Baiso and Rendille: Somali Outliers Harold C. Fleming

BAISO AND RENDILLE: SOMALI OUTLIERS

HAROLD C. FLEMING

Riassunto.- Linguisticamentei parenti piu strettidei Somalisono i Baiso del lagoMargherita e i Rendilledel Chenianord-orientale. « Somali » occupavanola penisolaprima dell'arrivo dei Galla e dei Bantu. Resume:.- Du cotede la langue,les parentsles plusproches des Somalissont les Baiso du lac Margheritaet les Rendilledu nord-estdu Kenya.Des « Somalis» occupaientla Corneavant l'arrivee des Gallaet des Bantous. Summary.- The closestlinguistic kin of the Somaliare the Baiso of Lake Margheritaand the Rendilleof northeastKenya. "Somali" occupiedthe Horn beforeGalla and Bantuarrived.

I. - Introduction.

Previous discussion of the origins of the Somali have tended to assume that the Somali expanded froma northernarea near ex-British Somaliland or the Harar-Dire Dawa region of Ethiopia. From this northernlocus the Somali are assumed to have overrunprior Galla and Bantu and/orNegro populationsto the south in the main area of the AfricanHorn. Recently,H. S. Lewis has challengedthe assumptionof a Galla priorityover the Somali in the easternHorn. Most of the argumenthas been carried out in the absence of any informationabout languages more closely related to Somali than Galla or Afar. Huntingford'svaluable suggestionthat Rendille, spoken in northeastKenya, is closely allied with Somali has, for example, been " " largelyignored. Moreover,the significanceof the presenceof Somali loan words in Nilo-Hamitic languages has been completely ignored, despite the fact that the Somali were not in geographicalpropinquity with the Nilo-Hamites at the time of European contact. Finally, the significanceof the Somali-speakingBoni in eastern Kenya, where they lived as an enclave in Galla territory,has not been appreciated. It is the aim of this paper to present data on two previouslyun- reportedlanguages, Baiso and Rendille,and to relatethem to our know- ledge of the parametersof the Somali nation. Referencesto Somali

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dialects are taken fromthe followingsources (see Bibliographyfor full source reference).

Isaq (of Berbera) L,arajasse (1897) Benadir Moreno (1955) Benadir Caressa (1938), used for vocabulary; phoneticallyunreliable Darod Moreno (1955) Digil Moreno (1955) Asraf Moreno (1953) Jiddu Moreno (1951) " " Jabarti (Hoye & Digil) Reinisch (1904) MijurteinCaressa (1938), cf. Benadir comment Hawiya Ceruuj (1959) Mediban (of Jigjiga) Unpublished field data, obtained by myself,in Ethiopia, 1959 Referencesto Boni are taken fromFischer (i 878) and Johnston (1886).

I would like to express my gratitudeto Mr. Brandt of the Sudan Interior Mission at Dilla, Sidamo Province, Ethiopia,,for his aid and companionshipin gettingto and fromGidicho island and to the Ethiopian Police at Dilla fortheir aid and courtesy. Also, the invaluableassistance given by Mr. W. Schuster,District Officerat Isiolo, NorthernFrontier Province,Kenya, in locating a Rendille informantis gratefullyacknow- ledged.

II. - Baiso

In 1902 Oscar Neumann reportedthe presence of a people called Gidichoon an island in the northeasternquadrant of I^ake Abaya (Lake Margherita)in the Rift Valley of southernEthiopia. He mentioned that the Gidicho looked like the Somali in his expedition and spoke a language much of whose vocabulary was intelligibleto the Somali. His briefcomment is quoted here in full, as follows (Neumann, 1902, page 384): "Quite a differentpopulation called Gidicho lives on the largest island of the lake (Abaya). The Gidicho have good-looking, Somali-likefaces. My Somal found,to theirgreat astonishment,that a great part of the Gidicho expressionswere almost identical with their

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIIylyE : SOMALI OUTLIERS 37 own, as, for instance,the words for the various parts of the body and for the best-knownanimals, such as lion and leopard. I considerthis discoveryto be of great importancefrom an ethnologicalpoint of view, as the Somal were always thoughtto be the last intrudersin North-East Africa,and here we findan isolated tribesurrounded by a populationof an apparentlyolder origin. The boats ofthe Gidichoare veryinteresting. They are rather raftsin boat form,being made of the verylight wood of a species of ambach. The bow is oftenornamented like that of the Venetian gondolas. Formerlythere were constant quarrels and wars between the inhabitantsof the islands and those of the shore,but now, under Abyssinianrule, all live in peace with each other These Gi- dicho reportedby Neumann are the Baiso, Gidicho (gidicco) being the name of both people and island used by the tribes of the eastern mainland. The word Gidichois not Baiso in formand is probablyof Sidamo origin; it is also used commonlyto referto Lake Abaya. In 1941 Maass reported of the inhabitantsof Ghidiccio (Gidicho) island that they lived in two villages,called Baiszo and Cighiba,on the northand south ends respectivelyof the island. The Balabbat or chief of the Gidicholived in Cighibavillage, whereMaass visited him*). AlthoughMaass's report,devoted to ethnographicand geographical data is interestingand informative,unfortunately for our presentpur- pose it contains no linguistic data, as in the case of Neumann's report. Furthermention of the inhabitantsof Gidicho island was made in 1958 by Kuls, who gave an account of agriculturalpractice on the island. No furtherinvestigation of Neumann's statementthat the language of the Gidicho resembledSomali was made, however2). No other reports have been made on the Gidicho of the northernisland of Lake Abaya; to my knowledgeall other reportsof the inhabitantsof the islands of Lake Abaya have referredto the Haruro of the southernisland. As a parenthesisto the above it should be mentionedthat the peoples living on the two inhabitedislands of Lake Abaya have been thoroughlycon- fused. This is primarilydue to the fact that there is a Haruro group

*) In i960 the Baiso weresaid to live on the south end of the island and the Shigimaor northernBaiso were said to live on the northernend. Since Maass visitedthe Shigima (Cighiba),his locationof the two villages is morelikely correct. 2) I am indebtedto ProfessorHelmar Smeds of the Universityof Helsinkifor the referencesto Maass and Kuls. I was not able to find Grottanelli'ssupposed description of the Gidichoin Biasutti(1955).

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 38 HAROLDC. FLEMING on each island, viz., the Kachama (or gazamba) of the southernisland and the tiny Harro or Haruro hamlet on the east shore of the northern island. Kachama and Harro are not the same language but are closely related to each other and to Zaysse and Badditu of the Macro-Ometo group of West Cushitic. Haruro is the Wallamo name of both peoples. Conti Rossini (1936) apparentlygave no credence to Neumann's Somali-like Gidicho but rather attributedhis report to the confusion over Haruro. In 1958 and again in i960 I made brieftrips to Gidicho island in orderto determinethe linguisticaffiliation of the peoplesof that northern island. Since it was supposed that the Gidicho were a branch of the Haruro, I expected that interrogationwould reveal one or perhaps two Ometo dialects. Althoughaware of Neumann's report,I did not suppose that a Somali-type language would have escaped ethnographic noticein the much visited Lake Abaya area. On the initialvisit in 1958 interrogationwas confinedto the hippo- hunterswho live in a hamlet on the mid-eastshore of the island. It soon became apparent that the Harro, called Haruro by the Wallamo, were indeed Ometo speakers. This fact was obvious to all those present at the interrogationand was acknowledgedby the Harro themselves. However, the informantsvolunteered the informationthat another language,called Baiso (batso), was also spoken on the island and that it was quite unlike either Harro or Wallamo. A Baiso informantwas found and in the limited time remaining of the visit interrogation was begun. The second trip to Gidicho, made in i960, consumed a week, of which time only about half a day of interrogationwas achieved. The reactionof my Ethiopian companions,and indeed my own, on firsthearing Baiso was surprise. As in the case of Neumann's visit we all werestartled to hear a languagewhich seemed so muchlike Somali on this tiny island far fromtrue Somali country. On more cautious second thought, however, it became apparent that Baiso was never- theless quite distinctfrom Somali. NeitherBaiso nor Harro informants, nor my Ethiopian companions,felt that Baiso was particularlyclose to Sidamo, Darasa, or Galla, all spoken on the nearby mainland. Sub- sequent analysis and comparison of Baiso with other East Cushitic languages has, in my opinion,merely confirmed this initial impression. Moreover,Neumann's briefreport on Gidicho is confirmedand his opinion that the Gidicho (Baiso) are an ethnologicallyimportant people is most emphaticallyagreed with.

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II. A. - Baiso Phonology*).

Phonetically,Baiso is characterisedby the absence or rarityof the throat-rendingsounds of commonCushitic. Uvular as well as laryngeal stops and fricativesare entirelylacking. Glottalized stops (ejectives) are very rare. In this respect Baiso most closely resemblesBedawie (North Cushitic). The contrast with neighboringlanguages is great). The sounds x) of Baiso are, as follows:

Labials b, p , / Dental/Alveolars t, d, s, ts (rare) Palatals c, /, £ Cacumenal Implosive D Laterals I, r Nasals m, rj, n Velars g, k 9 Glottals h, Glottalized Stops c, k> z, t (all rare) Semi-Vowels y, w Vowels a , a, s, e, i, i, u, o

Althoughvowel lengthand consonantdoubling are normallysignifi- cant in Cushiticlanguages, the recordedBaiso data shows this not to be the case here. In a numberof cases doublingappears to be irrelevant. Thus, a'.mjam (to eat), anijanni (I), ibadojibaddo(person), usw.jusu (he),

*) Per una norma costantedi questo periodico,al x del testo origi- nale e stato ovunque sostituitoquello di h (N . d. R.). x) These are the sounds taken directlyfrom my transcriptions.No attemptis made to presentthe phonemesof Baiso, althoughsome of the sounds are undoubtedlyin allophonicdistribution. The phoneticsymbols used here followthose of Moreno(e.g. 1941), except for (j) (Moreno's(§)), (D) (Moreno's(d)) and the vowels which are based on AmericanEnglish values. None of the vowelshowever are e i and " diphthongs," (a), ( ), ( ), (o)," (u) have the values of Italian basta, ", c'e, m^le,v^dere ", citta, " " " padre finiti sole,coda luna,t^tto has thevalue of Stand- " respectively,(a) ard American bud, mud,butter (e) has the value ofStandard American " bed, met,let ". has the value of StandardAmerican bit, pet, (1) " pin, bin, thin". The semi-vowels have the value of StandardAmerican yes, winter,wet", has the value of American" mats" or German yet, " (ts)" Zimmer and Italian ^io ". The symbol(:) indicatesvowel length as in Americanusage.

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gajgaa (tree,wood), lAmA/lamma(two), siddet/sidet(eight). However,no conclusionsshould be drawnuntil further data, includingtape recordings, are available because of the strongpresumption that lengthis probably significant. There are several striking,and historicallyvaluable, sound corre- spondences between Baiso on the one hand and both Somali and Galla on the other. These are, as follows:

Baiso /&/ Somali /s/ Rendillejcj Galla jsj five ksnjkeni san (§an) san leopard kebih sabel bird kimbiri simbir cimbir simpirre 9 water bske (?)(biyo/biyyo)bice bisa-ni yesterday kelejkele seley cele Baiso /g/ Somali /// Rendille/// Galla /// knee gilibjgilbo jilib jilib jilba louse igiri injir mjir injir-an to exist,be present gr- jir- jir-

Since these correspondencesappear to be restricted(in Baiso) to velarsfollowed by highfront vowels, it is probablethat the corresponding palatals in Somali, Galla, and Rendille arose throughpalatalization. In this respect note Afar kimmiro(bird), Galab kimirre(bird), but Konso hambir-deta(bird) and Gidole hambira'Konso-Gidole-Gato kilba (knee), Tsamai gilib-ko(knee), Burji gilba (knee) but Afargulubu (knee), Darasa gulbo (knee) and Marako x) gurub (knee); Konso-Gato ikira (louse) and " Galab izire (louse). In at least one cognate, water", palatalization seems to have proceeded fromjkj to jcj and jsj to /y/. Thus, Konso bisa (water), Gato biza (water), Arbore bice (water), but Galab biye (water) and Somali 2) biyojbiyyojbiya(water). Otherwise,before other vowels, Baiso velars correspondto Somali and Galla velars. Except forthe lack of gutturalsand the near absence of the cacumenal (D ), consonantscorrespond with Somali equals.

x) Marakodata fromunpublished field notes. Marakois a Burji-Sidamo language,spoken in the Rift Valley west of Lake Zwai; it is veryclose to Gudella and Hadiya. 2) Greenberg(1955, p. 72) believesthat Somali biyois a borrowing fromNilotic, especially Nandi. It is possiblethat this formis an old Low- land Bast Cushiticborrowing from Nilotic in the formbeiklpeik, the formin whichit is preservedin Baiso.

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II. B. - Baiso Morphology. The limited data allows a few tentative hypothesesabout Baiso grammar.Structurally, Baiso seems to followthe commonEast Cushitic pattern,including the pervasive use of the gender morphemes,k - masculine and t- feminine. No data was obtained on syntacticpatterns.

Nouns. The articleappears to be absent; nor was a particularizingnominal suffixelicited during interrogation. Nouns characteristicallyhave the shape CVCV or CVC. Vowels (a ), (e ), and (o) are commonlyfound as noun endings. The vowel ending-i appears as an optionalsuffix and may be a subjective case ending, similar, for example, to the Galla -nijn subjective. A plural form-jol was elicited twice; thus, babar (man), babar-jol (men) and hilel (woman),hilel-jol (women). A compound connector,-&A-, which is probably an agentive form or possiblythe masculinearticle, was foundin ibado-kA-jerere(warrior, literally:person-^A-spear or war) and sai-kA-pofero(cowherder, literally: Qow-kA-pofero). A form-ki was recordedin odo-kake-ki-abbi(my father'sbrother, literally:father-my-fo'-brother) . It possiblysignifies the genitivecase.

Pronouns. The subject pronounsare, as follows: I ani/ana/anni We nojnu Thou ati You (plural) isinjisini He usw.jusu They iso She tsei/ese

They are all commonEast Cushiticforms with the closest formby formresemblance being with Rendille (q.v., below) and the accusative formsof Galla. The possessive formshave ka- masculine and ta- femininebases respectivelywhich in conjunctionwith the person suffixesgive the fol- lowing forms: My ka-ke (m), ta-te (f) Our ka-kani (m) Thy kA-ka (m) Your ka-kesini (m) His ka-kesa (m) Their ka-kiso (m)

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 42 HAROLDC. FLEMING " (Regrettably,through an oversightthe 3rd personsingular form, her was not recorded). The close resemblanceto the possessiveforms of Somali, Galla, and Konso is to be noted. Thus Benadir Darod Galla Konso My kay kay-ga kojkiya hayo Thy ka ka-ga ke haiti His kis kis-a sa hani Our kayn ken-a kena hanno Your kin km-a kesan haisin Their kod kod-a sani haiso

A reflexiveform, is, foundin is lagad-era (he killed himself),is to be compared with Somali is and Afar isih, both with the same meaning. The Galla cognate is ufjof,which, given the presumedphonetic repla- cementof jsj by ///in Galla, is from*ws/*os.

