Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture Sunraysia Region

DEPARTMENT OF PRIMARY INDUSTRIES

table grapes dried grapes wine grapes Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture Sunraysia Region

Volume 1

NATURALLY VICTORIAN

CODE OF ENVIRONMENTAL BEST PRACTICE FOR VITICULTURE Sunraysia Region Volume 1 Environmental Best Practices

Edited by: Sue McConnell Adam Wightwick Tony Smith Christina Porteous

Department of Primary Industries Research and Development Division Irymple, Victoria Acknowledgments

The State Government of Victoria’s Naturally Victorian Initiative provided funding for this publication.

This publication was compiled with the assistance of representatives from the Sunraysia Viticultural Industries. Input into this publication was provided by, but does not necessarily reflect the views of, the following organisations: Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Co-operative Research Centre for Viticulture Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria Ecorecycle Victoria Environmental Protection Authority, Victoria Mallee Catchment Management Authority Mildura Rural City Council New South Wales Agriculture New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority Wentworth Shire Council

Published by Department of Primary Industries PO Box 905 MILDURA Vic 3502 Ph: (03) 50514500 Fax: (03) 50514523

Also published on www.dpi.vic.gov.au

This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by any process except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.

Authorised by the Victorian Government, Cnr Eleventh Street & Koorlong Ave IRYMPLE Vic 3498

Printed by Press Here 13 Marine Parade Ocean Grove Vic 3226

ISBN 1 74106 638 7

Find more information about DPI on the Internet at: www.dpi.vic.gov.au

Disclaimer: The advice provided in this publication is intended as a source of information only. Always read the label before using any of the products mentioned. The State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication. VOLUME 1 – ENVIRONMENTAL BEST PRACTICES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

Introduction 1 Environmental Impacts 9 Environmental Best Practices 27 Irrigation Management 29 Nutrition 53 Pest and Disease Management 71 Vineyard Floor Management 99 Vineyard Development 115 Native Vegetation Management 125 Waste Management 135 Biosecurity 151 Machinery 163 Harvesting – Wine grapes 173 Harvesting – Dried grapes 177 Harvesting – Table grapes 183 Glossary of terms and acronyms 191

Introduction Introduction

tab

Full page Introduction

The Code of Environmental Best Practice for What are the key Viticulture – Sunraysia Region is a voluntary code targeted at grape growers and vineyard managers. environmental issues The code is intended to be used as a reference for the Sunraysia region? document and tool to assist with the adoption of environmental best practice and covers the three viticultural industries in the Sunraysia Region: When working towards improved environmental performance it is important to gain an • Dried grapes understanding of the regional environmental issues. • Wine grapes The Mallee Catchment Management Authority has identified the major processes which threaten the • Table grapes natural resources in the Mallee. The threatening processes related to viticulture are listed in Table 11. The Lower Murray Darling Catchment Board has also identified catchment objectives and targets. The catchment targets related to viticulture are listed in Table 22. The Sunraysia regional code provides information to assist growers and developers to adopt best environmental practices which will help protect the natural resources in the Mallee and the Lower Murray Darling Catchment.

1 Mallee CMA. (2002). ‘Draft Mallee Regional Catchment Strategy’. (Mallee Catchment Management Authority, Victoria). 2 Lower Murray Darling Catchment Management Board. (2003). ‘Lower Murray Darling Catchment Blueprint’. (NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation).

1 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

Table 1 – The significant threats to natural resources in the Mallee as related to viticulture

Threatening process related to viticulture Main influencing factors

Loss of ecological processes • Ecosystem fragmentation. • Distribution of breeding and regeneration cycles. • Imbalances in species populations. Pest plants and animals • The availability of shelter and food sources. Altered flooding regimes • The need for irrigation water to be available during summer. Land and water salinisation • The use of water for irrigation. Water pollution • Pollution from irrigation drainage water, soil erosion, the use of fertilisers, and from in channel sediments. • Land clearing and agricultural development. Wind erosion • Lack of soil surface cover. • Low winter rainfall. Changing land use • New vineyard developments.

Table 2 – Catchment targets for the Lower Murray Darling Catchment as related to viticulture

Catchment target Description

Riverine health An identifiable nett improvement in riverine health across the Lower Murray Darling Catchment by 2012. This will be determined by: • an improvement in the native to introduced fish ratio (55% improvement in species ratio, 25% improvement in abundance ratio, measurable improvement in biomass ratio); • a 20% reduction in the number of days subject to blue green algal alerts; • the reinstatement of more flow patterns as modelled in each of five river management zones. Salinity To maintain the year 2000, 95th percentile, salt concentration of 430 EC at Lock 6 over the duration of the plan, with variations due to climatic conditions or external salt contributions. Vegetation A measurable improvement in the condition of native vegetation communities by 2007, as measured by key indicators at 90% of sites in the catchment, with retention of at least 80% of the pre-clearing extent of each native vegetation community, incorporating an increase in the area actively managed as conservation.

