Geochemical Evidence of Anthropogenic Impacts on Swiftcurrent Lake, Glacier National Park, Mt

KECK GEOLOGY CONSORTIUM

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL KECK RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM IN GEOLOGY

April 2011 Union College, Schenectady, NY

Dr. Robert J. Varga, Editor Director, Keck Geology Consortium Pomona College

Dr. Holli Frey Symposium Convenor Union College

Carol Morgan Keck Geology Consortium Administrative Assistant

Diane Kadyk Symposium Proceedings Layout & Design Department of Earth & Environment Franklin & Marshall College

Keck Geology Consortium Geology Department, Pomona College 185 E. 6th St., Claremont, CA 91711 (909) 607-0651, [email protected], keckgeology.org

ISSN# 1528-7491

The Consortium Colleges The National Science Foundation ExxonMobil Corporation

KECK GEOLOGY CONSORTIUM PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL KECK RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM IN GEOLOGY ISSN# 1528-7491

April 2011

Robert J. Varga Keck Geology Consortium Diane Kadyk Editor and Keck Director Pomona College Proceedings Layout & Design Pomona College 185 E 6th St., Claremont, CA Franklin & Marshall College 91711

Keck Geology Consortium Member Institutions: Amherst College, Beloit College, Carleton College, Colgate University, The College of Wooster, The Colorado College, Franklin & Marshall College, Macalester College, Mt Holyoke College, Oberlin College, Pomona College, Smith College, Trinity University, Union College, Washington & Lee University, Wesleyan University, Whitman College, Williams College

2010-2011 PROJECTS

FORMATION OF BASEMENT-INVOLVED FORELAND ARCHES: INTEGRATED STRUCTURAL AND SEISMOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE BIGHORN MOUNTAINS, WYOMING Faculty: CHRISTINE SIDDOWAY, MEGAN ANDERSON, Colorado College, ERIC ERSLEV, University of Wyoming Students: MOLLY CHAMBERLIN, Texas A&M University, ELIZABETH DALLEY, Oberlin College, JOHN SPENCE HORNBUCKLE III, Washington and Lee University, BRYAN MCATEE, Lafayette College, DAVID OAKLEY, Williams College, DREW C. THAYER, Colorado College, CHAD TREXLER, Whitman College, TRIANA N. UFRET, University of Puerto Rico, BRENNAN YOUNG, Utah State University.

EXPLORING THE PROTEROZOIC BIG SKY OROGENY IN SOUTHWEST MONTANA Faculty: TEKLA A. HARMS, JOHN T. CHENEY, Amherst College, JOHN BRADY, Smith College Students: JESSE DAVENPORT, College of Wooster, KRISTINA DOYLE, Amherst College, B. PARKER HAYNES, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill, DANIELLE LERNER, Mount Holyoke College, CALEB O. LUCY, Williams College, ALIANORA WALKER, Smith College.

INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES IN THE CRITICAL ZONE, BOULDER CREEK CATCHMENT, FRONT RANGE, COLORADO Faculty: DAVID P. DETHIER, Williams College, WILL OUIMET. University of Connecticut Students: ERIN CAMP, Amherst College, EVAN N. DETHIER, Williams College, HAYLEY CORSON-RIKERT, Wesleyan University, KEITH M. KANTACK, Williams College, ELLEN M. MALEY, Smith College, JAMES A. MCCARTHY, Williams College, COREY SHIRCLIFF, Beloit College, KATHLEEN WARRELL, Georgia Tech University, CIANNA E. WYSHNYSZKY, Amherst College.

SEDIMENT DYNAMICS & ENVIRONMENTS IN THE LOWER CONNECTICUT RIVER Faculty: SUZANNE O’CONNELL, Wesleyan University Students: LYNN M. GEIGER, Wellesley College, KARA JACOBACCI, University of Massachusetts (Amherst), GABRIEL ROMERO, Pomona College.

GEOMORPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA, U.S.A. Faculty: KELLY MACGREGOR, Macalester College, CATHERINE RIIHIMAKI, Drew University, AMY MYRBO, LacCore Lab, University of Minnesota, KRISTINA BRADY, LacCore Lab, University of Minnesota Students: HANNAH BOURNE, Wesleyan University, JONATHAN GRIFFITH, Union College, JACQUELINE KUTVIRT, Macalester College, EMMA LOCATELLI, Macalester College, SARAH MATTESON, Bryn Mawr College, PERRY ODDO, Franklin and Marshall College, CLARK BRUNSON SIMCOE, Washington and Lee University.

GEOLOGIC, GEOMORPHIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT THE NORTHERN TERMINATION OF THE LAKE HÖVSGÖL RIFT, MONGOLIA Faculty: KARL W. WEGMANN, North Carolina State University, TSALMAN AMGAA, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, KURT L. FRANKEL, Georgia Institute of Technology, ANDREW P. deWET, Franklin & Marshall College, AMGALAN BAYASAGALN, Mongolian University of Science and Technology. Students: BRIANA BERKOWITZ, Beloit College, DAENA CHARLES, Union College, MELLISSA CROSS, Colgate University, JOHN MICHAELS, North Carolina State University, ERDENEBAYAR TSAGAANNARAN, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, BATTOGTOH DAMDINSUREN, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, DANIEL ROTHBERG, Colorado College, ESUGEI GANBOLD, ARANZAL ERDENE, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, AFSHAN SHAIKH, Georgia Institute of Technology, KRISTIN TADDEI, Franklin and Marshall College, GABRIELLE VANCE, Whitman College, ANDREW ZUZA, Cornell University.

LATE PLEISTOCENE EDIFICE FAILURE AND SECTOR COLLAPSE OF VOLCÁN BARÚ, PANAMA Faculty: THOMAS GARDNER, Trinity University, KRISTIN MORELL, Penn State University Students: SHANNON BRADY, Union College. LOGAN SCHUMACHER, Pomona College, HANNAH ZELLNER, Trinity University.

KECK SIERRA: MAGMA-WALLROCK INTERACTIONS IN THE SEQUOIA REGION Faculty: JADE STAR LACKEY, Pomona College, STACI L. LOEWY, California State University-Bakersfield Students: MARY BADAME, Oberlin College, MEGAN D’ERRICO, Trinity University, STANLEY HENSLEY, California State University, Bakersfield, JULIA HOLLAND, Trinity University, JESSLYN STARNES, Denison University, JULIANNE M. WALLAN, Colgate University.

EOCENE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE TETONS-ABSAROKA RANGES, WYOMING Faculty: JOHN CRADDOCK, Macalester College, DAVE MALONE, Illinois State University Students: JESSE GEARY, Macalester College, KATHERINE KRAVITZ, Smith College, RAY MCGAUGHEY, Carleton College.

Funding Provided by: Keck Geology Consortium Member Institutions The National Science Foundation Grant NSF-REU 1005122 ExxonMobil Corporation

Keck Geology Consortium: Projects 2010-2011 Short Contributions— Glacier National Park

GEOMORPHIC AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA, U.S.A. Project Faculty: KELLY MACGREGOR, Macalester College, CATHERINE RIIHIMAKI, Drew University, AMY MYRBO, KRISTINA BRADY LacCore Lab, University of Minnesota

LINKAGES BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE, VOLCANISM, AND DIATOM PRODUCTIVITY OVER THE PAST 12,900 YEARS IN SWIFTCURRENT LAKE, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA HANNAH BOURNE, Wesleyan University Research Advisor: Tim Ku

A CONTINUOUS LATE HOLOCENE RECORD OF PALEOCLIMATE CHANGE FROM GRINNELL LAKE SEDIMENT CORES, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA JONATHAN GRIFFITH, Union College Research Advisor: Donald Rodbell

HOLOCENE FIRE HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN SWIFTCURRENT BASIN: A PALEOENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF GLACIER NATIONAL PARK JACQUELINE KUTVIRT, Macalester College Research Advisor: Kelly MacGregor

VEGETATION HISTORY OF THE LATE HOLOCENE IN EAST GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA: A PALEOENVIRONMENTAL STUDY EMMA LOCATELLI, Macalester College Research Advisor: Louisa Bradtmiller