Demonstratives.

The formshasn (that) and hikka (this) were recorded. In addition " " in one case, the paradigmof to want in the presenttense, the forms hikina and atina were elicited for the 3rd person singular masculine " (" he ") and feminine( she ") respectively. It may be presumedthat " " hikina and atina are demonstrativeforms, meaning this one (m) and " " this one (f), used as pronouns,since they are completelydifferent fromthe otherpronoun forms and resemblethe demonstrativesof other languages. The formhasu (that) is probablyto be comparedwith the common Somali base, -as (cf. k-as, masc., and t-as, feminine)while hikina/atina is to be compared with kan/tan, kuni/tuni, etc. of common East Cushitic.

Interrogatives. The formsgiro (what?) and aiyoiki (who?) were recorded. While " giro (what?) is apparentlyunique to Baiso, aiyoiki is probably who " art thou? ratherthan simply who? ". The root is probably ai or aiyo which correspondsto Rendille aiyo and the commonEast Cushitic base ai/ay (who?). The remainderof the form,- iki, probably means " " thou and is relatable to ko/ku/ki,etc., the usual East Cushitic vo- " cative and/oraccusative formsof thou

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Verb Morphology. Verbal paradigmswere not obtainable in the time available, except for one paradigm of dot- (to want) in the present-futureor incomplete tense. Such data as was obtained shows the followingforms involved in verb morphology.

a) imperative singular in Darn-tn drink! This formis not typically a'm-%n eat! East Cushiticbut is found nat-in pull! as the characteristicim- $af-m push! perative in the Maji sub- ti-n run! group of West Cushitic. amaz-in sit!

b) -i, imperative singular, in uduri (sleep!) and alii (stand!), is foundcommonly in East Cushitic. c) -ra, 1st person singularand 3rd person singular,masculine and -ta, 2nd person singular and plural and 3rd person singular, feminine;these are in accordancewith the commonEast Cushiticpattern wherein1st person singularand 3rd person singularmasculine contrast with 2nd personsingular and 3rd personsingular feminine. Thus, Galla dem-e (I went or he went) and dem-te(thou or she went). The Baiso rajta patternseems most like that of Rendille, dajta (q.v., below). d) - wa, 3rd person singular, primarilyassociated with the past tense indicator,-e, but also found with -0 in the present. It perhaps functionsas does the Somali copula/auxiliary,- wa - (plus personsuffixes). e) -a and -e are apparentlyin contrastivedistribution, as present tense and past tense indicatorsrespectively. Thus, dot-ara (I want), dot-era (I wanted) and din-ara (he sees), d-era (he saw). The -aj-e tense indicatorcontrast is common East Cushitic. f) -na, 1st person plural, is common East Cushitic. g) -teta, 3rd personsingular feminine past tense,in ti-owa (he ran,) ii-teta (she ran) and hudur-era (he slept), hudur-teta(she slept). In this form-ta is evidentlythe feminineand 2nd personsuffix (cf . c above) and -te a special femininevariant of - e, the past tense indicator (cf. e above). With -te may be compared the common East Cushitic 3rd person singularfeminine -^te for the past tense.

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h) -graw a /-grow a , translatesAmharic alls and Galla jira (there is, there exists, there is present). In this form-wa is probably the pre- sumptivecopula auxiliary (cf. d above) and -gr- probablyhas the pri- " mary meaning of to live, to exist Given the correspondenceof Somali and Galla ///with Baiso /gfin the presenceof high frontvowels, " " then -gr- is quite likelythe true cognate of Somali jir- to live, exist and Galla jir- in the same meaning. " " " i) -4a, is or he is ", translates Amharic nsu and Galla Da. As the 3rd personsingular masculine of the copula in the present,-ia is probably cognate with the prefixedya-, 3rd person singular masculine present,of some Somali conjugations,suffixed - ya of others,and suffixed -ya with the same meaningin Gidole. " j) - titita, she is translatesAmharic not. The redundanceof the feminine-t- is unusual.

k) se, irregularimperative singular of siset (to go) recalls Jiddu si (to go), the ordinarySomali bound formsi, indicatingmotion thither or away fromthe speaker, and the Galab imperativesi (go!). 1) kwaega, irregular imperative of met-/me- (to come). An ir- " regular imperative of ''to come is found widely in East Cushitic. " " Cognateforms are Digil koy- (apparentlythe regularform of to come there), Galla kot (come!), Konso hoy (come!), Gidole hoy (come!), Gato ho (come!), Tsamai ogoi(come!), Gawata ogoi(come!), Warazi Uay (come!). The ordinarySomali formof this irregularimperative is kalei (Mediban and Benadir), in Rendille kale. Compare also Ari (West Cushitic)kore (come!) and Burunge (South Cushitic)haw- (to come).

The raw verbal data recordedwas, as follows: metera (he comes) me'wa (he came) meto (she comes) metewa (she came) gwara (he dies) isu goyuwa (he died) a'mm (eat!) amewa (he ate) lAgAdera (he kills) is lagadera(he killedhimself) lAgAdewa(he killed) sisetsra (he goes) se (go!) sisetewa (he went) uduri (sleep!) hudurera(he slept) hudurteta(she slept) tin (run!) tiowa (he ran) ess titeta(she ran)

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amtrowa(he says) amewa (he said) dinara (he sees) dera (he saw) kAsowa (he knows) malabewa (he knew) isi girissra (he swims) kAtera (he circumcized) ubatewa(it rained) bubewa(she flew) usu babaria (he is man) hilel titita (she is woman) beke grawa (there is water; water is present) Amharic,wiha alls Galla bisani jira ga growa (there is wood; wood is present) Amharic, incet alls Galla korani jira

ani dotara (I want) no dotAna (we want) ati dotata (thou wantest) isin dotata (you want) hikina datera (he wants) iso dotera (they want) atina dotata (she wants) ana dotera (I wanted) Numbers.

The cardinal numbersrecorded are, as follows: one ko'ofkou eight siddetjsidet two lAmAjlamma nine sagal three sedi ten tomonjtoman four afarI afArt fifteen tomanko keni five ksn/keni twenty lamatAn/lammatta six leh/lsi hundred bol seven totobajtodoba

While nearly all of these formsare commonEast Cushitic,the resemblances to Somali (and Rendille) are pronounced. This is particularly true of ko'o/kou(one), a formwhich is shared only with Somali, Rendille, Boni, and distantlyrelated Maji and Shako of West Cushitic. In all cases the Baiso formis cognate with a Somali form,while Galla " " " has a differentcognate in the cases of one ten ", fifteen " " " " twenty and hundred or is phoneticallyfurther removed as in the " " " " cases of six ", seven and eight The numbersof other East Cushiticlanguages such as Sidamo, Burji, Konso, and Afar are no closer

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than those of Galla. We must eitherpropose that Baiso borrowedits entireset of numbersfrom Somali at some time in the past, but before Somali palatalized *kan into san, or that there is a special relationship between Baiso and Somali, at least with respectto the numbers. While the borrowingof numbersis oftencited as amongthe easiest of linguistic interchanges,I know of no case wherea Cushiticlanguage has borrowed all ofits primarynumbers from another language. Moreover,the number " " ofcases wherea Cushiticlanguage has borrowed both one and "two" is unknown,since no such case exists. Higher numbers,particularly " " " six through nine ", are certainlyoften borrowed and as such va- luable sources of linguistichistory, but the lower numberstend to be conservative. The firsttwo primarynumbers, while subject to semantic displacement,tend to be resistantto replacementby borrowing. The hypothesisof borrowingmay be considereddoubtful. To conclude this briefpreliminary description of Baiso morphology we can say withsome confidencethat Baiso adheresgenerally to common East Cushitic,that it has a few formsunique to itselfor not shared by other East Cushiticlanguages, that it shares some formswith both the Galla-Konso groupand Somali, and that it has a numberof formswhich it shares only with Somali and Rendille. As we shall see, thisis exactly the case with the Baiso lexical assemblage.

II. C. - Baiso Vocabulary. all duba :: loba (Sidamo, many), labo-h (Burji, many), animal solale/sulal Amhara amara arrow dawwe :: lawwe(Boran Galla), leb (Benadir,arrow- head). ashes bululo :: bululo (Sidamo, borrowed), bululo (Da- rasa). baboon jaldessa :: jaldessa (Galla, borrowed). back, of body bAga Baiso baiso (southern); cf. Maass's "Baiszo" (northern). sigima (northern);cf. Maass's "Cighiba" (southern), bark, of tree nezi :: Possibly West Cushitic: naso (Kafa, skin) be, to gr- :: jir- (Somali, Galla). -ia (he is); cf. II. B. Baiso Morphology, -titita (she is) belly bo:gi :: bug (Isaq), bag (Jabarti, belly, womb), bAgu (Afar), bagu (Saho).

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIUyE: SOMALI OUTLIERS 47 big kAji :: kAddA(Afar), geja (Hadiya), gecca (Gu- 3 della), gudda (Galla). bird kimbiri(cf. II. A. Baiso Phonology). black gAtnbela:: gAmbAUa(Kambatta), gamballa (Tam- baro). blood i:gi :: Dig (Rendille,Somali), Diga (Galla, Konso, Gato), tiga (Gudella, Hadiya, Marako), ceiji (Burji, from*ceigil), kega (Kambatta), ceig-di (Tsamai), ceh-ti (Warazi), keh-de1)(Gawata), sogo (Mogogodo). boat walabo boat obole (fromMaass, p. 373). bone left :: laf (Rendille, Somali), Ufa (Afar), lafe (Galla), lefi-te(Galab), hf-ta (Gidole), lAfi-ta (Gato). bow (weapon) lala bread buddena :: buddena (Galla). breast, woman's na:si :: nahas (Rendille), nas (Somali), naas-ka " (Jiddu,woman, equals breasts"), nasa (Bonir woman). " Brother abbi :: cf. Sister " buffalo,African assaye :: cf. cattle bull are :: or (Rendille), ar (Arbore). burn, to ifuff-(ifuffe,it burned). :: bubbe: (Kambatta). butter suba :: subah (Rendille,Somali). cattle saye/sai/saye:: sa (Benadir, ox), sah (Rendille,, cow), sa (Jabarti), sa' a/saa (Galla). chief summi :: sum (Amharic,borrowed). child yis circumcize,to kAt- :: West Cushitic: kuz- (Maji). claw su:l :: u:l (Jabarti, big toe, thumb), suul (Medi- ban,thumb), sololoha1)(Konso), sgilli (Mogo- godo, nails, by metathesisfrom *silligi). clitoris gontoro:: kintir(Somali). cloud darurjdaruri:: darur (Mijurtein). dumanca :: dumensa (Boran, borrowed). coffee buna :: bunna (Amharic,borrowed). kawiye :: common in south Ethiopia. cold (temperature) ambAli

x) [Nel ms., al posto di h e scrittox con un puntoal disotto- N.d.R.].

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come, to met-1me - :: mid-jmad- (Somali), mAd- (Gudella, to go), mi'- (Darasa, to go). Cf. Amharic mt. kwaega (cf. II. B). " cow se (cf. cattle "). cowherder sai-kA-pofero crocodile halace/alace Darasa darasa Name of the Darasa people, Burji-Sidamo speakers,living in the highlandseast of Lake Abaya and south of the town of Dilla. " Daughter ere (cf. Wife"). die, to gw~lg°y- :: South Cushitic: gw (Iraqw), gwa- (Burunge), ga- (Mbugu) and CentralCushitic: " to kill ", kuw- (Bilen, Chamir,Kemant). dog kerre :: kerre(Saho), kerr (Galab), kere (Arbore) kar (Rendille), hArro (Konso), sare (Galla). donke}- demer :: darner(Benadir), dAmerr(Mediban), da- meiro (Isaq), damer (Darod), damer (Digil), etc. CommonSomali, a distinctiveSomali form, drink,to Dam- :: Daw- (Rendille), Dam- (Benadir), Dam- (Isaq, to drink milk), dem- (Boni, to eat), Dam- (Gidole, to eat), Dem- (Konso, to eat), dem- (Gato, to eat), dry garjgage'e:: arjgage (Rendille), irjgtgin(Mediban) ingegan (Jabarti), gogoga (Boran), gogano (Gudella), goganta (Marako). ear nebe :: nabah (Rendille, Auditory Meatus), nibe (Mogogodo), napah-te (Konso), nabaha-Da (Gato), labi-ta (Gidole), nete (Galab, from *neb-tel). " earth uljuli (cf. soil "). eat, to a'mjam- :: run- (Somali), him- (Rendille). So- mali final (n) normally is East Cushitic (m). " Note Jabarti am/an to eat egg buba :: buya (Shoa or Tulama Galla), buba (Gi- dole). West Cushitic: bw.bile(Harro), bubuli (Koyra), pupulya(Wallamo), bubuleya1)(Gofa). eight siddetjsidet:: siddet (Mediban), siyyed (Benadir), sadetti/saddet(Galla), siet (Galab). Ensete, Musa warke :: warke (Boran, borrowed).

[Nel ms.,al posto di h e scrittob con un puntoaldisotto. - N.d.R.1

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Eragrostisabyssi- tafi :: teff(Amharic), commonly borrowed. nicus (Teff) eye illili :: Common Cushitic. fat, of meat kabi :: koboCai (Isaq, fat, adj.), igapi (Gato). kAkabam :: igApA-dai (Konso), kapunta (Gidole), ke'mado(Sidamo). West Cushitic:kobab (Maji), kafo (Kafa), kefo (Anfillo,butter). Possibly coma (Galla, Burji, Darasa, Janjero, etal) but jmj - /bI correspondencenot indicated. " Cf. Amharic,ktbye, butter Father abbo :: Common Cushitic. " odo :: addi (Mediban), ado (Benadir). Cf. old man feather bal/baile:: bal (Somali), balle (northernGalla), balla (Konso), ball-ico (Sidamo). fence o:ti :: o:t (Rendille). fifteen toman-ko-keni " Ficus sycamorus oda :: oda (Wallega Galla: locus of Butta (Largetree usual- ceremony). ly linkedwith re- ligion amongCu- shites) finger per :: ferr(Mediban), far (Somali), farro(Rendil- le, hand - fingers), faro-lahato (Midgan, hand = the-posseses-fingers), fe:ra (Afar), farre(Dume, foot), farro(Sidamo, tail). South Cushitic:"bone", fara (Iraqw,Gorowa, Alagwa, Burunge), fald-atojfalala (pl.) (Ngomvia), i-fuara (Mbugu). West Cushitic: fera (Shako, horn), fsl (She, horn), fel (Bencho, horn), par-ta (Koyra). fire elenjileni :: elin-coj-cco (Hadiya, Marako, sun), yellin-co (Gudella, sun). North Cushitic: yin (Bedauwie, sun). fish kunnumi :: kallun (Somali), kullum-ta(Afar), kur- tummi(Galla), kurmuca(Gato), murgujja(Kon- so), kultume (Darasa), kultumme(Sidamo). five ksnijken :: keni (Konso), konoi (Afar), hem (Gi- dole), can (Galab, x'rbore), san (Somali, Ren- dille, Galla). South Cushitic: ko'an (Iraqw, Gorowa, Alagwa, Burunge), koane(Ngomvia).