2 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

Why adopt environmental best practice?

The major reasons for adopting environmental best practice are: • to improve the sustainability of vineyards and the viticultural industries by maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and natural resources necessary for the production of grapes; • to improve the long-term economic sustainability of the vineyard by minimising the inputs (eg water, fertilisers, chemicals, and fuel) required to produce grapes; • to protect, enhance and restore the environment and natural resources for future generations; • to ensure access to desirable markets, in particular those markets with high environmental standards; and • to meet industry, community and government environmental expectations.

How to use the regional code of environmental best practice

• The regional code of environmental best practice is a reference document and provides information to assist growers to meet legal obligations and to improve environmental performance (eg by minimising negative impacts). • It is recommended that growers firstly familiarise themselves with the regional code and then refer to specific sections for more detail as required. • The regional code contains two volumes: - Volume 1 – Environmental Best Practices.

- Volume 2 – Environmental Legal Obligations.

3 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

Volume 1 – Environmental Best Practices Each of the environmental best practices is broken up into the following components: • Environmental impacts • Environmental best practices Environmental best practice objectives – states the objectives for achieving environmental best practice. Environmental Impacts Potential environmental impacts – lists the The environmental impacts section provides environmental impacts related directly to, or as a information about environmental impacts related to consequence of the vineyard management practice. viticulture. It provides some background to the Performance measures - lists any indicators or reasons for adopting environmental best practice and measures that can be used to track the environmental can assist in developing action plans for improving performance of the vineyard. environmental performance. Relevant Legislation – lists the commonwealth, The environmental impacts section is broken up into state, and regional legislation that relates to the three components: vineyard management practice. Environmental Contaminants – identifies the Summary of environmental best practice - lists the environmental contaminants (eg pesticides, key points to achieving environmental best practice. nutrients) and explains their movement to off-target Best practice information - provides information locations (eg rivers) and persistence in the detailing how to achieve the objectives identified. environment. The information included is a summary of currently Environmental Impacts - provides information accepted and documented best environmental about impacts on soil, water, air, flora and fauna, practice. The information includes references to other natural resources, and regional aesthetics as a results publications, which provide further technical detail of viticultural activities. to assist with implementation. Regional and catchment environmental priorities – References – provides details of publications summarises the most significant environmental referred to in the best practice information. issues for the region and the catchment. Volume 2 – Environmental Legal Obligations Environmental Best Practices Volume 2 provides information to assist growers to The environmental best practices section provides identify and enhance their awareness of the information about how to implement environmental legal requirements arising from environmental best practices on farm. Best practices vineyard management practices. are provided for the following vineyard management Commonwealth, State and regional requirements are practices: covered. - Irrigation management - Nutrition - Pest and disease management - Vineyard floor management - Vineyard development - Native vegetation management - Waste management - Biosecurity - Machinery operation - Harvesting

4 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

Where does the regional code fit with national industry environmental programs? Wine Industry

The Australian Wine Industry’s Environment • a National Viticultural Environmental Code Strategy "Sustaining Success" (produced by the (Draft). This code provides the foundations for South Australian Wine and Brandy Industry the development of regional codes; Association) has been developed to assist the • National Environmental Best Management Australian wine industry to strive towards Practice Protocols (Draft). These protocols improved environmental performance. Strategy 3.3 provide general, non region specific guidance on in "Sustaining Success" identifies the need to the adoption of environmental best practices; and develop national industry environmental standards and guidelines3. • an environmental risk assessment tool VERA© The Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture (Viticare Environmental Risk Assessment tool). (CRCV) has developed the following nationally The VERA tool is used to assist growers identify focussed documents and tools: risks, establish priorities, and develop action • a National Framework for Environmental plans. Management. This framework outlines seven The Sunraysia regional code provides information different levels of environmental management; specific to the Sunraysia region, and links to the National Framework for Environmental Management, National Viticultural Environmental 3 SA Wine & Brandy. (2002). ‘The Australian Wine Industry’s Code, National Environmental Best Management Environment Strategy "Sustaining Success"’. (South Australian Wine And Brandy Industry Association Incorporated). Practice Protocols and VERA tool as shown in the diagram:

Wine & Grape Industry Policy & Direction

• Australian Wine Industry Environment Strategy "Sustaining Success" • National framework for Environmental Management

National Industry Environmental Management Tools

• National Viticultural Environmental Code (Draft) • National Environmental Best Management Practice Protocols (Draft) • VERA (Viticare Environmental Risk Assessment tool)

Regional Environmental Management SUNRAYSIA REGIONAL CODE OF ENVIRONMENTAL BEST PRACTICE FOR VITICULTURE