CARBON SIGNAL IN ALPINE LAKE SEDIMENT DURING THE HOLOCENE IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA SARAH MATTESON, Bryn Mawr College Research Advisor: Don Barber

GEOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON SWIFTCURRENT LAKE, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MT PERRY ODDO, Franklin and Marshall College Research Advisor: Christopher J. Williams

SUBSURFACE SEISMIC REFRACTION IMAGING OF GLACIAL TILL/BEDROCK INTERFACE IN GRINNELL VALLEY, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA CLARK BRUNSON SIMCOE, Washington and Lee University Research Advisor: Romain Meyer Keck Geology Consortium Pomona College 185 E. 6th St., Claremont, CA 91711 Keckgeology.org

24th Annual Keck Symposium: 2011 Union College, Schenectady, NY GEOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON SWIFTCURRENT LAKE, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MT

PERRY ODDO, Franklin and Marshall College Research Advisor: Christopher J. Williams

INTRODUCTION Proterozoic siltstones, shales, and mudstones, ranging from 800-1600 Ma (Carrara, 1990). 2010 marked the centennial anniversary of the com- memoration of Glacier National Park, and since its dedication, the region has experienced increasingly severe effects of anthropogenic disturbance. As atmospheric CO2 concentrations continue to rise, most—if not all—of the Park’s remaining glaciers are projected to disappear by 2030 (Hall and Fagre, 2003), so it has become more important than ever to understand how humans impact this environment. The sediments preserved in the Park’s glacially-fed alpine lakes reflect important climatic and geochemical changes in response to anthropogenic influence (MacGregor et al., 2011). Figure 1. Topographic map of Swiftcurrent Lake, Glacier Swiftcurrent Lake acts as a particularly sensitive National Park. Core GNP-SWF10-7A-1P-1 was extracted archive of environmental changes in Glacier National from the northwestern sub-basin, pictured in red abovea Park. This study used a shallow surface core (42 cm) extracted from the northern sub-basin of Swiftcurrent Lake to investigate the hypothesis that development Swiftcurrent Lake lies approximately 17.5 km south- in the lake’s basin drives changes in the sediment west of Babb, Montana, at an elevation of ~1,490m source and chemistry. Stable isotopes, elemental (Fig. 1). The lake is approximately 1.6 km long and composition, and mineralogical analyses were used 0.5 km wide, and bathymetric mapping conducted in to reconstruct the lake’s recent geochemical history July 2010 indicates that it reaches depths of ~5-12.2 in the hopes of using this information to better under- m. Swiftcurrent Lake is divided into two sub-basins stand how humans affect the Park’s delicate ecosys- separated by a 3-4 m tall discontinuous ridge (Fig. 2). tem. The southwestern sub-basin (36 km2) drains Grinnell Glacier, Upper and Lower Grinnell lakes, as well as GEOLOGIC SETTING Lake Josephine. The northeastern sub-basin (44 km2) drains Fishercap Lake and Swiftcurrent Creek. Previ- Glacier National Park is located in northwestern Mon- ous studies indicate that the sediment sources of the tana, adjacent to the US-Canadian border, and en- two catchments are relatively independent of each compasses an area of approximately 4,660 km2. The other (MacGregor et al., 2011). Park is split by the Continental Divide into two areas of distinctly different climatic regimes. The area east METHODS of the divide, in which this study based, is governed Core Retrieval by dry continental air masses from the north and experiences significantly less precipitation than West A 42-cm sediment core (GNP-SWF10-7A-1P-1; Glacier. This region is underlain primarily by Middle 48°47’52.73”N, 113°39’33.30”W) was extracted from 209 24th Annual Keck Symposium: 2011 Union College, Schenectady, NY Swiftcurrent Lake in July 2010 at a water depth of 10.76 m using a drive rod surface corer (detailed description: http://lrc.geo.umn.edu/laccore/muck.html). The core was encased in 7-cm diameter polycarbonate tubing, and was extruded vertically in 0.5 cm incre- ments in the field.