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 50 HAROIyDC. FLEMING flower rarato fly,to bub- :: bub- (Benadir), bw.bu (Sidamo), bubbe (Galla, wind). foot lukka :: luk (Somali), liih (Rendille), lak (Saho), luk (Burji), lukke-to(Gidole), loQa (Konso), luh-te (Warazi), lus-te (Gawata), lokko (Ha- diya, Gudella), etc. four afarI afArt :: CommonEast Cushitic. full migi :: imako-da (Gato), imako-ta (Konso), inna- ko-ta (Gidole), imieke (BararettaGalla). Pos- " sibly Saho manginand Afar mangu, many". Galla gwgt •" The Galla people call themselves oromo or orma. Both galla and gsrgeprobably mean " person, people Cf. Galab gal (person), gal-yiet(woman), Warazi Qau-hu (male person), Darasa gar-icojgar-ico-te(old man/oldwoman), Sidamo ger-co (old person), Galla jar-sajjar-ti (old man/oldwoman). Gidichoisland (Ha- oddola no island on some maps) go, to siset- goat arer :: ri (Benadir), riyyo(Rendille), ari (Ren- dille, sheep), re* (Galla). God, creator-deity wah :: This formsis widelydistributed in southern Ethiopia and is usually treated as a borrowing fromGalla wak'waka. However, it may be a much older East Cushitic form. Cf. also Rendille wah. good khUdtdla:: Possibly u-Qaya (Warazi) and Qaiya (Tsamai), with the Baiso root being kA'idA. grass e:s :: 'aus (Somali), hos (Rendille), is (Galab), as-ko (Tsamai). green carido :: West Cushitic: ciro (Janjero), cil (Gimi- ra), cil-is (Maji), cilila (Gemu), ciello(Kafa, red), cale-mi/zale-mi(Ari: green,black), cauli (Hamar Koke, Banna: white). Central Cu- shitic: zar (Chamir), zar-ou (Khamta). Pos- " sibly Darasa tillo, black ". hair ogorro:: Possibly dogoro(Isaq, hair of animals), dAgur(Afar), tagar (Saho).

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adar :: orda (Darasa), ord (Burji), odda (Gudella, Hadiya, Marako). hand gene :: ga an/qaan (Somali), jini (Jiddu, from *gini), gana-d (Yibir, Midgan). Haruro (northern) harro :: harro(the Harro name forthemselves). CL also Wallamo harurofor both the northernand southernislanders, and haruro (Wallamo boat). Tradingon Lake Abaya is by boat, he usu/usu: :: usu (Somali), us/usu (Rendille). " hikina (cf. this "). head mete :: mAtah (Rendille), mAdah (Somali), mite (Mogogodo), mata' (Galla), matta (Konso), mhtta(Gato), mASA(Gidole). heart wizena :: wAZAna (Kambatta), wodini (Galab), wazana (Saho), wAd An a (Sidamo, Burji), wAdne(Mijurtein), wadna (Benadir), wayam(?) (Rendille) etc. hen (fowl) lukale :: lukku (southernand eastern Galla). hippopotamus dulo :: dusa (Mijurtein, Benadir : from *dul-ta) " do'l (Jabarti, ein grosses krokodil?"), duu- lu (Afar), tul-pe-ta (Konso), dohuli (Burji, leopard). his ka-kesa (cf. II. B). hoe hoke :: hego-i (Mogogodo,axe). horn, of animal ma:sa horse fArAdi:: farda (Galla); fArAs(Amharic). house mm :: min (Rendille), min (Benadir, room of house), min (Jabarti), minna (Tana Galla), mana/mara(other Galla), mine (Sidamo), etc. husband enter hundred bol :: ba'al (Jiddu), boqol/bogol(Somali), bo'ol (Afar). I (subj. prn) anijanajanni Common Cushitic. island oddola (cf. Gidicho island). Kallu or high pri- wono :: West Cushitic: wonto (Harro, Koyra, est,chief sorceror, God), wontojwonta (Ometo, tomorrow). wizard, theocratic chief kill, to lagad-/I Ag Ad- knee gilibjgilbo(cf. II. A). knife mAca :: West Cushitic: mas§a (Haruro of Kacha-

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ma), mas*ye (Doko). Probablyborrowed from Ometo. know, to malab- Uas- :: kas (Benadir). " lake beke dagar a (cf. water"). " leaf balalo :: bala (Galla). Cf. feather leopard kebih :: sabsl (Somali), suel (Boni), kab'i (Afar), kebel-co(Sidamo), kabe-cco (Gudella), sibin (Mogogodo), kobi-cco(Hadiya, lion), hobi-cco (Gudella,lion, cf. kabe-cco,above) ; North Cu- shitic: kafa (Bedawie, wild cat); cf. also Arabic sabehjsabtia(lion), whichis unlikelyas a source of Somali sabsl. lion luban :: libah (Somali), lubaka (Afar). liver toddo :: tiDo (Darasa), traw (Somali, dialect of Wanle Weyn), tiro (Yibir), tirau (Saho), tiru (Afar), tiru (Galla), tira (Gato, Konso), sira (Gidole), cira (Galab), cire (Warazi), tire (Gawata). long, tall kcLeri :: hera (Marako), kera-li (Gudella), kera'~la (Hadiya), kera-ro (Kambatta), kerra-ke(Da- rasa). louse igiri (cf. II. A). Maize, Zea bAdsla :: Borrowed fron Guji Galla, according to informants. man (generalsense) ul :: Possibly Central Cushitic: yir (Dembea), yir (Kemant, person); West Cushitic: ur-o (Mocha, man), ur-e (Kafa, woman), " " man, vir bAbar/babare:: barbar (Benadir, young man), men babar-jol many kamogani meat so:jsoo :: so3 (Somali), so (Galab), sowa (Konso), soha (Gato, Gidole), fo-n (Galla, from *so-n). milk e:no :: Common East Cushitic. millet/sorghum mastrjka:: misingo'misigo'misiggo(Somali), misirj- ka/bisinga(Galla). A commonform in southern Ethiopia. monkey (Amharic, tota) da?er :: dayer (Mijurtein,baboon), daner (Benadir, baboon), daser (Boni, monkey), moon digmi :: Possibly West Cushitic: tojenno(Mocha, star)

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Moslem islama :: islama (Amharic,probably borrowed). Mother a: own mother ayo :: Common East Cushitic. mountain wodamijwAdami mouth he'.'i :: A form apparently unique to Baiso. Cf. Wallega Galla heDi (lip). mule gwjge g

!) [Ved. p. 47, n. 1 - N.d.R.l

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pull, to nat- push, to saf- :: saf- (Sidamo, to shake, move). plural suffix -jol :: -yal (Somali), -ul(o) (Rendille-?); West Cushitic: hul (Banna), hal (Maji). rain (noun) idamo :: eryamo(Jabarti, cloud). rain, to ubat- :: ubayo (Tambarro), uwayyo (Kambatta). West Cushitic: buti (Shinasha,rain). Central Cushitic: fita (Wag, rain), red he'laki :: Possibly u-leha (Warazi, green), rhinoceros gAsi :: gAssr (Rendille, buffalo), kis-ua (Boni, buffalo), gasi (Afar), possibly Galla gafar-sa (buffalo)from *gasar-sa. Cf. Galla gafA(horn) and other East Cushitic ges/gas,etc., "horn". Cf. also Ethiopic : ges (Chaha, buffalo), gos (Amharic,buffalo). road ra :: rot- (Somali, to go with,follow). root hididi (cf. "seed") :: hidid (Somali), hiddA (Galla), hitina (Konso, Gato, Gidole), hesice (Warazi), esite (Gawata), possibly Rendille hAy,from* JiAd. Cf.III. A. RendillePhonology, round maramure:: maro (Afar), merrero(Sidamo), ma- rari (Warazi). run, to ti- sacrifice jarso :: soriyo (Boran Galla). sand ce:kAle Satan tsalahe :: West Cushitic: tselehe (Zaysse, God), talahe/zalahe(Ometo, Satan, spirit of the Omo river). Probably borrowedfrom Ometo. say, to amir-jam- see, to din-jd- :: West Cushitic: dena- (Shinasha,to know), seed wuta :: witajvita (Sidamo, borrowed). " hidid (cf. root "). Probably an error. seven totoba/todoba:: todobajtadoba(Somali), teba (Ren- dille), torba(Galla), toiba (Tana Galla, Boni reportedby Johnston). she (subj. prn.) ise:/ess :: ise (Sidamo group), isi-ni (Burji), isi (Afar), is (Rendille), isa (Asrof), isi (Galla), ise (Konso), ize (Warazi). " atina (cf. this "). shoulder hanni

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Sidamo sidama :: sidama (Galla, stranger), Sidamo (name of Sidamo people,Burji-Sidamo speakers, living in the highlandsnorth of Dilla). Sister abba :: abba-yyo (Hadiya, Gudella: Brother), obbole-sajobbole-ti(Galla, Brother/Sister). sit, to amaz- six lehjlsi :: leh (Somali), leh (Rendille), li (Jiddu), leh-a (Boni), lehei (Afar), leh (Gidole), loh (Gudella, Marako), le (Konso, Galab, Arbore, Sidamo), jahjja a/jaa/dya (Galla, from Hah). South Cushitic: laho (Iraqw, Gorowa, Alagwa, Burunge). West Cushitic: lah (Ari,Karo, Ban- na), la'ho (Male), Ia (Ubamer), yaku (Maji, Shako, Nao, fromHaku or *daku). CentralCu- shitic: lahu (Awiya Agau, one), lewa (Wag, one), lag (Kemant, one), lawa (Quara, one), lajlau (Chamir,Bilen: one). skin (hide) goga :: goga (Hadiya, Galla, Burji, Darasa, Tam- baro, Kambatta, etal). Probably Galla in origin; widely borrowedin southernEthiopia, skin (human) marka :: makar (Benadir, by metathesis). ma'.re :: maro (Somali, toga, dress), sky tie :: ir (Jabarti) eir (Somali) ir (Galab). sleep, to hudur-judur- :: udur- (Rendille), hurud- (Bena- dir), hurd- (Mij urtein). small kicere smoke tyyi :: Possibly qhk (Mediban) by loss of uvu- lars or Burji-Sidamo hilili/vilililwililiby palatalization. " soil erre/irre(cf. earth") :: 'arro (Somali: earth, sand), harra (Rendille, earth), arroa (Afar, sand), irra (Tambaro, earth), ulla (Sidamo, Marako, Hadiya: earth), ulle-ta (Kambatta, earth). West Cushitic: yellu (Maji, soil), alia (Harro). Son iri (cf. "Wife"). " sorghum/millet masirjka(cf. millet/sorghum"). " spear jerer (cf. war "). 3 stand, to all- :: al- (Benadir), 'ell- (Gidole), ur- (Darasa), ur- (Kambatta, Sidamo), uljull- (Hadiya, Ma- rako, Gudella).

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 56 HAROIyDC. FLEMING star baraja :: Possiblyhurji/urji (Galla), urje (Darasa, stars). Or possiblyby metathesisand palatalization, bakal (Rendille), bhkhl-ca (Darasa), bolanka (Hadiya, Gudella, Marako). Cf. West Cushitic: bakrwa(Janjero) bikil(Dime, venus). steer, ox sarjga :: sarjga (Galla). stone eebo :: Possibly ufi-ci (Warazi, mountain); Cen- tral Cushitic: aba (Chamir,Khamta: mountain); 3 North Cushitic: awe (Bedawie, stone); West Cushitic: ama (Janjero,mountain), sun ariti :: areso (Darasa), arici-ta (Tambaro), arriso (Sidamo), ayro (Saho, Afar); West Cushitic: arise (Gemu, but probably a borrowingfrom Burji-Sidamo). swim, to giris- :: girts- (Afar). tail dsbe :: dhbh-da (Mediban), dib (Jabarti), dabaj dabo (Benadir), dub (Rendille), tubo(Marako). ten tomonjtoman:: tomonjtobon(Somali), tomon(Ren- dille), tabana (Afar), tamma (Burji), tomon (Marako), tonne (Sidamo), tommon(Galab, Arbore). that (demon.) hasu (cf. II. B). their (poss. prn.) ka-kiso (cf. II.B). they (subj. prn.) iso :: ico (Rendille) ison (Asrof). thigh rera :: realejde'ari (Afar). this (demon.) hikka (unspecificnear thing); cf. II.B. hikina (this, masc.); cf. II.B. atina (this, fem.); cf. II.B. thou (subj. prn.) ati :: Common East Cushitic. three sedi :: saddsh/siddeh(Somali), seyyeh (Rendille), sedeh-a (Boni), sidhhu (Afar), s'di (Galla), sede (Galab), seze (Arbore), sesa (Konso). " throat koke (cf. neck "). thy (poss. prn.) kh.~ka(m); cf. II.B. tomorrow gebari :: Possibly = ge-bari. Cf. ge (Somali, day) and barijbiri (Somali: morning, tomorrow). Cf. also be'.ra (Afar), bor/boru(Galla), parre (Konso), buru (Burji). tongue irrebi :: arrab/allab/anrab/arralerre.Universal East Cushitic,a diagnosticword for that group, tooth ilko :: Universal East and Central Cushitic.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIUyE: SOMALI OUTLIERS 57 " tree gaa/ga (cf. wood ") :: gey (Rendille), gay (Jid- du). Cf. also III. A. Rendille Phonology, twenty lamatxn :: laba-tan/ laba-tam (Somali). lamatta two lAmAjlamma:: Common East Cushitic. vagina manteti:: -ti (femininesuffix), mute(Boran Galla, vagina), muta(Sidamo, penis); NorthCushitic: mid (Bedawie, penis); West Cushitic: wontapaj wonzafa (Ometo,penis). virgin delel want, to dot-jdat- :: don- (Somali). " war jerer (cf. spear ") :: Possibly dirir- (Somali, to attack, make war). However, a Baiso ///and Somali /d/correspondence is not otherwisein- dicated. warm kolkolemna:: kulujkulel(Somali), kulliil(Rendille). warrior ibado-kA-jerere water bske (cf. II. A). wealth giddi :: gAddh-li(Afar, rich). we (subj. prn.) no/nu :: Common East Cushitic. what? giro white gumara :: gobana (Marako). who? aiyoiki = aiyo-iki probably (cf. II. B). Wife amine :: mine (Benadir, woman), minne (Galab, woman), men-ti (Sidamo, woman), amanx (Burji,woman), men-ti-cco(Hadiya, Gudella: woman); South Cushitic:ameni (Iraqw, woman). " " or, in or-tate (my Wife. Cf. also Daughter and "Son") :: ar-ur (Somali,sons), arojare (Sidamo, husband/wife), ar (Saho, house); West Cushitic: arojare (Kafa, he/she), eri (Ari, house). Cf. also Hebrew ari (house). Wollamo/Wallamo wAllamo Name of the Wallamo people, Ometo- speakers,living in the highlandsto the west of Lake Abaya. The Baiso and Wallamo trade by boat across Lake Abaya. woman hileljhtlel women hilel-jol " wood ga (cf. tree "). yellow buleti :: bilo (Mediban-green), bora (Galla), bur (Galab, red), bori (Konso, Gato, black), he-

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bora (Gidole-black), and probably bilo (Saho, blood), abAl (Afar, blood); Central Cushitic: bir (Bilen,Chamir: blood), biri (Kemant,blood) bera(Khamta, blood), bri (Awiya Agau,blood), fri-z (Wag, blood); North Cushitic: boijbay(Be- dawie, blood); South Cushitic: bor (Iraqw, black); West Cushitic:biro (Shinasha,red), bore (Male, white), foro (Janjero,white). The va- riable color cognates can be seen to be based on the range of color in blood itself - from yellowor lightred to black or dark red - since " proto-Cushitic*birj*bor, blood is undoubtedly the source of this cognate. yesterday kelejkele(cf. II. A). you (pluralsub j.prn.) isinijisin :: isin/issen^insin(Digil), idin/isin (Benadir), izin (Tana Galla), issin (Afar), young man wAdala :: Possibly walal (Somali, Rendille: Bro- ther). your (poss. prn.) ka-kesini (cf. II. B).