5 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

Dried Grape Industry Where does the regional

The Australian dried grape industry has developed code fit with national, state the Dried Grape Industry Development Program. and regional strategies and The objective of this program is "to raise the quality of dried fruit production, by existing growers and objectives? potential new entrants to the dried grape industry, to enable Australia to compete at the premium end The regional code has been prepared giving of domestic and export markets"4. consideration to the following national, state, and regional strategies and their objectives: The industry development program identifies the need to encourage sustainable management • National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable practices on dried fruit properties. Development The regional code of environmental best practice • Nationally Strategy for the Conservation of provides information to assist dried grape growers Australia’s Biological Diversity to adopt sustainable management practices. • National Greenhouse Strategy • Victoria’s Biodiversity Strategy 4 Robertson GL (2002) Federal Council 2002 Board of Management report. Dried Fruits News. 29 (3) : 7 – 15. • Victoria’s Salinity Management Framework

Table Grape Industry Strategy 2.5 in The Australian Table Grape Industry Strategic Plan 2002 – 2008 identifies the need to establish sustainable production systems5. The regional code provides information to assist table grape growers to improve their environmental performance by establishing sustainable production systems on their properties.

5 W.H. Kirkness Pty. Ltd. (2002). ‘The Australian Table Grape Industry Strategic Plan 2002 – 2008’. (Australian Table Grape Association).

6 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

How does the regional code fit with an environmental management system (EMS)? The regional code of environmental best practice can be used in conjunction with an environmental management system (EMS). An environmental management system (EMS) is a systematic approach used to assess and continuously improve environmental performance. A formal EMS requires commitment and policy and follows a plan, do, monitor, and review cycle. The regional code of environmental best practice is a reference document and can be used to assist with the “do” and “monitor” components of the EMS cycle as shown in the diagram below: • Victoria’s Native Vegetation Management Framework • Mallee Regional Catchment Strategy

Commitment & policy

PLAN

Regional code of environmental best DO practice (implementation) REVIEW (reference document)

MONITOR (measure & evaluate)

7 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Introduction

Page 8 is a blank back up.

8 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region

Environmental Impacts Environmental Impacts

tab

Full page Environmental Impacts

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Section Page

1.0 Introduction 10 2.0 Environmental contaminants 10 2.1 Movement of contaminants 11 2.1.1 Movement through the soil 11 2.1.2 Surface run-off 12 2.1.3 Soil erosion 13 2.1.4 Volatilisation 13 2.1.5 Ground water movement 14 2.1.6 Movement through drainage systems 14 2.1.7 Movement of organic material, plant material, and machinery 14 2.1.8 Leaching from treated timber posts 14 2.2 Environmental persistence of contaminants 15 2.2.1 Chemical structure and properties 15 2.2.2 Characteristics of the environment 15 2.2.3 Climatic conditions 16 3.0 Environmental Impacts 16 3.1 Soils 16 3.1.1 Soil fertility 16 3.1.2 Soil structure 17 3.1.3 Soil salinity 18 3.1.4 Soil acidification 18 3.2 Water 18 3.3 Air 19 3.3.1 Volatilisation of chemicals 19 3.3.2 Greenhouse gases 19 3.3.3 Dust 20 3.4 Flora, fauna and ecosystems 20 3.5 Natural resources 21 3.6 Regional aesthetics and amenity 22 3.6.1 Generation of noise 22 3.6.2 Generation of odours 23 3.6.3 Air pollution 23 4.0 Regional environmental priorities 23 References 26

9 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

1.0 Introduction 2.0 Environmental Contaminants The development and operation of a vineyard can impact on the environment in many ways. Substances or organisms that are placed or moved to an unintended location within the environment are Undesirable impacts can be caused by practices referred to as environmental contaminants. These which result in: include:

• a physical change to the environment caused by • nutrients and their by-products; activities/practices which cause disturbances to the environment; and • pesticides and their by-products;

• substances or organisms being placed or moved • salt; to a location where they do not belong (eg chemical spray drift). • sediments;

Viticultural practices can have immediate and long- • metals; term negative effects on the environment and may also affect the productivity of the vineyard. However • oils; many of these impacts can be reduced or eliminated by adopting best environmental practices. • exotic/introduced pests, diseases, weeds; and

This section provides information about the • general waste. processes behind environmental contamination and the potential environmental impacts related to The unintended locations that contaminants can be viticultural practices. placed or moved to include:

• soils;

• ground water;

• surface water (eg rivers);

• atmosphere; and

• plants and animals.

10 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

2.1 Movement of contaminants Soil type and characteristics

Environmental contaminants can find their way to Organic content unintended locations via various chemical and physical pathways and processes. The pathways that • Chemicals and nutrients can adsorb or attach to enable environmental contaminants to move to these organic matter in the soil. locations include: • Generally the greater the organic content of the • movement through the soil; soil the less likely the contaminant is to move through the soil profile (19). • surface run-off; • Contaminants with a positive electrical charge • soil erosion; (cations) (eg ammonium, calcium, and potassium) attach to negatively charged organic matter • volatilisation; particles.

• ground water movement; • Those with a negative charge (eg nitrate) will not attach and are more prone to leaching (7). • movement through drainage systems;

• movement of organic material, plant material and Soil texture machinery; and • The size of the particles and the pore spaces in the • leaching from treated timber posts. soil both affect the ease of movement of chemicals through the soil profile.