Core Preparation

Initial core description was conducted at the National Lacustrine Core Facility (LacCore) at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. The extruded Swiftcur- Figure 2. Bathymetric map showing core location of rent samples were described using smear slides, and GNP-SWF10-7A-1P-1, as well as the extent of develop- were subjected to loss-on-ignition analysis to deter- ment in the region. Yellow areas indicate roads and paved mine organic C content. Each increment was also surfaces, while red areas indicate campgrounds and lodg- subsampled and freeze-dried for further geochemical ings. analyses.

Figure 3. Geochemical results for GNP-SWF10-7A-1P-1 over the last 160 years. (a) Percent carbon (b) percent nitrogen and (c) percent sulfur versus depth as determined through ECA; (d) Carbon-nitrogen and (e) carbon-sulfur ratios versus depth; (f) δ15N and (g) δ13C abundances versus depth. Overlaid are dates corresponding to potential anthropogenic influence in the Park. 210 24th Annual Keck Symposium: 2011 Union College, Schenectady, NY

Geochemical Analyses Year Natural or Anthropogenic Stressor

Glacier National Park established as 10th national park Sediment composition was assessed at Franklin and 1910 1911 Roads built to Many glacier area Marshall College using a Costech ECS 4010 Elemen- Visitation: 4,000 tal Combustion Analyzer, as outlined on the F&M 1914 Construction of Many Glacier Hotel at Swiftcurrent Lake College website (www.fandm.edu/earth-and-environ- begins 1934 Cabins and campgrounds added north of the lake ment/elemental-combustion-analysis). Each of the 82 1936 Heaven’s Peak Fire burns 14,000 acres samples were analyzed, with replicates at every fourth 1940 Shower facilities installed in campgrounds sample. Visitation: 177,307 1955 Swiftcurrent Motor Inn constructed 1964 June 8, major flood event (6700 cfs) X-ray diffraction analyses (XRD) were performed at 1974 June 20, major flood event (3310 cfs) 10 cm intervals to determine mineralogical changes in 1995 June 7, major flood event (3150 cfs) sediment composition, as outlined on the F&M Col- 2010 Centennial Anniversary of Glacier National Park Visitation: 2.2 million (record) lege website (http://fandm.edu/x7985). Table 1. Brief History of Development at Swiftcurrent Isotopic analysis of the Swiftcurrent samples was Lake. Information gathered from “Many Glacier Hotel conducted at the Stable Isotope Laboratory at the Historic Structure Report,” USGS stream gauge data, and University of New Hampshire (Durham, NH). The NPS.gov/glac. samples were analyzed for δ13C and δ15N abundances. Lead-210 age dating was completed by the St. Croix Watershed Research Station, MN. A Bayesian age- depth modeling program, Bacon (Blaauw and Chris- ten, 2010), was used to establish an age-depth model using the 210Pb data, indicating that the core represents 160 years of sedimentation.

RESULTS

The results of the XRD and smear slide analyses revealed the core to be relatively clastic-rich and dia- tomaceous, with little bulk compositional variation. The samples indicated the sediment consisted primarily of clay minerals (e.g. illite) and quartz.

Figure 3 shows the geochemical trends found in core Figure 4. Distribution of organic matter sources by GNP-SWF10-7A-1P-1. Both total percent carbon and composition. GNP-SWF10-7A-1P-1 samples shown in red. total percent nitrogen show a close covariation in their Figure adapted from Meyers (1999). trends, with significant fluctuations in the upper sediments that decrease with depth. Total sulfur content displays much more dramatic fluctuations throughout the length of the core, and indicates a slight increas- distinct spike ca. 1964. ing trend with depth until leveling off at ca. 1910. A sharp decrease in sulfur content corresponds to Both δ13C and δ15N levels remain essentially constant an increase in the carbon-sulfur (C/S) ratio at 1995. for the oldest ~100 years on record before displaying Carbon-nitrogen (C/N) ratio data indicate at the pos- significant variation towards the surface of the core. sible source of organic matter within the Swiftcurrent The largest spikes in the δ1 3C record correspond to Lake watershed. C/N shows a gradual increasing dates around 1967 and 1995, with more muted re- trend with depth throughout the entire core, with a sponses in the nitrogen data. 211 24th Annual Keck Symposium: 2011 Union College, Schenectady, NY DISCUSSION outliers corresponding to the 1964 and 1995 floods.