III. - Rbndili,e.

The Rendille [rendille),also written Randile and Rendile, are nomadic pastoralistsliving in the plains near and south of Marsabit in northeasternKenya. They were firstvisited by von Hohnel in 1890. Subsequently,they werevisited by Donaldson-Smithin 1896, Cavendish in 1898, Arkell-Hardwickin 1903, Tate in 1904, Stigand in 1910, and Hobley in 1910. These early reportscontain virtuallyall that has been publishedon the Rendille. Physically,they are described as light-colored,as resemblingthe Somali, as having acquiline noses and straightblack hair, as being tall and well-builtwith slim and gracefulfigures, and Tate even mentions " " that some Rendille have steel-blue eyes. Culturally,they are described as having numerousherds and flocksof camels, cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and donkeys. They are said to be pagan or to have in- cipient Islam, to live mostlyon milk,to practice circumcisionbut not " " tooth evulsion,to have kraal chiefs,to live at times in permanent villages which consist of low flat-roofedhuts made of brush and reeds, to be polygamous,and to be warlikeor to have been warlikeuntil deci- " mated by small-pox. Tate reportedthat the Rendillevillages resemble those of the Somali in every detail Althoughhe believed Rendille

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to be a corruptform of Galla, Tate also reportedthat the Rendilledenied any originin common with the Galla. The recent Rendille situation is summed up in Arkell-Hardwick " (1903), page 370, as follows: The Rendili were formerlya very power- ful and warlike tribe, but are now so much reduced in numbersas to depend largelyfor protectionon the Burkeneji (the Samburu, a distinct northernbranch of the Masai-HF). The latter,when smallpox appeared, sent away theiryoung men to separate camps and so saved them,while the Rendili, who required every hand to look after their enormous flocks,were unable to do this, and in consequence sufferedvery se- verely. The two tribesnow live together,but the relationsare remark- able, for the Burkeneji constantlyraid the Rendili, who resent,but do not resist this treatment. The Burkeneji are very like the Masai in appearance,. . . speak Masai, but most of them understandthe Rendili language, and they are gradually assuming the dress and so forthof " the Rendili *). Since Tate, who believed Rendille to be a corruptform of Galla, two writershave brieflymentioned the linguisticaffiliation of Rendille. " Huntingford(1950, page 96) in a footnotesays, (b) NorthernFrontier district... In it live some Gala (Galla-HF) . . . , the Boran (Galla-HF) and a number of Somali who have spread over fromthe north-east, togetherwith a people called Randile wThoare closely allied in language " to the Somali Prins (1953, page 4) also in a footnotesays, 4) African population of Kenya, Census 1948; p. 58. The Rendille, a Hamitic tribeof N. Kenya are proto-Somali,and not Galla The onlypublished " data on Rendille is the followingin Hobley (1910, page 163): Randili names forthe days of the week: 1st day of week Hahat " " " 2nd Hura hakhan (hura in Randile means sun) " 0 " 3rd Sere (sere = day) " " " 4th Kumat " " " 5th Ser hakhan " " " 6th Sere adi (the day of goats & sheep) " " " " 7th Sere gal (the day of the camel) In June,i960, whileon a familiarizationtour of BritishEast Africa, I was fortunateenough to obtain access to a Rendilleinformant in Isiolo,

*) Rendille,as we can see fromArkell-Hardwick's statement and the of the Rendille,is almost the sourceof many geographical" " position certainly Hamitic words in Masai and probablyother Nilotic languages. See below fordiscussion.

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NorthernFrontier Province, Kenya. Interrogationwas limited to several hoursand was conductedin Boran Galla, supplementedby Swahili. The object of the interrogationwas solely that of a preliminaryclassifi- cation of Rendille. In the opinion of my informant,Mr. Mamo Kisandan, and some Boran Galla onlookersthere was no questionabout the Rendillerelation- ship to Somali. Phoneticallyand lexically,Rendille is obviouslyclosely allied to Somali. To maintainthat it is a corruptform of Galla would be equal to saying that Afrikaansis a corruptform of Icelandic,instead of a separatedmember of the Germandialect continuum! We are there- foremore interested in the positionof Rendille relativeto Somali rather than in its classificationwithin East Cushitic1). In view of the limitationsof the data no attempt will be made at dissectingRendille morphology. Primaryattention will be paid to phonology and vocabulary.

III. A. - Rendille Phonology. Phonetically,Rendille bears a close resemblanceto Somali and Afar. With the exception of the absence of the post velar/uvularstop jqj, which the velar fricative jhj replaces, the laryngeal,glottal and cacumenal sounds of Somali /A, h, ' Dj are present. Like Somali (and Afar) Rendille entirely lacks the glottalized consonant series //,£, k, pj , ordinarilyfound in Cushitic. The phones recorded are, as follows (sounds which are likelyto be allophones of one phoneme are joined thus /: e.g., pjf). Labials b, pjf, m Velars g, k, h Dental/Alveolars t, dys Laryngeals h, ' Palatals c, /, s Glottals h, Cacumenals D Semi-Vowels y, w Laterals r, I Vowels a' a, e/e,i, iy u/ii,o/o Nasals il, n/rj, m Vowel length and consonant doubling are presumedto be significant, as in other Cushitic languages, although no examples of contrastive pairingsare found in the data. Nor are there any examples of signi- ficantcontrast in stress or intonation.

x) It is feltthat there is littleto be gainedhere by a longand redundant elaborationof this obvious close relationship.There are even fewergrounds forattempting the demonstrationthat Rendilleis East Cushitic. The reader will appreciate,I trust,after perusing the data, being spared the proofs of somethinghe will readilyperceive.

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A numberof correspondenceswith Somali seems clear. They are, as follows,with examples:

Rendillejhj Somali jqj hanin- qanin to bite horiyo qoryo(Darod) wood luhum luqun (Benadir) neck Rendillejcj Somali /s/ cele seley (Benadir) yesterday cimbir simbir bird Rendille/y/ Somali jdj and /y/ yeya daya moon yumu dim- (Mediban) to die Dim-at (Benadir) {?)yip dibid (Benadir) desert gey ged (Benadir) tree geyt(Mediban) gay (Jiddu) seyysh shddsh (Mediban) three seye (Jiddu) siyyet siddet eight siyst (Digil) whyam wadna (Benadir) heart Rendille jjj Somali /// jihb jilib knee jit jid road tnjir injir louse tncir (Mediban) Rendille jhj Somali /'/ Word Initial jhj hoi col war halesi calosa liver, belly hos caus grass r kiln- un- to eat hannu (probably *ano milk /h/is an errorin transcribingfh/) Except : houla heulo wealth *dsub eosub new

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The remainder of Rendille sounds appear to vary little more from their equals in Somali than the dialects of Somali differeach fromthe other in this respect. The exception is Rendille word-initialjnj, for which no Somali equivalents were found. The possibilitythat this jnj is associated with Nilotic borrowingsremains, jnj being extremelycom- mon in Nilotic; however, no Nilotic counterpartsfor those Rendille words having the jnj were found. In generalterms Rendille differsphonetically from Somali scarcely morethan the northerndialects of Somali differfrom some ofthe southern, as forexample, Jiddu.

III. B. - RendilleMorphology. Only a brieflisting of the formswhich appear to be clearly bound up in grammaticalprocess will be given,along with a listing of the pronouns and numbersobtained.

Nouns.

No article or particularizingnominal suffixwas elicited. Noun formstend to be CVC or CVCVC, with vowel endingsless common.

Adjectives. A numberof adjectivesobtained were of the forma yehai(- iahai , - ihai, -iyihai). Thus, a-Da-iyihai (black), a-kulull-ihai *) (cold), a- kullul-yehai(warm), a-der-iahai (long), a-nacul-iyihai (small). Two p otherscontained suffixed -iyehai withoutinitial a-. Thus, osub-iyahai (new) and hage-yehai(good). Several others containedprefixed a- but withoutsuffixed -iyehai. Thus, abur (big), arjgage(dry), arufoDa (cold). The suffix- yehai, with its variants, quite probably means "it is ", as in Somali (Benadir) -yahay, and is not an integral part of adjective formation. Two adjectives contain word final -an. Thus, Dahan (all) and dahnan(white). Since -an is a commonSomali verbaladjective formant, perhaps it has the same role in Rendille. The prefixeda- is also found in verb formsand is probably not a part of adjective roots,excepting arjgage (dry) in whichan initial vowel appears consistent with the form in Somali. Thus, Mediban trjgigm (dry) and Mijurtein engeg (dry).

J) [Nel ins., al posto di I e una I con v sovrapposto.- N.d.R.].

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Pronouns.

The subject pronounsare, as follows: I ani/an we injinno thou ati/ate/at you (plural) atin ib (?) he us/usu they ico/icu ul (?) she is

The formsih and ul are exceptional and are perhaps bound to verbs, being found only in ih ir-ate (2nd person singular past of "to go " thou didst go ") and ul ir-ta (he goes). It is possible that ul relates to Somali (Mediban) wu/wul,the copula/auxiliary-wa- in the 3rd person singular masculine. But note kulla (that) below. The close resemblance of the subject pronounsto those of Baiso is notable.

Demonstratives.

The forms kulla and kussa, masculine and femininerespectively, " " were recorded for that and kAn(m)jkanantifidiyo(i)were recorded " for this It is most probable that the feminineform kanantifidiyo " is erroneous,i.e., means morethan this It is regrettablethat more time was not available. kAn (m) is regularEast Cushitic,with the demonstrativemasculine " base, k-, prefixedto -an, meaning this Thus Somali k-an, Burji k-ani, Galla k-uni, Sidamo k-uni; contrastingwith the feminineforms t-an, t-uni, etc. The other two demonstrativesare decidedly atypical for Cushitic and unparalleled in East Cushitic. In kulla (m) one is reminded of the ul (3rd personmasculine singular pronoun) mentioned before. More- " " over, Baiso has ul meaning man in a general sense; Galab has ello, " " " meaning this Gato has a formurra , meaning person (normally male in East Cushitic); Khamta of Central Cushitichas a parallel pair " in An-il (m) and a nic (f), meaning this "; and Male of West Cushitic " has lojleke, meaning that It is possible that kullajkussa directly parallels Khamta Anil/Anic, as an old Cushitic distinctionbetween masculineand feminine. One is, however,reminded of the commonNi- lotic masculinedemonstrative base, lojlu (this) and specificallyof Masai " " el-le this (m). The possibilityof kulla being a usage of borrowed Masai el-leyalthough doubtfulin my opinion, cannot be ruled out as

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Interrogatives. The interrogativeforms recorded are amahai (what?) and ataiyo (who?). Without doubt ataiyo = at-aiyo (thou-who?). (Cf. pronouns above). Both formsare clearly close to Somali. Thus, Mediban wa- mhai (what?) and wa-ayofaye (who?); Benadir maha (what?) and ya (who?). Cf. also Baiso aiyo (who ?).

Verb Morphology. Two short verbal paradigms were gathered. All other verbs were sought in either the imperativeor 3rd person singular past tense, the formsusually closest to the verb root in East Cushitic. The form,a-, as mentionedabove, was also foundprefixed in some verb forms. Thus, a-gub-te (it burns, or more likely, it burned), a- yumu-i (he died), a-nam-e (he flew), a-dag-ta (hear!), a-mut (die!), a-gis (kill !), a-gsr-ta (see!). A form-o/-u forthe imperativesingular was recorded in ir-o (go!), fiddis-o (sit!), tolos-u (stand!). In these formswe also find,in all probability,the causative suffix,-s, of common East Cushitic. Thus Somali (Mediban) fAdi-s (to sit) and (Benadir) faDi- (to be seated). The verb paradigmsare, as follows:

Present tense of "to go ". I go an er-da Thou goest at ir-sta He goes ul ir-ta We go in ir-enna You (pl.) go atin ir-etan They go icu r-te (probably an error)

Past tense of "to go ". I went an er-de Thou wentest ih ir-ate He went us ir-te

Imperative Singular of "to go ir-o

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Present tense of "to know". I know an gar-da Thou knowest ate gar-etajatigar -eta He knows usu a-gar-ta She knows is a-gar-eta We know in a-gar-enna You (pl.) know atin a-gar-etan They know ico a-ger-tan

Generally,the formsare those commonlyfound in East Cushitic, although-ta instead of -a for "I" and "he" is unusual. One is reminded of Baiso -ra, in the same context. The usual distinctionbetween ist person and 3rd person masculine singular on the one hand and 2nd person and 3rd person feminine singular on the other hand si maintained. Other verb formsrecorded are: hanin (bite!), kale (come!, identical withMediban and Benadir kaley, the irregularimperative), ahannanahai (I came: a doubtful form), Dam (drink!), hiin (eat!), ken (give!), dah (say!), and udur (sleep!). The phrase lohulokilata (he wentby foot) was recorded;this may be broken down into loh (foot), -ulo (a plural formor "by means of "), kila- or kil- (to go or travel), and -ta (3rd person singular masculine " presentsuffix). The phrase probablymeans he goes by foot rather " than he went by foot".

Numbers.

The cardinal numbersobtained are, as follows: one koti six leh two lama seven teba three seyyeh eight siyyet four afAr nine sagal five sAn ten tomon

As in the case of Baiso we are confrontedwith a set of numberswhich all correspondto those of Somali. Again it should be pointed out that such completeagreement in the numbersis significantand not a matter to be lightlydisregarded, because of the assumptionof numericalin- stability.