2.1.1 Movement through the soil • Sandy soils have large particles, which enables greater infiltration of water.

When water infiltrates through the soil profile it • Clay soils have small particles, which results in takes with it any contaminants that are dissolved in slower infiltration of water through the soil it. This process is known as leaching. The leaching of profile (19). contaminants in the soil can occur as a result of rainfall or irrigation events. A certain degree of • The types of particles in the soil also have an leaching may be required to move salts from the affect on the movement of contaminants. Clay rootzone; however care needs to be taken when particles have a negative charge so attract cations scheduling and applying irrigation water to ensure (positively charge contaminants); sandy soils on that the unnecessary leaching of contaminants does the other hand have a relatively low ability to not occur. attract cations (7).

The degree to which a contaminant leaches through the soil depends on: Soil pH

• the soil type and characteristics; and • The pH of the soil has an affect on the solubility of chemicals and nutrients (19). • the chemical properties of the contaminant.

11 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

Soil macropores Chemical degradation

• Soils contain pores as a result of their texture, • The degree to which the chemical degrades in the however they can also contain macropores, which soil will impact on its movement through the soil. are tunnels created by earthworms and plant roots. • If the chemical degrades before any water infiltrates through the soil then it may not be • Macropores can provide for the preferential flow leached from the soil. of water through the soil profile and increase drainage (2). • The metabolites (or breakdown products) produced from chemical degradation may be more susceptible to leaching (19). Chemical properties of contaminants 2.1.2 Surface run-off

Solubility • Water flowing along the surface of the vineyard floor can cause contaminants sitting on or near • Different chemicals and nutrients can dissolve in the surface to run-off. water to different degrees. • The movement of soil surface contaminants can • This has an impact on the movement of the occur directly as a result of contaminants contaminant through the soil profile (19). dissolving in the water, or indirectly as a result of soil erosion. Dissociation • Contaminants that have been subject to surface run-off can be transported to channels, rivers or • Some chemicals can dissociate into ions other water bodies. (electrically charged atoms) in a process known as ionisation. • Surface run-off can occur as a result of inappropriate floor management and irrigation • The degree of dissociation that occurs will affect practices as well as incorrect vineyard design the solubility of the chemical in water (19). and set-up. • The pH of the soil has an impact on ionisation.

Structure and electrical charge

• The structure and electrical charge of contaminants affect their ability to adsorb or attach to organic components in the soil.

• Contaminants with a positive charge will bind to negatively charged soil particles and organic matter.

• Contaminants with a high ability to attach to organic matter will be prone to leaching if there is not sufficient organic matter in the soil (19, 7).

12 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

2.1.3 Soil erosion 2.1.4 Volatilisation

• Contamination and degradation of the The atmosphere can become contaminated through a environment can occur as a result of soil erosion. process known as volatilisation. This is the process in which a solid or liquid (eg pesticide, fertiliser) turns • Wind and water are two causes of soil erosion. into a gas and enters the atmosphere.

• Soil erosion is directly related to reduced vegetation cover and poor soil structure. Pesticides

• Soil that is left bare, as a result of the clearing of • Pesticides applied in vineyards are subject to vegetation and/or the use of vineyard floor volatilisation from soil and plant surfaces. management practices that exclude the use of cover crops or mulches, is prone to erosion. • Generally volatilisation is higher from plant than soil surfaces, and is most likely to occur within a • A decline in soil structure can occur as a result of short period following application. fertiliser use, cultivation, and increases in soil salinity. • The vapours produced from volatilisation can drift as a result of wind and inversions and can be • Irrigation practices which cause surface run-off of transported to off-target locations. water (eg furrow irrigation) are a contributor to soil erosion • Different chemicals have different degrees of volatilisation depending on their vapour pressure (19).

Soil erosion degrades the Nutrients land and can lead to the transport of sediments, pesticides, and nutrients • Nutrients are also susceptible to volatilisation and into water bodies and off- the main mechanisms for nitrogen losses in target areas agricultural systems are through gaseous nitrogen emissions.

• The two main gases produced are nitrous oxide

(N2O) and ammonia (NH3).

• Nitrous oxide is considered a greenhouse gas and is produced during the nitrification and denitrification processes (nitrification is the + process in which ammonium (NH4 ) is converted - to nitrate (NO3 ), the form of nitrogen that is more easily taken up by plants).

• Ammonia is not a greenhouse gas, however it does combine with nitrate and sulphate to form particulate matter in the atmosphere. This can then be redeposited on soil and/or in water bodies.

13 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

2.1.5 Ground Water Movement 2.1.6 Movement through drainage systems • When the volume of irrigation water applied exceeds the requirements of the vine, the excess • The presence of a sub surface drainage system can water filters through the soil profile and can increase the movement of contaminated water to create a perched water table. locations outside of the vineyard in comparison to natural water movement processes. • Excess irrigation water can also infiltrate into the ground water and cause contamination. • This in turn can lead to increased impacts on water bodies and wetlands. • If water is added to the perched water table too fast or too often it can rise forming a ground water mound. This causes salinisation as salt is moved closer to the soil surface.

