada THOMAS P. SOCKNAT 256

17 Pacifists as Conscientious Objectors in Australia PETER BROCK AND MALCOLM SAUNDERS 272

18 Pacifism and Conscientious Objection in New Zealand J.E. COOKSON 292

19 and in a Free Society: U.S. MITCHELL L. ROBINSON 312

20 Pacifist Professional Women on the Job in the United States

RACHEL WALTNER GOOSSEN 331

21 Prison Journey of an American LARRY GARA 346

22 Conscientious Objection and Popular Culture: The Case of Lew Ayres JENNIFER FROST 360 Contents vii

23 Conscientious Objectors in Nazi Germany PETER BROCK 370

24 Danish War Resisters under Nazi Occupation PETER KRAGH HANSEN 380

25 Pacifists in Nazi-Occupied Norway TORLEIV AUSTAD 395

26 For Church and Peace: Dutch Christian Pacifists under Nazi Occupation HENK VAN DEN BERG AND TON COPPES 409

Part Three Pacifist Outreach: Japan and India

27 Pacifism in Japan, 1918-1945 CYRIL H. POWLES 427

28 Gandhi's and Its Roots in India's Past ANTONY KOZHUVANAL 440

ILLUSTRATION CREDITS 455 INDEX 457