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III. C. - Rendille Vocabulary. all Dahan :: Dan (Benadir). animal bina :: binsn-sa (Galla). ashes ben :: West Cushitic: btndi(Ari), bidini (Hamar Koke), bedna (Janjero), bidin-ta (Wallamo). axe D agara :: D agara (Boran Galla). back gArAb:: garab (Somali, shoulder). bad man, evil one sut :: Possibly so'a-ku (Warazi, sorceror), soai-ta (Konso, sorceror). bark, of tree medah beard dAbAl:: dsbeni (Afar). belly ur :: ur (Benadir). bird cimbir (cf. III. A. Rendille Phonology), big abur bite, to hanin- (cf. III. A). black Da :: Possibly u-iDa (Warazi, red), yi da (Tsamai, red), haDo (Galla, green). blood Dig :: Dig (Somali). bone laf :: laf (Somali). bread kibis :: kimis (Somali). breast, of woman nahas :: na'.si (Baiso), nas-ka (Somali). Brother walal :: walal (Somali). buffalo,African gAser :: gAfar-sa(Galla, from *gasar-sa). bull or :: are (Baiso). burn, to gub- :: gob- (Somali). " butter subah (cf. fat "). chief nAmgudda :: nAm gudda (Boran Galla, borrowing), child nahut chest, of body kac claw gofAn cloud dubbAt:: dw.ba (Marako, Hadiya), dum (Saho), dume-sa/dumen-sa (Galla). coffee bun, Arabic or Somali from Arabic; borrowing, cold (temperature) rufoDa come, to kale (irregularimperative) :: kaley (Somali). ahan nanahai (I came?). cow sah :: sar (Somali). cows/cattle lolyo :: Wad (Benadir), loni (Galla). crocodile aham Daughter albe

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIIylyE : SOMALI OUTLIERS 67 desert yip (cf. III. A). die, to a-mut (die!). a-yumu-i (he died). Cf. III. A. " doctor daktari. From English, doctor". dog kar :: kerre(Baiso). donkey ehel :: Possibly related to Yibir of Obbia al-hel (horse), from Arabic, but more probably it is " relatedto an old Cushitic, donkey Cf. hol-go (Kule), holt(Arbore), olo (Galab Marille), har- re (Galla); West Cushitic: kur (Gimira), kur-o (Kafa), kura (Nao, Shako), ukli (Karo), ukuli (Banna, Hamar Koke), ukli (Bako, Ari-mule). drink, to Dam- :: Dam (Somali). dry arjgage :: irjgigm(Mediban), engeg(Somali), ear dogo :: dAg (Somali). ear-hole (Auditory nabah :: nsbe (Baiso). Meatus) " earth harra (cf. soil "). eat, to hun- :: *un- (Somali). egg ukun :: ukkun (Somali). eight siyyet:: siyyed(Benadir). elephant arAp :: arba (Galla), aro (Benadir). eye mdo (plural?) :: inDo (Somali, eyes). family gob (clan-?) arrari :: rer (Somali), worrajwarra(Galla). " fat, of meat subah (cf. butter") :: subah (Somali). Father aba :: Common East Cushitic. feather kalala :: kella (Darasa), kolla (Boran Galla). Cf. also Nilotic, karor (Suk) and koror(Nandi). fence o't :: o:ti (Baiso). field dou fire dAb :: dAb (Somali). fish yel five sau :: san (Somali, Galla). fly, to nam- foot luh :: luk (Somali). forest omar four afAr :: afar (Somali). fowl kuku full urup giraffe geri :: giri (Somali).

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 68 HAROIyDC. FLEMING give, to ken- :: ken-jkenn-(Galla), ken- (Somali,to bring), go, to it- kilajkil- goat riyyo :: ri (Benadir). God wah :: wak (Galla). Cf. Baiso "God". hage good * grass hos :: aus (Somali). green rob :: rob (Somali, rain). hair tim :: tinjtim(Somali). hand only) farro :: far/fer(Somali, finger). Rendillefarro pro- (hand " bably equals fingers". hand (plus lower DAhan arm) he (subj. prn.) usjusu :: usu (Baiso). ul (cf. III.B). head mAtah:: mAdah (Somali). " hear, to dag- (cf. ear "). heart wAyam(cf. III. A). horn,of animal gas :: ges (Somali). horse garjge:: garjge(Galla, mule). house min :: mm (Baiso). hyena waraba :: waraba (Benadir). I (subj. prn.) an/ani :: Common East Cushitic. iron bir :: bir (Somali). kill, to gis- :: gis- (Arbore), ijes (Galla, from*iges ). knee jtltb :: jilib (Somali). Kallu, or high pri- falo :: faal (Somali, Afar, to bewitch). Cf-also " " est, chiefsorceror, Rendille, rain-maker and Mijurtein falfal wizard,theocratic (sorceror). chief knife mindil :: mindi (Somali). know, to gar- :: ark (Somali,to see), arg-jagAr- (Galla, to see). leaf hadah :: hodah(Isaq, thorn). lightning arjhad :: onkod (Isaq, thunder). lion bAhasi liver halesi :: ralosa (Mediban,belly, liver. From *'alol-ta). long der :: Der (Benadir), der (Mediban). louse tnjtr :: injir (Somali). " " man, vir mejel :: Possibly magal (Benadir). many omar

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIIyl^E I SOMALI OUTLIERS 69 meat jid :: jid (Isaq: body; flesh,lean meat). milk hannu :: eano (Benadir). money,wealth houla :: heulo (Mediban: cattle, hence wealth), moon yeya (cf. III. A). Mother aiyo :: Common East Cushitic. mountain kur :: goru (Burji), garo/gorro(Sidamo), gara (Galla). mouth aj :: aj (Somali), common Cushitic. " mule gange (cf. horse "). name mAg&a :: mAgah(Mediban). neck luhum :: luqun (Benadir). new rdsub :: *osub (Somali). night iben :: habenjhamin(Somali). nine sagal :: sagal (Somali). nose saw :: sah (Somali). one kou :: kow (Somali). penis nohur person inenst python horomAYsi rain wah-atuwei(?) rain-maker /a//aZ:: falfal (Mijurtein,sorceror). Cf. "Kallu". red gudud :: gudud (Somali). river wor :: war (Somali, swamp, marsh, quagmire). road jit :: jit (Somali). " root Haj :: (cf. Baiso root "). sacrifice soriyo :: soriyo (Boran Galla). salt mAgat.Probably from Lake Magati, from which Rendille salt is traded in. sand yohanti Satan bAleika say, to dah- :: dahjrah- (Somali). " see, to gsr- :: (cf. to know"). seven teba :: Cf Baiso "seven". she (subj. prn.) is :: Cf. Baiso "she". sheep ari :: eri .(Somali). sheep and goats adi :: adi (Mediban: sheep, plural). (Hobley) shoulder berber:: Possibly barbar (Benadir, young man). But not too probable semantically. Sister walasaiya :: walasa (Somali, from *walal-ta).

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 70 HAROLDC. FLEMING sit, to fiddiso (sit!) = fiddi-s-o :: fAdi-s (Mediban). six leh :: leh (Somali). skin maliel :: Possibly magar (Benadir). " sky sere (cf. also Hobley's sere, day ") :: Possibly §er (Somali, time). However, probably a cognate " of the old Cushitic, sky, God zar in Central Cushiticand dar/yer/tar,etc. in West Cushitic. slave miskin :: miskin (Mediban, poor, from Arabic al miskin). sleep, to udur- :: udur-jhudur-(Baiso), hurud/hurd-(Somali), small nacul smith,iron- worker turned:: tumal (Somali). Not a recent borrowing fromSomali because mentionedby Stigand in 1910. Cf. also bir (iron). The usual assumption that iron-usingcultures in Kenya derive fromthe advent of the Bantu is almost certainly wrong. smoke urn snake tof soil il :: ul (Baiso, earth) and irrejerre (Baiso, soil). Cf. Rendille harra (earth). " Son nakot (cf. child "). spear hun large spear tor :: teri(Somali), tor(Mogogodo); South Cushitic: toro (Mbugu); West Cushitic: tora (Haruro of Kachama, Koyra,Zala, Doko). Cf.also Amharic tor (spear) and tor-tnnet(war). spear, to worhan- :: waran (Somali, spear), woran (Galla, spear). stand, to tolo-s star bakal :: bakal (Somali, Venus). stone dAgah :: dAgah (Somali). sun orra :: qorrah/orrah(Somali). hura (Hobley) :: hula (Jabarti, flame). tail dub :: dAbjdabjdip(Somali), ten tomon :: tomon/toban(Somali). that (demon.) kulla (m) (cf. III.B). kussa (f) (cf. III.B). they (subj. prn.) ico/icu :: iso (Baiso), ison (Asrof). this (demon.) kAn (m) (cf. III.B). kanantifidiyo(f) ??

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thou (subj. prn.) ati/ats/at:: Common East Cushitic. " ih :: -iki (Baiso, in aiyo-iki, who?-thou"). . three seyyeh:: siddsh (Somali). Cf. III. A. thunder guga :: guga (Jabarti), kaka'o (Afar, lightning), tomorrow sata tongue harrhb :: Universal East Cushitic. tooth ilko :: ilko (Somali-teeth). tree gey :: gay (Jiddu), geyd(Mediban). Cf. III. A. two lama :: lamajlaba (Somali). vagina gel war hoi :: *ol (Somali). warm kullul :: kolkolemna(Baiso), kulujkulel (Somali), warrior dun :: Possibly dul (Somali: raid, war party), dula (Galla, war), and dul-tu (Galla, warrior), water bice :: beke(Baiso). Cf. II. A. we (subj. prn.) in :: Common East Cushitic. (independent) inno " well (watersource) xvor(cf. river"). " wealth, money houla (cf. money"). what? amahai (cf. III.B). white dahnan who? aiyo :: aiyo (Baiso). woman obori :: barra(Afar), haber/habar(Somali, mother). wood horiyo(cf. III. A). yesterday cele :: seley (Somali), kele (Baiso). you (subj. prn.pl.) atin :: adin (Somali).

IV. Boni.

In southeasternKenya in the area between the Tana river and the present Somalia-Kenya border several hunter groups, called Boni or WaBoni, were found in the 19th century by European explorers. These groups were living in a territorythen occupied primarilyby the Tana or Bararetta Galla and Bantu (Pokomo and the Swahili-speaking peoples). The movementsof the Darod Somali had only very recently broughtthem into part occupancy of those areas wherethe Boni lived. It is significantthat the two 19thcentury explorers, Fischer and Johnston, who publishedthe only available data on the Boni, did not mentionthe Somali in their discussionsof the Boni. Rather they concernedthem- selves with the Galla and Galla words in Boni.

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In order to show the ethnic situation in the Tana river area as it appeared at that time, I quote in fullthe firsttwo paragraphsof Fischer's " report,written in 1878. (Page 141) Im Siidlichen Gala-L,andewer- den, abgesehenvon dem Kisuaheli der Kiistenbevolkerung5 verschiedene Sprachen gesprochen:Kipokomo, Kigala, Kisanue, Kiboni, und Kitua. Die Volksstamme,welchen diese Sprachen angehoren,werden von den Vasuaheli genannt: Mpokomo plur. Vapokomo; Mgala plur. Vagala, Msanie plur. Vasanie, Mboni plur. Vaboni, Mtua plur. Vatua. Mit letz- teremVolke bin ich nichtin Beriihrunggekommen, weshalb von diesem in der Tabelle nichts vorhanden. Das Gebiet der Vapokomo ist bekannt: auf dem linken Ufer des mittlerenund oberen Tana-L,aufes. Die jetzigen Grenzen der Vagala erstreckensich vom rechten Sabaki-Uferx) bis zum Osi 2) und Tana. Die Vasanie wohnenam linken Ufer des Sabaki entlangund ziehen sich von dessen Oberlaufesiidlich der Grenzevon Ukambani nach dem Tana hin. Die Wohnsitze der Vaboni erstreckensich von dem Vapokomo- Ivande, in welchem selbst viele wohnen, in ostlicherund siidostlicher Richtungbis 2 Tagereisenvon der Kiiste. Das Gebiet der Vatua liegt nordlichvom Osi und zieht sich unweit der Kiiste bis zum i°5o's. Br. hin. Die Sprache der Vagala wirdvon alien diesen Volkernneben ihren eigenengesprochen und von den Vasanie z.b. mehr angewandtals ihre Muttersprache. Am wenigstenzahlreich sind die Watua (sz'c); ausser den ackerbautreibendenVapokomo sind alle Jagervolker Fischer distinguishedthe Boni fromthe Sanye, locating them respectively east and west of the Tana river. Moreover,the linguistic data, given by Fischer, quite clearly distinguishesthe two. Boni and Sanye share perhaps half of the vocabulary items but less than half of the non-numericalitems. There is considerablephonetic difference in some of the itemsshared. On the otherhand Sanye is so close to the Galla, given by Fischer, for Galla to be indeed,their mother-tongue. Boni is neitherthe same language as Sanye nor is it a dialect of Galla 3). Anothersmall Boni vocabularywas publishedby Johnstonin 1886. Although he gave several names and locations with referenceto the

*) The Sabaki or Galana (Galla forlarge river) rises ill Kamba country, flowsthrough the Tsavo area and has its mounthat Malindi,SW of Tana. 2) The Osi is a veryshort river which is properlythe rightor easterly channelof the two-mouthedTana river. 3) In the same data the samplesof Pokomo and Swahili show about 75% agreementwhich is about what one would expect fromthe closely relatedBantu languages. Moreover,there is verylittle phonetic difference betweencognate words,unlike the Boni-Sanye-Gallacognates.

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Boni, presumablyhis data was obtained fromthe only Boni he actually saw - those east of the Tana river in the vicinityof Lamu. Thus the data is taken fromthe same geographicalgroup as Fischer's. Johnston's Boni is somewhat differentfrom Fischer's, although it is either very closelyrelated or anotherdialect of Boni. Fortunately,Johnston's data supplementsthat of Fischer,thus increasingthe materialwhich we have to compare. A relativelycasual perusal of the available Boni data shows four kinds of words, viz., those close to Galla, those close to Somali, those close to Bantu, and those special to Boni. There are only 2 or 3 words of probable Bantu origin,obviously borrowed culture words. Except for a handfulof words peculiar to Boni (plus Sanye in a few cases), all of the remainingwords are clearlyof Somali and/orGalla origin. How- ever, the words of probable Somali origindistinctly outnumber those of probable Galla origin. Moreover,many words which could be of either Somali or Galla originare phoneticallycloser to Somali, particularlyin Fischer's data. Finally, of course, since in no dialect of Galla nor in any language closely relatedto Galla are Somali-likeforms as numerous " " as the native ones, how are we to account forall the Somali in Boni? The vocabulary reportedby Fischer is given here in full,save that the Pokomo and Swahili data is omitted, and Johnston'svocabulary thereafter. Because virtuallyevery word in Fischer's data ends in either -a, - ua , or -ya, these are treated as suffixes,suggestive of the suffixed articles of Somali. The Fischer vocabulary is, as follows:

Kigala x) Kisanie Kiboni Somali/Rendille a greeting (wie gehts? guten Tag) negea negea faiyala fay-(to be well) cattle lonijlawoni lauwon loi-ya lo*da 'lolyo goat reh Idles kurbis-ua (kurbica=kid) sheep h(?la h

x) Entriesgiven in parenthesesare formsfrom other dialects of Galla. They are insertedwhere appropriate. Somali and Rendilleforms are given forcomparative purposes; they are not taken fromFischer's or Johnston's data. Formsfollowed by (F) in the Galla columnof Johnston'svocabulary are taken fromFischer's Galla. Some few formsfrom Gato and Konso, whichare closelyrelated to Galla, and Baiso are given,when appropriate, as better representativesof their respectivegroups.