• The presence of deep-rooted native vegetation can utilise excess water to prevent rises in the water table. Therefore the clearing of native vegetation or changing the vegetative cover from deep rooted to shallow rooted plants can also contribute to salinisation (8).

When water reaches the water table or recharges the ground water it continues to move downwards and/or horizontally taking with it 2.1.7 Movement of organic material, any contaminants. This water will continue to move until it reaches a discharge point (eg a plant material, and machinery river), depositing contaminants at the same time. • Exotic pests, diseases and weeds can be • The movement of ground water towards introduced into the vineyard and the region discharge points is generally very slow (8). through the introduction of organic and plant material from elsewhere.

• This material can be introduced directly as planting material or organic fertiliser (eg manures, mulches), or indirectly as a result of the movement of machinery and people into the vineyard.

2.1.8 Leaching from treated timber posts

• Timber posts used for trellising in the vineyard are treated with copper chromium arsenate (CCA), creosote, pentachlorophenol (PCP) or The inappropriate use of water for irrigation can cause ammoniacal copper quat (ACQ). salinisation and long-term land degradation • These preservatives can leach from the posts into the soil.

14 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

Vapour pressure • CCA and creosote are relatively resistant to leaching. PCP has been linked to environmental contamination and is no longer used as a • The vapour pressure of the chemical determines preservative. (17) how easily it is volatilised. • The higher the vapour pressure, the more 2.2 Environmental persistence of susceptible the chemical is to volatilisation. contaminants Chemical reactivity The period of time that contaminants persist in the environment has a major influence on the severity of • Chemical reactivity refers to how easily the bonds the negative environmental impacts caused as a in the chemical structure can be broken. result of the contamination. Section 2.2 discusses the • Hydrolysis or the reaction with water is an factors, which influence the persistence of the important factor in the break down of chemicals following contaminants in the environment: in the environment. • nutrients and their by-products; Photolytic stability • pesticides and their by-products; • Ultra-violet (UV) rays from sunlight break down • salt; chemicals.

• oils; and • The photolytic stability refers to how much UV light the chemical can absorb before it begins to • metals. degrade. The chemical structure and properties, the characteristics of the environment, climatic factors, 2.2.2 Characteristics of the and any interactions between these factors determine environment the persistence of a chemical in the environment.

2.2.1 Chemical structure and Microbial community properties • Organisms in soil and water can break down Chemical structure chemicals by using them as a food source.

• The stronger the bonds in the chemical structure, • The degree to which microbial break down occurs the slower the chemical degrades. depends on the population and types of organisms present. • Chemical structures containing elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen will also • Vineyard soils with healthy populations of degrade more slowly. organisms will aid the degradation of chemicals in the soil.

Water turbidity

• Chemicals can bind to suspended solids in water bodies.

15 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

• The greater the turbidity of the water, the more 3.1 Soils persistent the chemical will be. The soils in the vineyard are frequently subjected to 2.2.3 Climatic conditions impacts as a result of vineyard practices. The main impacts are on:

• Temperature affects the volatilisation of the • soil fertility; chemical. • soil structure; • The temperature at which volatilisation occurs will depend on the vapour pressure of the • soil salinity; and chemical. • soil acidification. 3.0 Environmental Impacts 3.1.1 Soil fertility

This section discusses the environmental impacts caused: • Vineyard soil fertility and health refers to the amount of organic matter and the population of • by the development of a vineyard; organisms in the soil.

• as a direct result of vineyard activities/practices; • A healthy soil will have a high level of organic and matter and will contain strong populations of beneficial organisms, such as earthworms and • as a result of contaminants moving into microbes. These organisms have the ability to unintended locations. convert nutrients into a form that the plant can use. The environmental impacts are discussed in the context of the following aspects of the environment: • Soil organisms use components of organic matter in the soil as food, therefore beneficial soil • soils; organisms are affected by a decline in soil organic matter. • water; • Soil organisms also add organic matter back into • air; the soil (eg in the form of worm castings).

• flora, fauna and ecosystems; • Populations of soil organisms and the organic content of the soil are affected by: • natural resources; and - pesticides that persist in the vineyard soil; • regional aesthetics and amenity. - the chlorine present in muriate of potash; It should be noted that the environment is a highly complex system and many factors interact. As a - increases in soil salinity; result, impacts on one aspect of the environment can cause follow-on impacts on other aspects of the - synthetic nitrogen fertilisers which suppress environment. the activity of bacterium that fix nitrogen in the (9) soil ;

- preservatives which leach from treated timber posts;