Our findings illustrate the impact of both anthropo- The extent to which geochemical variations in the genic and natural factors on lake sediment source and sediment record can be attributed to human influence chemistry. Table 1 is an abridged timeline of natural is still a matter of debate. There is evidence to sug- and human-induced changes in the Many Glacier gest that anthropogenic stressors may act synergisti- area, and Figure 2 provides additional context about cally to compound the effects of natural variations in the extent of development within the Park. Total lake chemistry (Wolfe et al, 2001). Yet much is still percent carbon and nitrogen trends are essentially unknown about how processes like diagenesis or sea- parallel, decreasing dramatically with depth in the top sonal variations may also affect the trends we observe 5 cm, whereas the C/N ratio gradually increases with in the sediment. Further investigation of both Swift- depth. These patterns are common in oligotrophic current Lake and less impacted areas from up valley lake systems, with changes likely due to the diagenet- could help determine the true cause of environmen- ic loss of labile surface N compounds post-sedimenta- tal perturbations at Glacier National Park, and will tion (Last and Smol, 2001). Diagenesis may also help provide useful insight to the impacts humans have on explain the rapid increase in C/S over the past two alpine lake systems decades. As lake surface matter breaks down, sediments often become preferentially enriched in sulfur ACKNOWLEDGMENTS relative to organic carbon (Urban et al., 1998). I would like thank my fellow Keck students for their Sediment δ15N levels gradually begin increasing ca. support in the field, my advisors, Kelly MacGregor 1931, peaking at 1982, which could reflect increas- and Catherine Riihimaki, as well as Amy Myrbo ing anthropogenic enrichment through effluent addi- and Kristina Brady (LacCore) for their support and tions. Campgrounds were added in 1934 (see Table resources, the Keck Geology Consortium for fund- 1, Figure 2) and evidence suggests that prior to 1970, ing this research, the Franklin and Marshall College poor waste management practices led to human waste Geoscience Founders Society for funding the isotope being diverted directly into Swiftcurrent Lake (Gaufin analyses, and Franklin and Marshall College for de- 1970). Additionally, the concurrent increase in total fraying travel costs. N and decrease in δ15N over the last two decades could potentially be due to atmospheric fractionation REFERENCES of isotopically depleted N-compounds; Wolfe et al. (2001) suggest that increased automobile emissions Blaauw, M., Christen, J.A. 2010. Flexible paleocli- and other NOx-emitting sources, for example, can mate age-depth models using an autoregressive cause similar trends, even in seemingly pristine lakes. gamma process. In review, Bayesian Analysis.

It is possible that severe flooding may have also con- Carrara, P.E. 1990. Late Quaternary Glacial and tributed to the lake’s geochemical trends. Data gath- Vegetative History of the Glacier National Park ered from USGS stream gauge system indicates major Region, Montana. U.S. Geological Survey Bul- flood events took place in June of 1964, 1975, and letin. 1995, which roughly correspond to the most promi- nent peaks in the δ13C column. Flooding may help Gaufin, A.L. 1970. A study of the natural water sys- explain the peaks in C/N and δ13C abundances at these tems in western Montana. United States Depart- depths, as it would increase terrestrial organic mat- ment of the Interior. Project A-017. ter input. Figure 4 shows the distribution of potential organic matter sources to Swiftcurrent Lake (Meyers Last, W.M., Smol, J.P. Tracking Environmental 1999). The values of the Swiftcurrent Lake data indi- Change using Lake Sediments. v.2: Physical cate a mixture of source organic matter, likely a blend and Geochemical Methods. Klewer Academic: of lacustrine algae and C3 land plants, with the two Dordrecht, 2001. 212 24th Annual Keck Symposium: 2011 Union College, Schenectady, NY MacGregor, K.R., Riihimaki, C.A., Myrbo, A., Shapley, M.D., Jankowski, K. Geomorphic and climatic change over the past 12,900 years at Swiftcurrent Lake, Glacier National Park, Mon- tana, USA. Quaternary Research. In final Review

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