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Kigala Kisanie Kiboni Somali/Rendille elephant drba arb mortXri-ya morodi-ga(Ben.) buffalo gddefsa gdders kis-ua gAser(Rend.) gAsi (Baiso) lion neka neka dytih-a libah leopard kerentsa kerents suel-a sabel hyena worbesa worubes vuara waraba waraw a (Digil) dog serieni sere ui-ya ei-ga wild cat morode tsits-ia porcupine kordti dado ded-ua baboon geldesa gdldes ddser~a dayer (Mij.) darter(Ben.) pig boiye buye Cephalophusgugufitu zegdr-wa sagAro (Digil) donkey hare huan-a darnerjehel horse ferda ferd ferdn-ua faras farow-gi(zebra) camel gdla gal-ua hal, gel/ gal giraffe satauwe satauo kiri-ya gerijgsri rhinoceros worses werses hul-a hir (buffalo) heulo (Med.) rat,kind of hamtiXta buidyirtu bugisirt-ua (Aulacol. Swinder.) rat dota ptinia lota snake bonfa bof mof-ua fish gurttime gortomi marale-ya mallay (Ben.) bird simpire simpire simir-a simbirjcimbir °ne toko tak kay-a kow/kou two lama 1dm lauw-a laba, lamaj lama three sedi sedi sedeh-a saddeh, siddeh four dfuri dfur a far-a afar/afar five sani san san-a san/san six dya, (jah/jaa) nyo leh-a leh, lihjleh seven toiba toib sedduw-a todobajteba saybe (Jiddu,from *sadbe) eight sedieri sadied siyir-a siyed (Digil) siyyst(Rend.)

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Kigala Kisanie Kiboni Somali/Rendille nine sdgali sager sdgil-a sagaljsagal ten kudeni kuden tdun-a toban,tomonjtomon twenty ilamani Mama lautatin-oa labatun (Digil) thirty sedietama, sodom sedatatin-oa soddon sodom forty afurtdma afurtam afartaun-oa afartun(Digil) fifty santama sentdm santatin-oax) konton sixty dyatama dyartdm letaun-oa lehdan (Ben.) seventy toibatdma toibatam sedatatin-oa todobatan(Ben.) eighty sedietama sadietam siyirtatin-oa siyyetan(Ben.) ninety sagaltama sagertam sageltatin-oa sagasan, sagaltan hundred dib dib lebetatin-oa boqol,bogol thousand dibukum dibukum deb-ua kun, kum

The small vocabularygiven by Johnstonis reproducedhere in full also. It shows moreresemblance to Galla than does the Boni of Fischer, but still bears a strong resemblanceto Somali. Johnston'sforms are given in comparison with those Somali and Galla forms which are cognate and reasonably close phonetically. Boni Galla Somali/Rendille man riga rag, reg woman idoho woman,as mother nasa na as-ka (Jiddu), nas- ka (breast), nahas (Rend.) youngunmar- riedgirl ojale ijolle (child) cow lavon lauwoni(F) lo3adjlolyo (cattle) (cattle) buffalo kadarasa gadersa elephant mororie morodi(Ben.) elephant arba arba aro(~Ben.)larap road derbo dirbo (Arabic,darab) (Tana Galla only) house minga minna (Tana) min-ki(T)igiY)lmin mana/mara

[Nel ms., al posto di s e scritto5 con un puntoal disotto- N.d.R.].

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Boni Galla Somali/Rendille village kiluani (Bantu?) sun hado adu sun setting hadite hadite (of the sun) rain boke bokoya(Tana) boka lake biwesi (Bantu?) snuff ruso (Bantu?) good surde eat, to ademe dem- (Gato) Dam (to drink) " " (Probably is Dam- (Konso) (Rend.) a-detn-e, " " " (Baiso) he ate ") yon isi izin (Tana) isin (Ben., Digil) isin (Baiso) I am well fila fayy- fay- (to be well) (Probablyfil-a) (to be well) fayle (good,Digil) -a, presenttense - a -ay Are you well? filalta (,filal-ta ?) you come afarasi (.a-fara-si ?) I have not m ovo ma- (negative prefix) I saw not m*arne arg-(to see) -o (neg.suffix, istpers.) -ne (neg. suffix) ijob - (to have) arg- (to see) one koi kowjkou two lama lama lama, laba/lama three sadi sadi siddi (Digil) four afur afur afar five san san san/san six li U (Jiddu),leh/leh seven toiba toiba (F) todobafteba eight siete sedieri (F) siyed (Digil)/sty yet nine sagala sagali (F) sagaljsagal ten tobenna toban,tomon/tomon

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On the basis of sheer lexical count, without allowing for phonetic similarity,the Boni of Johnston'sdata shares 20 of 36 formswith Galla (12 of 26 non-numericalitems and 8 of 10 numbers);it shares 22 of 36 formswith Somali (12 of 26 non-numerical items and 10 of 10 or all of the numbers). However, in four comparisonsthe Boni cognate is So- mali in formeven though cognate with the Galla form. Thus, li (six), siete (eight), nasa (woman) and minga (house). Only in afur (four) do we have the conversex) . In derbo (road) we have a formwhich is of Arabic origin,although also found in the Tana river dialect of Galla (but not in other Galla dialects). Johnston'sdata shows thereforefully as much resemblanceto Somali as to Galla, if not more2). Fischer's Boni is distinctlycloser to Somali than is Johnston's. In non-numericalitems 17 of 25 are cognate with Somali, whereas 12 of 25 are cognate with Galla. Similarly16 of the 20 numbersreported are manifestlycognate with Somali, while 12 are cognate with Galla. In 5 cases, where a numbercognate is shared with both Somali and Galla, it is closerto Somali phonetically. Thus, sedeh-a(3), leh-a (6), siyir-a(8), letaun-oa(60) and siyirtaun-oa(80). More significantthan a gross statistical conclusion that Somali formsare somewhat more numerousthan those of Galla in Boni is the nature of the Somali resemblances. These include all of the primary numbers,excepting sedauwa (seven) of Fischer's data; the m- negative prefix; an a- verbal prefixsimilar to Rendille's; a nominal suffix-ya which correspondsto Somali -kaj-gaj-ki' and many words of the basic vocabulary, e.g. man, woman, house, fish, bird, dog, to eat, to see, to have. Finally, many words for animals, domestic and wild, are Somali, e.g. sheep, cattle, elephant,buffalo, lion, leopard, baboon, giraffe, and rhinoceros. Other words such as, to be well, hyena, donkey,horse, " and the pronoun you ", are equally Galla or Somali. The fact that most of the Somali-like words are not close copies of their Somali equivalents, as are most of the Galla-likewords, is also significant,since

x) Since Knglishspeakers frequently render /a/ with writtenn, it is possiblethat Johnstonactually heard / afAr /, the Somali form. 2) The Galla reportedby both Fischer and Johnstonis somewhat deviantfrom the otherGalla dialects,particularly in replacingjrj and jd/ with /y[in several formswhich is what Somali has done but otherGalla has not done. This is not to that Tana Galla has been " " " say corrupted by a Somali influence ratherthe implicationis that the same phonetic processis at workin both Galla and Somali. The devianceof Tana Galla is probablysignificant historically.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 78 HAROLDC. FLEMING it implies genetic commonalityand historical separation ratherthan recent borrowing. When we again considerhow to explain how so much of Boni came to be Somali-oid, the first natural hypothesisis to attribute this to borrowingfrom the Somali in the mid-19th century. However,since the Somalimigrants to easternKenya wereDarod or originallynorthern Somali and since Boni resemblessouth Somali phoneticallymore than northern, we may reject the Darod hypothesis. Moreover,the numberof years that the Darod dominatedthe Tana area is small, perhaps thirtyat the most,and too shorta time to account forso many borrowings. On the other hand since much of Boni bears a special resemblance to Tana Galla 1), we may attributethis to borrowing,particularly since it is generallyaccepted that the Galla have been in eastern Kenya for at least several centuries. Since Boni is neither Galla nor proper Somali, but does have a general affinitytowards Somali/Rendille,we may furtherconclude that " " it representsa lost dialect of Somali. I propose that Boni bears the same sort of relationshipto Somali as Dorobo does to Nandi 2), a conclusionwhich seems inherentin the veryname Boni, whichis surely relatable to bon (hunter,hunter caste) of southernand southwestern Somali dialects.

V. - Linguistic Discussion. A. - Rendille and Boni. The obvious close relationshipexisting between Rendille and Somali is, in my opinion,not subject to seriousdispute. The veryclose phonetic agreementand the mass of lexical resemblancesextending to the most basic concepts, precludes any but an hypothesisof common genetic origin and relativelyrecent separation. Moreover,the conclusions of linguisticanalysis are in high correlationwith the great similaritybe-

x) The Sanye reportedby Fischeralso bears an even strongerspecial resemblanceto Tana Galla and should be classifiedas Galla, in so many words. The Sanye of Damman (1950), however,is not Galla but ratheris classifiablewith South Cushitic. This is also Greenberg'sconclusion. 2) The readerwill recall that the Dorobo languageconsists of several distinctdialects which are relatedin varyingdegrees of closenessto Nandi of the South Niloticlinguistic group (Southern Nilo-Hamitic) . The Dorobo are huntersand some of theirgroups live, as Nandi-speakingenclaves, in Masai and Kikuyuterritory, as, forexample, the Mosiroof northernTanga- nyika.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDII^E: SOMALIOUTLIERS 79 tween the Rendille and the Somali in race and culture. The one great culturaldifference, to whichmany differences in culturaldetail undoubtedly adhere,is in relationto the Arabs. The Somali are at least nominally Moslemand acculturatedto MoslemArabic culture; the Rendilleare not. This being the case, the Rendille should be of decided ethnographic interest,especially for studies of culture change and acculturation. The question of definingmore closely the relationshipbetween Rendille and Somali remains. Are we, for example, to call Rendille another dialect in the Somali dialect cluster or are we to follow Prins " in calling Rendille proto-Somali"? At the outset we may disregard " the specificphrase proto-Somali", except as a figureof speech,because the parental Somali language is not known,except as we reconstructit or luckily find writtendocuments from an earlier Somali. Moreover, from a phonetic standpoint,we would probably find northernSomali (e.g., Mediban, Isaq, etc.) closer to Ur-Somali than either Rendille or the southerndialects (cf. the phoneticshift from d to y, above). How- ever, the sense of Prins's remarkcan be retained,namely, Rendille has a special status in relationto the clusterof dialects called Somali. It is more divergentfrom each of them, than they are each fromthe other. Thus Be nadir and Jiddu, while each has notable phonetic and lexical differenceswith Isaq or Mediban, have fewerdifferences therewith than Rendille has with either them or Isaq or Mediban. Rendille stands in about the same relationshipto the Somali dialect cluster as Friesian stands in relationto the many dialects of English. It is moredifficult to be precisein the case of Boni, giventhe paucity of the data and the stronginfluence of Galla on Boni, particularlythat reportedby Johnston. Were it not forthe probabilitythat Boni is not reportedwith phonetic accuracy by either Fischer or Johnston,which we may presume fromtheir renderingof Galla without cacumenal or ejective stops, we mightjudge Boni to be very divergentphonetically fromSomali and Rendille. We are left thereforewith the vocabulary as our guide. The vocabulary, containing as it does such forms as suel (leopard) and moruri(fish) found only in Somali proper,indicates that Boni is fundamentallycloser to the main Somali dialect cluster than is Rendille. Such a conclusionmay be all that we will ever be able " " to make, since it is likelythat Somali Boni has by now been replaced " " " " by Galla Boni or Bantu Boni in the Tana riverarea. " The classificationof both Rendille and Boni as languages closely " allied to Somali, to borrowHuntingford's terms, greatly extends the parametersof the Somali-speakingcluster. Surelywe mustnow perforce " " thinkin termsof two coordinate Somali groups,constituted as follows:

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a) Rendilleand b) Somali-Boni,with Somali-Boni consistingof, i) northern Somali (Isaq, Mediban, Darod, Mijurtein,etal), 2) southernSomali or Sab (Hawiya, Benadir, Digil, Asrof,Jiddu, Tunni, etal) and 3) Boni. There is, of course, no sharp break between northernand southernSo- mali; ratherthis classificationbisects the Somali dialect clusterprimarily for convenience. The two sections do reflectthe traditional divisions " " " " of Noble Somali (primarily northern) and Sab (primarily southern). Given the rathergreater profusion of divergentforms in the southerndialects, the Somali/Sab division,if anything, overesti- mates the linguisticimportance of the northerndialects. This clas- sificationis a conservativeone which presumesperhaps too much linguistic differencebetween the extremesof the Somali dialect cluster. A more correct sub-classificationmight have Boni as one coordinate branch of Somali-Boni,as opposed to the rest of Somali proper.