16 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

- the use of inorganic fertilisers as these can act • The fertility of the soil is also related to the risk of to speed the destruction of the soil’s humus soil compaction. Soil organisms present in fertile content (9); and soil create and re-create soil pores, which reduces the risk of compaction. - soil compaction associated with cultivation and the use of machinery as this can suppress the • Mallee soils are especially vulnerable to ability for organisms to move within the soil. degradation because they have inherently low levels of organic matter and poor soil structure. (16) • The loss of beneficial soil organisms causes a reduction in soil fertility in the long-term and may • Impacts associated with a decline in soil structure result in the increased need for fertiliser include: applications. - a reduction in soil aeration, which impacts on • A reduction in soil fertility can also impact on the the ability for water to move through the soil ability of the soil to hold nutrients, which can profile and can result in waterlogging of the result in the increased leaching of nutrients soil and increases in surface run-off; through the soil profile. - soil surface crusting or sealing as a result of cultivation (13). This can restrict water 3.1.2 Soil structure infiltration and in turn increases water run-off and associated soil erosion; and • The soil structure refers to how the particles of the soil are arranged into clumps, or aggregates. - an increase in nitrous oxide emissions as a result of the loss of oxygen in the soil (18). • Soil aggregates are bound together by clay and organic matter (10).

• Beneficial bacteria and fungi also play an important role in binding soil aggregates (13).

• The spaces between soil aggregates are known as soil pores. Soil pores of different sizes are Continual cultivation can involved in vital processes such as gas exchange, lead to the development water storage, water flow, infiltration and of hard pans drainage.

• The main soil structure issue is compaction, which is a reduction in soil pore size and an increase in soil density. Soil compaction occurs as a result of:

- cultivation, (if soil is continually ploughed at the same depth or is ploughed when the soil is too wet, a hard compacted layer (hard pan) can develop between tilled and untilled layers); and

- the use of heavy machinery, (the frequent use of such machinery between the vine rows can cause the compaction of soil aggregates. This is more likely if machinery is used when the soil moisture content is high).

17 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

3.1.3 Soil salinity then stimulates the excessive growth of aquatic flora and/or fauna. The development of blue- green algae blooms is a significant impact The excessive and inappropriate use of water for associated with eutrophication); irrigation causes rises in regional water tables and can lead to increases in soil salinity. Increases in soil - sedimentation and increased turbidity, (caused salinity can harm (inhibit the growth of and cause by the deposition of soil sediments into surface death of) plants including native vegetation. Soil water bodies as a result of erosion and run-off); salinity also affects the health of vines and can lead - increased salinity (caused by the movement of to reduced yields and crop quality. saline water into the greater water body, and may be the result of drainage water or ground 3.1.4 Soil acidification water entering the system); and

- agricultural chemical contamination (caused by The use of land for agriculture can induce soil the off-target and off-site movement of acidification as a result of the leaching of soil nitrate, agricultural chemicals. This can occur directly particularly from the use of ammonium based (eg via spray drift) or indirectly (eg via fertilisers and the addition of organic acids (14). The erosion)). organic and clay content of the soil are the two most important factors affecting acidification. The higher • The above impacts on water bodies can have these components are the greater the capacity the soil follow-on effects to flora and fauna. has to resist change. Different types of soil also have differing capacities to resist pH changes. • The contamination of water bodies can also impact on the community by raising concerns (14) It should be noted that : about the safety of the water for drinking, domestic and recreational use. • Mallee soils are alkaline and acidification is not typically a problem. • The use of water for irrigation can also impact on water supplies, contributing to: • Information linking soil acidity to off-site consequences is negligible. - reduced river flows and changes in flow regime; • Increased soil acidity impacts on yield and plant - the long-term depletion of natural water health in the vineyard. resources; 3.2 Water - a decline in river health and water quality; and

- a decline in the health of riparian vegetation. • Contaminants can find their way directly into surface water and wetlands where they can cause impacts.

• Contaminants can also be present in groundwater recharge; these contaminants can then eventually reach surface water and cause long-term impacts.

• The immediate impacts associated with the contamination of water bodies are:

- eutrophication (this is the process where water bodies become enriched with nutrients. This

18 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

3.3 Air Use of fossil fuels

The volatilisation of chemicals; and the production of • The burning of fossil fuels to generate energy greenhouse gases can cause impacts on air quality produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. and the atmosphere. • Fossil fuels are used directly to power tractors, 3.3.1 Volatilisation of chemicals machinery, and dehydrators. • Fossil fuels are also used to generate electricity, • The atmosphere can become contaminated with which is used to power irrigation pumps, cool volatilised chemicals, which can then directly rooms and for processing facilities (eg wineries, impact on air quality and have implications for packing sheds). human and animal health. Use of fertilisers • Volatilised chemicals can also be deposited in surrounding areas where they can cause the contamination of land and water bodies. • Nitrogen in fertiliser is susceptible to

volatilisation and produces nitrous oxide (N2O) • The drift of chemicals into residential areas, and ammonia (NH3). Nitrous oxide is considered schools, public land, and across roadways can a greenhouse gas and is produced as a by-product cause human health concerns amongst the of nitrification and denitrification. community. • Ammonia is not a greenhouse gas however it 3.3.2 Greenhouse gases does combine with nitrate and sulphate to form particulate matter in the atmosphere. This can then be redeposited on soil and/or in water • Greenhouse gases are produced from on-farm bodies. Ammonia can then indirectly contribute to practices as a result of the: nitrous oxide emission and soil acidification.

- use of fossil fuels;

- use of fertilisers;

- clearing of land;

- burning of waste; and

- use of refrigeration systems (eg cool rooms).

• The manufacture of fertilisers, chemicals and other materials used on-farm also results in the production of greenhouse gases. The manufacture of fertilisers is a particularly energy intensive process.

• Greenhouse gases impact on the environment by contributing to global warming and climate Machinery driven by fossil fuels leads to the generation change. of greenhouse gases, the pollution of the atmosphere and the consumption of natural resources. The use of fossil fuels needs to be minimised

19 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

Clearing of land 3.4 Flora, fauna and ecosystems

• Vegetation, in particular trees, also act as Changes to the environment caused by the presence greenhouse sinks by absorbing and removing of contaminants and associated processes can have carbon dioxide from the air. So the removal of short-term impacts on native flora and fauna (or vegetation results in (3): native biodiversity) (5, 6). In the long-term this can impact on species and habitat diversity and affect - the direct release of carbon dioxide to the natural ecosystems. atmosphere; and The impacts on native flora and fauna caused by - less carbon dioxide being absorbed from the changes to the environment include: atmosphere. • a reduction in populations of animal, bird, Burning of waste invertebrate organisms and microbes as a result of:

• The burning of waste for disposal or frost control - changes to habitats caused by the introduction contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and of pests, diseases, and weeds as well as the produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, clearing of existing native vegetation; methane, and nitrous oxide. - the fragmentation and removal of remnant Refrigeration systems vegetation;

- changes to vegetation composition and • The discharge or leakage of refrigerants diversity; and containing chlorine, bromine and other halogens directly impacts on ozone depletion (1). - the ingestion of agricultural chemicals through the consumption of contaminated water • The energy required to operate cool rooms also and/or the consumption of contaminated soil, requires the use of fossil fuels, which contributes plant material or animal tissues.; to carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions. • the inhibition and destruction of plant species caused by: 3.3.3 Dust - increased soil nitrogen levels associated with fertiliser use (eucalyptus trees in particular are Dust generated as a result of machinery use and effected by soils with high levels of nitrogen); wind erosion can impact on air quality and lead to community disturbances especially in residential - increases in soil salinity (which can slow the areas. growth of plants, cause leaf burn and eventually cause death);

- chemical contaminants which contact and/or are taken up by plants;

- changes to species diversity as a result of the introduction of weeds;

20 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

- damage and disturbance to vegetation (eg as a • maintenance and regeneration of habitat; result of the dumping/storage of waste and by vehicle traffic); and • maintenance of soil fertility and health;

- the clearing of land for new developments.; • maintenance of healthy waterways;

• a reduction in the health of aquatic organisms • water filtration; caused directly by: • regulation of river flows and ground water levels; - agricultural chemicals present in water (which and can result in the death of a range of aquatic organisms including fish, algae, aquatic • waste absorption and breakdown. invertebrates and aquatic arthropods); and Impacts that affect ecosystem services lead to the - fine sediments that have been deposited in increased need for human and artificial intervention water bodies, which can affect the respiration (eg increased need for fertilisers) which can then and feeding of aquatic organisms.; and further impact on aspects of the environment.

• the mortality of aquatic fauna as a result of a 3.5 Natural resources change in species diversity caused by: (14)

- an increase in water salinity; A number of vineyard practices contribute directly to the depletion of natural resources including: - the nutrient pollution of water bodies; • the extraction of water for irrigation reduces - the alteration of habitats as a result of water resources (eg rivers, lakes, and ground sedimentation; and water); • the use of phosphate fertilisers depletes rock - increases in turbidity (which effects the phosphate reserves; and penetration of light, impacts on plant photosynthesis and therefore effects oxygen • the use of non-renewable energy sources . levels in the water). (15) In the long-term, the disposal of solid wastes to Native flora and fauna form an important part of landfill also reduces land resources. natural ecosystems. Impacts on native flora and fauna can therefore have significant effects on ecosystems and the services that ecosystems provided (5, 6). Ecosystem services are the transformation of a set of natural assets (eg soil, water) into things of value.