B. - Baiso. The problemwith whichwe are confrontedin the case of Baiso is not whether Baiso bears numerousresemblances to Somali, which it clearly does, but rather whetherBaiso has a special relationshipwith Somali as opposed to the remainingEast Cushiticlanguages. In a word is Baiso more like Somali than it is like Galla, Konso, Sidamo or Afar? I believe that we can say that such a special Baiso-Somali relationship exists. In terms of the morphologydescribed and the vocabulary we find that Baiso has the followinggroups of morphemes: a) those of common East Cushitic; b) those shared with only some East Cushitic languages, other than Somali-Rendille; here Galla, thereSidamo or Afar,etc.; c) those shared only with Somali and Rendille; d) those not shared with otherEast Cushiticlanguages. Much of Baiso is commonEast Cushitic. Some itemsare sharedonly with Galla-Konso group,a smallernumber only with Burji-Sidamo,and a few only with Saho-Afar. But a great many formsare shared with Somali and Rendille; some of them exclusively and some fewer also shared with the Galla-Konso group. And the most basic concepts are among those either shared exclusivelywith Somali-Rendille or, if also shared withothers, closer to the phoneticform of Somali and/orRendille. The Baiso pronounsets, both subject and possessive,and the numbers are very close to Somali and/orRendille. Most of the elementsof the verbal conjugation and many of the common verb roots are close to

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Somali or Rendille. More of the elemental noun and adjective forms, such as the body parts, are shared with Somali-Rendille than with any othersingle group of East Cushiticlanguages. Finally, in grosslexico- statistical terms*), a higher percentage of Baiso forms find cognates with Somali-Rendille than with othergroups. The figuresobtained are, as follows: Baiso compared with Benadir : 38% " " Baiso Mediban : 32% " " Baiso Rendille : 36% " " Baiso Boran Galla: 27% " " Baiso Konso : 29% " " Baiso Afar/Saho : 21% (averaged) " " Baiso Sidamo 2) : 20% " " Baiso Burji 2) : 20%

Comparablefigures for other languages, which may assist the reader in estimatingth$ degrees of relationshipinvolved here, are, as follows: Rendille compared with Mediban: 43% " " Rendille Benadir : 52% " " Mediban Benadir : 65% " " Galla Konso : 55% " " Burji Darasa : 44%

What is the meaningof this disproportionateresemblance to Somali? May we say that Baiso has borrowedheavily fromSomali? Perhaps we may invoke that favorite ad hoc assumptionof the Ethiopianists, the old militarycolony; in this case Somali of the time of AhmedGrany? I believe not, because in many words we are confrontedwith an ir- reversiblephonetic factor. Where Baiso /&/and /g/equal Somali fsj and ///,we can hardlyattribute the correspondenceto borrowing. How could proto-Somaliforms be borrowedfrom recent Somali? Yet it is clear fromboth the Baiso forms,from the formsof other East Cushitic and Cushiticlanguages, and fromoccasional internalevidence fromSo- " " " mali itself(e.g. san, five and konton, fifty") that such formsas san (five), simbir(bird), jilib (knee), etc., are historicallysecondary, arising

x) All comparisonsare made on a standardlexico-statistical or glotto- chronologicallist. The list used here is fromSwadesh (1955), whichhas 100 items. 2) Two formsin Baiso, bululo(ashes) and wuta (seed), werejudged to be borrowingsfrom Burji-Sidamo and hencenot scoredas truecognates.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 82 HAROLDC. FLEMING fromthe palatalizationof velars. If then the linguisticaffinity between Somali and Baiso cannot be attributed to borrowing,we can hardly doubt that a special genetic relationshipdoes in fact exist betweenthe two languages. It is perhaps importantto reviewthe meaningof a special affinity or relationshipin mattersof languages because of the historicalconse- quences which flowfrom this. The special affinitybetween Baiso and Somali means that both are derived froman earlierspeech community which had become differentiatedfrom the rest of East Cushitic and underwenta period of independentdevelopment before the later diffe- rentiationsinto Baiso, Rendille, and the numerous dialects of Somali. Baiso and Somali are derivedfrom a reconstructableproto-Baiso-Somali, a language distinct from proto-Galla-Konso,proto-Burji-Sidamo, or proto-Saho-Afarbut closely related to them. It is difficultto see how else we might interpretthe Baiso-Somali relationship.

C. - The Position of Baiso and Somali withinEast Cushitic.

In the presentdiscussion the classificationof Cushitic firstformu- lated by Moreno (1941) and accepted by Greenberg(1948, 1955), is assumed. This is the generallyaccepted American classificationof Cu- shitic. Within the Moreno classificationan East Cushiticgroup is set up, consistingof Burji-Sidamo, Low Cushitic (Saho-Afar, Galla and Somali), and a group of poorly known languages called Lingue Varie (Konso, Gardulla, Gidole, Galab or Gheleba?, Arbore,Dume?, Gowaze?, etc.). Because of the considerable recent expansion of our knowledgeof the languages of southernEthiopia and northernKenya, I believe we must modifythe internal classificationof East Cushitic somewhat. While no demonstrationof evidence to justify this new sub-classificationwill be attemptedhere 1), a briefoutline will be made so as to show the positionsof Baiso and Somali-Rendille within it. In a futurearticle I hope to presentthe evidencesupporting this classification. East Cushitic consists of two primarysub-groups, Burji-Sidamo and the remaininglanguages which can be called collectivelyLowland East Cushitic,Moreno's Basso C u s c i t i c o joined withhis Lingue Varie. Lowland East Cushitic consists of Macro-Oromo(Moreno's Lingue Varie plus Galla), Saho-Afar, and Macro-Somali. In-

x) Greenberg'slatest classification of East Cushitic(1963) is in general agreementwith that given here, althoughour sub-classificationswere arrived at independently.

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eluded in Maero-Oromoare Warazi, Gawata, Tsamai, and the longignored Mogogodoof centralKenya x). The Macro-Somaligroup with which we have been concernedis a clear linguisticunity; indeed after Saho-Afar the unity of Baiso, Rendille and Somali is the clearestin East Cushitic. The Macro-Oromogroup has much greaterinternal differentiation and mightprofitably be broken up into two groups. The position of Baiso within Macro-Somali is clearly that of a coordinate branch, i.e. the differencesbetween Baiso and any other memberof the group distinctlyexceed the differencesbetween the other members. Thus, to conclude the internal classificationof the Somali group, begun with the classificationof Rendille and Boni, we may state the internal relationship,as follows: Macro-Somali2) : A) Baiso (and presumablyShigima) B) Somali 1) Rendille 2) Somali proper (a) northern Somali (Isaq, Mediban, Darod, Isa, Mijurtein) (b) southernSomali (Hawiya, Benadir, Asrof,Digil, Tunni,Jiddu, etal) (c) Boni (perhaps distinctor coordinateto the rest of Somali proper)

VI. - Historical Comment.

A. - Somali Origins. Many writers,particularly Cerulli and I. M. Lewis, have supposed that the Somali originatedin the northernpart of theirpresent area and have been spreadingsouth and southwestwardsat the expense of the Bantu and of the Galla, whomthey suppose were the firstCushitic occu- pants ofthe Horn. The autochthonesof the Horn, or at least the southern Horn, have been supposed to be Negro agriculturalistsof Bantu stock. Murdock (1959) assigned ultimate Somali origins to the southeastern highlandsof Ethiopia and presumedthat the Somali had followedthe Galla in occupyingthe Horn. He furtherheld that the Coastal Bantu

*) Retrievedfrom obscurity by Greenberg(1963). 2) Greeiiberghas also concludedthat Baiso is a memberof a larger Somali groupwhich includes Rendille and Boni. Personalcommunication (1963) and Greenberg(1963).

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(Swahili, Bajuni, Shebelle,Shidle, Pokomo, etal) had spread up into the riverainareas of the Horn priorto the advent of the Galla and Somali. H. S. Lewis has recentlycriticised the hypothesisthat the Galla pre- ceded the Somali into the Horn. To the extentthat one restrictsthe discussionto the Moslemnorthern Somali, the Cerulli-I. M. Lewis hypothesisis correct. Both historical accounts and the present distributionof the Darod indicate a spread of northern Somali froma locus south and east of Harar in Ethiopia. The Darod also displaced Galla in the westernOgaden and betweenthe Juba riverof Somalia and the Tana of Kenya. This much seems well attested to historically. But this is only one very recent movement,closely connectedwith Islam and the defeat of the Somali- Moslem Abyssinianinvasion of central Ethiopia at the time of Ahmed Granyx). In the south the Darod undoubtedlymet withriverain Bantu. But theyjust as surelymet with other Somali who musthave been present already - the Sab or southernSomali. The Sab were in occupancy of most of the coast from Obbia to Brava and most of the interiorof southernSomalia; this followsfrom the large numberof tribeletsand considerabledialect differentiationin the Mogadishu area and its interior. The diversityof the Sab can no more be accounted for by the recent Somali movementfrom the north than Sicilian and Calabrian can be attributedto a movementof Italians fromMilan to the Greek-speakingsouth. The movementsof the Darod are merelythe most recentof several " " Somali movements. The geographicalposition of neitherBoni nor Rendille can be accounted for in the same breath with the Darod movements. The earlierspeech communityof the Somali propermust have extended as far as the Tana riverin eastern Kenya, where we findthe Boni enclave in Galla territory. Moreover, the substantially older speech communityof Somali-Rendille, or proto-Somali,probably extended fromLake Rudolf on the west to the Benadircoast on the east, and fromthe Tana river on the south to probably the Ogaden, or possibly Harar, on the north. In this generallowland area, which in timecame to include the easternmostHorn, the Somali internaldialect differentiation took place. Were it not for the separation between Rendille and Somali, we would perhaps have today an old much dialected area of

x) Cf. Murdock (1959, page 324). Murdockspeaks of the Somali invasionbut it is likelythat MoslemAbyssinians (Harari and theirclose " kin of eastern Gurage viz., Silte and Walani) and some of the Afarwere also involved.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIU,E: SOMAU OUTUERS 85 " " Somali fromLake Rudolfto the tip of the Horn, an area whose ana- logue may be seen in Burji-Sidamoor in the Ometo-Gimiraarea of West Cushitic. What created the separationbetween Rendille and its easternkin? Are we to suppose that the Rendille are a fairlyrecent migration across Boran Galla territoryfrom the main Somali group? This problemre- quires for its solution a discussion of the Galla who intervenebetween the Rendille and the westernSomali. In the 19th century,when Euro- pean explorersfirst contacted the Galla, Somali, and Rendille,the Galla occupied a very large territory- indeed all the area - between the westernSomali and the Rendille. The average widthof the intervening Galla territorywas about 200 miles and it extended from the southeastern Ethiopian highlandsto the Indian Ocean. Yet the Galla from near Lake Chamo to the northernTana riverarea werelittle differentiat- ed, culturally or linguistically;all were apparently speakers of the Boran dialect of Galla. The Boran dialect in turn is not yet unintelli- gible to Ethiopian Galla as far away as Wallega1). What the Galla (Boran and Bararetta) representhere is evidently an intrusion. The considerablymore differentiatedMacro-Somali languages are separated one fromthe otherby a virtuallyundifferentiated foreigner, Galla. Moreover,one of the Macro-Somalilanguages, Boni. is found as an enclave in Galla territory. On the whole this is a perfectlyordinary intrusion situation and there is little need for ad hoc assumptions such as might be entailed by a postulated special Rendille migration fromthe main Somali area across Boran territory. To reconstructthe entire sequence of developmentsimplied by the above conclusionswe may specifyfour periods in the peoplingof the Kenya-Ethiopia-Somaliaborders territory, as follows: a) An original occupancy by Old and/or Proto-Somali-Rendille speakers, probably non-Moslempastoralists. It is not unlikely that this occupancy separated the Mogogodo from their northernMacro- Oromo kin. b) A period of on-the-spotdialect differentiatingduring which the far westerndialect fringe,now representedby Rendille, developed

*) An observationfield-tested in Ethiopia and northernKenya several times. For example, Andrzejewski'sBorana text (1957, Page 374) was readilyunderstood by a Shoan Galla. From an examinationof Bararetta or Tana Galla it would appear that Bararettawould also be intelligibleto a Boran. Conversely,my Mediban informant(north Somali) said that he could not understandBenadir (south Somali). Somali dialectingin general appearsto have progressedmuch farther than in Galla.

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into a separate language. It is likelythat duringthis periodthe eastern dialects began to acquire Islam and varying degrees of acculturation to the Arabs and Moslem Abyssiniansin the northand to the Arabs on the southerncoast. It is possibly during this period that the entire area acquired the camel. c) The period of Galla intrusionand ascendancy in the west. During this period it is likely that many dialects linkingRendille and Boni with Somali properwere submergedby the Galla Intrusion. For example, Maud (1904) refersto several Boran groups as being of Somali origin. It is duringthis period that the linguisticacculturation of the Boni to the Galla began, the source of later difficultyin classifying Boni 1). This periodis almost certainlycontemporaneous with the main Galla invasionof highlandEthiopia and can be assignedan approximate date of fromthe fifteenthcentury to the mid-nineteenthcentury. d) The very recent period of the Somali expansion to the west, south fromthe standpointof the northernSomali, during which time more than half of the old Somali territorypreviously lost to the Galla was re-acquired.

In consideringthe earliest originsof the old Somali, one naturally pondersthe question of how the Somali came to be located south and east of the Galla in the firstplace. Were they,for example, ultimately " derivedfrom Arabia or the north", as the generalityof older ethnolo- gists were wont to assume? It is here that Neumann's opinionthat the Gidicho (Baiso) were importantin relation to Somali history is well taken. It is here also that Murdock'shypothesis of a Somali originin the southeast Ethiopian highlandsis relevent. Baiso, as a distant kin of Somali, is necessarilyinvolved in Somali originsand a consideration of Baiso is crucial to a reconstructionof those Somali origins. If the reconstructeddistribution of old Somali-Rendille is mapped - essentiallyby adding the presentKenya Galla and Rendille territory to that of Somali - , the relationshipwith Baiso is immediatelyapparent. Baiso is west and slightlysouth of the centerof the distribution. More- over, since Rendille pulls the true linguistic center of proto-Somali westwardto the Juba-Shebelleregion, the location of Baiso is striking; it is just beyond the headwatersof the Juba river. Since we may pre-

x) There are suggestionsin the similaritiesbetween Sanye and Boni that the Boni were originallySanye (South Cushitic)speakers who were linguisticallyacculturated to the old east Kenya Somali. Bi-lingualism would seem to be demandedof client hunterand otherout-caste groups wheneverthe speech of the dominantgroup differs from that of the client.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BAISOAND RENDIUvE: SOMALI OUTLIERS 87 sume that the ancestral Baiso were not always confinedto littleGidicho island, if only because they once were part of the primitiveMacro- Somali community,where was theirmainland territory? This is actually a very difficultquestion because the southern Rift Valley region of Ethiopia is also the region of greatest Cushitic differentiation.There is littlespace in the reconstructablepast for Baiso when Burji-Sidamo, Galla-Konso, and Ometo are representedin strengthin the same area. On the strengthof Kuls's informationx) that the Baiso (Gidicho) are agriculturalistswho build terracesand irrigate,which seems hardly necessaryon a low island, it is reasonableto assume that the Baiso once lived in mountainousor hilly country. If the Baiso are to be joined to the rest of Macro-Somali,the most likely highlandarea in which to locate them is the regionto the east, on the highlandswhich constitute the Juba watershed. Either the highlandarea to the east of the Ganale Dorya, i.e. the Mendebomountains, or that to the west, i.e. the JamJam Galla country,or both, are the most probable locationsfor the ancestral Baiso. In general we may conclude that the watershed of the Juba river as far south as the present Somalia border,is the homeland of proto-Macro-Somali. " " This hypothesis,of the location of the Somali homeland, is tentativeand is advanced to explain the distributionof the Baiso, Ren- dille, and Somali. Moreover,it is in conformitywith Murdock'shypo- thesis2) that the Somali were originallyagricultural, along with other East Cushites,living in the southeasthighlands of Ethiopia, fromwhich they spread into the lowland Horn. Murdock correlates the Somali occupationof the Horn withtheir acquisition of cattle milkingtechniques fromthe South Arabians3). Presumingthat such contact with South Arabians would have originatedin the Harar area, there is good reason to believe that old Saho-Afarwould have been the firstto borrowmilking techniques and that the Somali in the Juba watershed would have borrowedthe techniques beforethe ancestral Galla for reasons of sheer geography;they were closer to the Harar area than the Galla were. However, there are problemsassociated with this hypothesisof the Macro-Somalihomeland. First, we must in some way account for the fact that Baiso is found only on a tiny island in the Rift Valley with Galla, Darasa, and Sidamo living between them and the Somali over

x) Kui,s, 1958,pages 126-129. 2) Murdock, 1959,pages 319-320,323-324. 3) One mightcorrelate this period with the acquisitionof desert-adapted zebu cattle,ultimately from India.

This content downloaded from 193.205.142.142 on Mon, 01 Feb 2016 09:55:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 88 HAROLDC. FLEMING the highlandsdown on the Juba river. Secondly,the area chosen for the old Macro-Somalihomeland lies, in its highlandpart, in the traditional and distributionalhomeland of the Galla nation! We are permitteda strong doubt that Macro-Somaliand Galla have the same homeland. Yet, if we look at the Mendebo or Bale region archeologically,so to speak, we can accomodate both the Macro-Somaliand ancestral Galla in or near the same region. To begin with, the Bale area is the most economical1) regionin which to locate the ancestral Baiso and Somali; it is also the regionwhich best suits the distributionalproblems of the far-flungSomali. Secondly, Macro-Somali must be a distinctlyolder community,viewed in an archeologicalsense, than that of ancestral Galla; in the same sense that Italic is an older communitythan Spanish. Finally, although Bale and Walabo (the land of the Abba Muda) is un- doubtedlythe source fromwhich the Arussi and all northernGalla are derived, there are three good reasons for assigningthe original Galla homelandto Borana land; namely,a) the Galla reach what is forthem theirgreatest linguistic differentiation in the south with Bararetta being " the most different", b) all of the close linguistic(and cultural) kin of the Galla live betweenLake Chamo and IvakeStefanie, most importantly the Konso, Gato, and Gidole, and c) northGalla traditionin geneology constantlyrefers back to Borana, which,since Galla countriesare normally named afterdescent groups,implies the only large Galla country so named, the land of the Boran. Within the last 500-600 years the ancestorsof the Arussi crossedthe headwatersof the Juba and settled the Bale region, which then became the homeland of the northern Galla. We do not know if any Macro-Somalispeakers remainedwhen the old Arussi arrived. With regardto the firstproblem, of explaininghow the Baiso came to be restrictedto theirlittle island, one part of the problemis attribut- able to displacementfrom the eastern mainland lowlands by the Guji Galla. We will again have to reason archeologicallyin orderto connect up the Baiso with the watershedof the Juba river. The core of the interveninghighland area is occupied by the Burji-Sidamo branch of East Cushitic,whose presence is certainlyolder than that of the two Galla peoples (Guji and JamJam) to the west and east of them respectively. Both Guji and JamJam are off-shootsof Boran with which both have territorialcontinuity, Guji at the expense of the southernDarasa.

*) Economicalin the sense of that which best followsthe scientific Law of Parsimony(William of Occam's Razor) in keepingunnecessary and unwarrantedor special (ad hoc) assumptionsto a minimum.

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But at some time more than perhaps iooo years ago one of two things happened; eitherthe ancestralBaiso crossed the Burji-Sidamo-occupied highlands from the east or the Sidamo and Darasa occupied the highlandsto the east of Lake Abaya, thus displacingthe ancestralBaiso who occupied those highlands. This is an exceedinglyimportant problem in the historyof southernEthiopia and one quite difficultto solve. Since space does not permit a full reasoningout of the problem herein,I propose to attemptto outlinethe problemas it appears rather than tryingto solve it. This is done in the interestsof callingattention to the rathersnarled linguistic situation which exists in the Lake Abaya and Lake Chamo region. It is hoped that futureresearch, particularly ethno-linguistic,will propose a solution or solutionsto the problem. To begin with,the probleminvolves a clear definitionof the location of proto-East Cushiticin relationto West Cushitic. We need to know if the ancestralOmeto, particularly those of its Eastern branch (Badditu or Koyra, Kachama, Harro, and Zaysse), were originallyin possession of the highlandsto the east of Lake Abaya. At the presenttime Ometo speakerslive on the islands of Lake Abaya and in the Amaro mountains to the east of Lake Chamo. The entireOmeto regionfrom the Amaro mountainsto the bordersof Kafa (KafFa) is one dialect continuumof considerable implied historical depth in situ. Secondly, we need to know the locations of the fourbranches of East Cushitic,in relation to each otherand to West Cushitic,in theirearly or proto-periods. Burji- Sidamo is particularlyproblematic. Its known present distribution, fromAddis Ababa (Qabena) to the same Amaro mountainsmentioned before (Burji), implies that it is the northwestern branch of East Cushitic, in geographicalterms. Its earlier area in relation to West Cushitic (particularlyJanjero), to Saho-Afar, and to Central Cushitic is importantto the solution of problemsin central Ethiopia. Yet the greatestapparent linguistic gap in Burji-Sidamois betweenBurji in the farsouth and the rest (Darassa, Sidamo, Kambatta, Hadiya, etal), with the implicationbeing that the oldest region occupied by Burji- Sidamo is the Lake Abaya regionin the eastern highlands. That area is preciselythe area where the problem of the origin of the Baiso is focused. We have one historicaldatum which we may use to peel off the most recent historicallayer, so to speak, so as to more readily determineearlier regional distributions. We can say with some confi- dence that there were no Galla north of Lake Chamo or the Neghelli portion of Borana-land 700-1000 years ago. " Perhaps we may finallyhave to invoke the Guji Gap ", that lower area with its river basin whichlies between the Amaro mountainsand

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Darasa, in order to explain the presenceof the Baiso in Lake Abaya. That gap was obviouslyused by the Guji Galla in theirintrusion into the Lake Abaya lowlands and is presentlyoccupied by them. In that case we should be in the positionof saying that the Baiso, apparentlyorigi- nally highlandfarmers, followed an essentiallypastoral routefrom north Borana-land around the Darasa highlandsand occupied the same lowlands wherethe Guji Galla live now. That may be the way it happened. But this solutionimpresses me as essentially ad hoc and one which begs many questions1).

B. - A note on the Nilo-Hamites.

As stated above (Introduction,and III. Rendille) the significanceof " " Somali as a source of loan words in Nilo-Hamitic languages has been ignoredby those writerswho hypothesizea recent and northern originfor the Somali. It is perplexingin the extremehow one group of scholars will stoutly maintain that the Nilotic languages of Kenya " " and the southernmostSudan are so permeatedby Hamitic influence and vocabulary,particularly that of Somali and Galla, as to be unclas- sifiable;while on the other hand another group of scholarswill totally ignorethis viewpointin dealing with Somali history! Most assuredly, the Somali cannot be both a source of loan wordsin Niloticlanguages as far west as northernUganda and also a recentexpansion from ex-British Somaliland iooo kilometersfrom the very nearest Nilo-Hamite! " " The fact that Somali is one of the sources of Hamitic loan wordsin at least some of the Nilotic languagesis not seriouslydisputed. Greenberg,for example, who has been critical of the Nilo-Hamitic hypothesis,gives Somali as a source of loan words in Turkana and Masai. " He states (1955, page 72) that, Borrowingby the Turkana fromthe Somali has been particularlysignificant, by the Masai and Nandi somewhat less so On page 67, in discussingMeinhof's treatment of Masai, " he says, Finally the Masai formationof multiplesof ten by a suffix -tam is compared (by Meinhof-HF) to the similarconstruction of Somali. This is clearly an instance of borrowingsince Masai only resembles

x) In strugglingwith this problemone is handicappedby the sad con- ditionof mostethnographic and linguisticmaps of the RiftValley regionof southernEthiopia. Those in English are particularlybad. One needs both accuratelocations of all the peoplesor linguisticgroups and maps in sharpor clearrelief of the importantphysical features of the sharplyetched southEthiopian terrain. One ofthe mapsbest availableis in Jensen(1959).

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the neighboringSomali amongthe host of Hamito-Semiticlanguages and because it is evidentthat Masai has borrowedall its numerals fromsix upward fromthe Somali-Galla group of Cushiticlanguages Although Greenberg,speaking as the critic of the Nilo-Hamitic hypothesis,gives us sufficientbasis for believing in the existence of Somali loan words in Nilo-Hamitic,we are left with the suggestionin the last line cited that Greenbergperhaps meant Lowland East Cushiticinstead of Somali as such. While it makes practicallyno differencein the classificationof Nilotic languages, for our present purposes it is importantto know whetheror not Macro-Somaliis a sourceof specific loan words. However, it can hardly be doubted that there are several possible sources of Cu- shitic loan words in Nilotic, viz., Macro-Oromo,particularly Galab, Arbore,Galla, and Mogogodo of central Kenya; South Cushitic; West Cushitic, particularly Maji and the Ari-Banna group (Bako group); and Macro-Somali. It is not intended that Somali be considered the only source. The odds are very good that at least four words in Nilo-Hamitic are of Macro-Somali,and morespecifically Somali- Rendille, origin. They " " " " are, ten commonlyfound as tomon, hair found as i-tim in Teso, " " " " fifty found as konton in Masai, and hundred found as pokol in Nandi and Suk. The correspondingSomali forms are respectively, tomon/toban,tim/tin, konton , and boqol'bogol. None of these forms are currentin Macro-Oromoor in South Cushitic,save only Galab/Arbore " tommon ten ". It is certain that other formscould be musteredbut for our purposes these are sufficient.They permitus to conclude that specificallySomali formsare presentamong the Cushiticloan words in Nilo-Hamitic. No attemptwill be made here to discuss the many possible ramifi- cations of the Somali loan words in Nilo-Hamitic. Sufficeit to say, the existence of the Rendille in eastern Kenya - west of the Galla - is underscoredby the presence of Somali words among the Nilotic tribesfarter west. Our hypothesisof an early Somali occupancy of the southernHorn and eastern Kenya is supportedby the very existence of the Nilo-Hamitic problem.

C. - A Note on the Somali-land Bantu.

A part of the traditionalhypothesis on Somali originshas been the assumptionthat Negro or Bantu farmersor hoe-cultivatorsoccupied the southernHorn prior to the advent of the Somali. It has been re- peated enough times to be virtually axiomatic in the thinkingdone

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about the historyof the Somali. This assumptionwould appear to arise fromtwo sources: a) the generaluncritical assumption of a Negro prio- rity in occupation everywherein Africa south of Egypt and b) from medieval Arab accounts of coastal Bantu, supplementedby the presence of the Swahili-Nyika-Pokomogroups on the coast and along the rivers of Somalia and Kenya. Yet this assumptiondraws support only from those two sources and is otherwisecompletely untenable. The assumptionof a Negro priorityin the Horn is not supported archeologically(cf. Cole, 1954, Murdock's review of this problem in Murdock,1959, and Coon, 1962). Secondly,the medieval Arab sources are not veryold in termsof the historyof East Africa. Finally,the very evident age and distributionof the many branches of Cushiticin this area greatlyexceeds that of Bantu. The Somalia Bantu tongues (She- beli, Shidle, Gosha, etal) are variously said to be related to Bajuni, to Swahili or Nyika,or to Pokomo. Yet the differencesbetween Bajuni, Swahili, Nyika, and Pokomo do not exceed those attained betweenthe dialects of Somali proper. The differenceswithin Somali generally (Rendille, Boni, and Somali proper) distinctlyexceed those obtaining among the Coastal Bantu and are not greatlyexceeded by East African Bantu differentiationgenerally. If the reader doubt this, he need only compare Bajuni with Swahili or Pokomo, or on a broaderscale, with Kikuyu, Chaga or Ganda. No prioritycan be given to the Bantu in any part of Somaliland, fromthe Tana river to the upper Shebeli. They are surelyrelatively recent immigrants,occupying those areas along the coast and interior riversclosely associated with Arab commercialactivities. Undoubtedly, muchof Somali-landwas uninhabitedprior to the Somali arrivalfrom the Ethiopian highlands. Perhapsvarious Bushmenoid groups, related to the Hadza and Sandawe of northernTanganyika, occupied portionsof the Horn. But the mostlikely candidates for occupancy priorto the Somali would be South Cushiticspeakers, e.g. the Sanye of Damman, in southeastern Kenya and the lower Juba area. In northeasternKenya the inhabitantsprior to the Somali were probably Macro-Oromospeakers, particularlythe ancestral Mogogodo. It is hoped that the readerin his shock at so much challengeto so many traditionalhistorical assumptions will not reject the hypotheses given here, solely fromshock. Most of the hypotheses advanced are derived from routine application of the assumptions of modern linguistic dispersal-areatheory, part and parcel of traditionalIndo-Euro- pean comparative and historical linguistic science. Their application to Africa was sorefylacking until Greenberg(1948) and Murdock

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(1959). It is hoped that they will be applied more often and more intensivelyby more scholars working in the fascinatingmaterials of Africa.

D. - A Note on Yibir, Midgan and Boni. Both Kirk (1905) and Cerulli (1959, pp. 101-103) have called at- " " tention to the jargon spoken by the Yibir and Midgan, out-caste hunter and artisan groups of the eastern Horn. They agreed that the " " jargon spoken by these groups was simply Somali in slang or argot " " form,although Cerulli also pointed out that the jargon contained many words not found in ordinarySomali. Since it is also a Somali traditionthat the Yibir were foundliving in the bush when the Somali arrived,the language of both Yibir and Midgan is of historicalinterest and naturallypertinent to the classificationof Boni. Afterinvestigating this matterat some length,I findthat I agree with Cerulli's hypothesis. There are no groundsapparent for treating Yibir and Midgan as anythingother than Somali jargon or slang. More- over, an expected special affinitywith Boni was not found; nor was any special affinitywith either Rendille or Baiso found. Although this conclusion is rather disappointingfrom an historicalviewpoint, given Somali tradition,still the apparent fact that the alleged autochthones speak nothing but Somali is itself significant. We remain with no linguistic groundsfor supposing that any population other than Somali have lived in the eastern Horn for a long time. However, there are three reasons for supposing that the Somali are not the true autochthonesof the easternHorn. First,the archeolo- gical and culturalsuggestion that Bushmanoidhunters originally inhabit- ed much of the Horn. Secondly,the possibilitythat the South Cushites occupied much of the Horn beforethe Somali. Finally, the possibility that very early Cushitic hunting groups, perhaps the bearers of the Kenya Capsian archeologicalculture, occupied much of the Horn, with their later descendentsdisplaced or absorbed by East Cushiticpasto- ralists from the highlands of southeasternEthiopia. We may yet findin either Yibir, Midgan or Boni a hint or two of earlier populations of the Horn. None of these languages or jargons have been studied with attentionfocused on the most likely source of historicalinformation, viz., animal and plant names or specialized terms of huntingand related activities. We may hope that futureresearch will give us grounds for inferringthe pre-Somali inhabitants of the Horn.

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Acknowledgment.

This paper is partially the result of field research conducted in Ethiopia from 1957 to i960. The study was financedin part by an AfricanStudies Programfellowship granted by the Ford Foundation.

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