Natural ecosystem services include (4):

• pollination;

• regulation of climate;

• insect pest control; The storage of waste near roadsides effects the visual appeal of the region

21 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

3.6 Regional aesthetics and amenity 3.6.1 Generation of noise

Viticultural practices can have direct impacts on the • Noise pollution can impact on the community, in aesthetics of the region as a result of: particular where the vineyard is located in close proximity to residential areas, schools, or public • the installation of infrastructure such as irrigation recreational areas. pumps and pipes; sheds, and coolrooms; • Excessively loud noise, repetitive noises, and • disturbances created by the installation of noise generated in the late evening or early infrastructure; morning can be a nuisance to people in these areas. • the storage of waste, such as empty chemical containers, broken posts, old irrigation pipes, and • Noise can also impact on animal and bird vegetative waste which is visible from roads and communities in the areas surrounding the from the river. This can also lead to the vineyard. production of unpleasant smells and can present a fire risk; • The main vineyard activities that generate noise are: • impacts on water quality, which can have a direct effect on the appearance of water bodies such as - the use of farm machinery (eg tractors, rivers and lakes (eg algal blooms); harvesters, spray equipment);

• the clearing of vegetation (legal and illegal) for - the use of irrigation pumps; new vineyard developments; and - the use of bird scaring devices; • the use of non native tree species for wind breaks and drainage disposal. - the dropping of wine bins;

Impacts on regional amenity and community - the use of wind machines; and disturbances can also occur as a result of: - the use of rack shakers and dehydrators. • the generation of noise;

• the generation of odours; and

• air pollution.

22 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

3.6.2 Generation of odours 4.0 Regional environmental priorities The generation of odours can cause disturbances to the community and can also impact on regional aesthetics. Odours are generated as a result of: The potential environmental impacts caused by viticultural practices identified all have varying • the disposal of waste grapes (eg table grape levels of severity and significance. To determine trimmings, unwanted grapes) within the vineyard which environmental impacts are the most important or on the site. (Odours are the greatest problem to prevent or control it is necessary to consider the when large amounts of waste grapes are disposed environmental priorities of the region. of in one area); Five major natural resource assets have been • waste grapes that have been washed from identified for the Mallee. These are listed in Table 1 harvesters; along with the goals for each asset as determined by the Mallee Catchment Management Authority (12). • the spreading of fertilisers; The Mallee Catchment Management Authority has • the burning of waste; and also identified the major processes which threaten the natural resources in the Mallee, these are listed in • chemical applications. Table 2 (12).

The Lower Murray Darling Catchment Board has 3.6.3 Air pollution also identified catchment objectives and targets. The catchment targets related to viticulture are listed in • The spraying of agricultural chemicals causes air Table 3. pollution. The catchment targets and significant threats to • The atmosphere can become polluted through the natural resources identified need to be considered burning of waste. when making decisions about managing the vineyard. • The burning of some wastes such as treated timber posts, tyres, and tar lined drums also releases toxic fumes into the air.

• The generation of smoke as a result of burning can cause disturbances to the community and can impact on the image and appeal of the region.

The fumigation of table grapes with sulphur dioxide

(SO2) gas can result in residual gas that needs to be disposed of. Air pollution can occur if this gas is vented to the atmosphere.

23 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

Table 1 – The five major natural resource assets identified for the Mallee

Natural Resource Asset Goal

Biodiversity To maintain ecological processes and to protect and improve the extent and quality of biodiversity in the Mallee. Waterways To protect and improve waterway, floodplain and wetland health. Water resources To protect and improve the quality of water resources. Land resources To protect and improve the capability of land resources in the Mallee to support ecological processes, primary production and built infrastructure. Cultural sites To protect and improve cultural, heritage and significant landscape sites and to manage the risks to all sites.

Table 2 – The significant threats to natural resources in the Mallee as related to viticulture

Threatening process Main influencing factors

24 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

Table 3 – Catchment targets for the Lower Murray Darling Catchment as related to viticulture

Catchment target Description

Riverine health An identifiable nett improvement in riverine health across the Lower Murray Darling Catchment by 2012. This will be determined by: • an improvement in the native to introduced fish ratio (55% improvement in species ratio, 25% improvement in abundance ration, measurable improvement in biomass ratio); • a 20% reduction in the number of days subject to blue green algal alerts; • the reinstatement of more flow patterns as modelled in each of five river management zones. Salinity To maintain the year 2000, 95th percentile, salt concentration of 430 EC at Lock 6 over the duration of the plan, with variations due to climatic conditions or external salt contributions. Vegetation A measurable improvement in the condition of native vegetation communities by 2007, as measured by key indicators at 90% of sites in the catchment, with retention of at least 80% of the pre-clearing extent of each native vegetation community, incorporating an increase in the area actively managed as conservation.

25 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Environmental Impacts

References

1 Calm JM (2002) Emissions and environmental impacts from air-conditioning and refrigeration systems. International Journal of Refrigeration. 25 : 293 – 305.

2 Cass A, Crockfort B, Tisdall J (1993) New approaches to vineyard and orchard soil preparation and management. In ‘Vineyard development and redevelopment: proceedings of a seminar held on 23rd July 1993, Mildura, Victoria’. (Ed. P. Hayes) pp 18 – 24. (Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology. Adelaide, South Australia).

3 CSIRO (2001) ‘Understanding climate change’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment. Victoria).

4 CSIRO (2003) ‘Australian ecosystems at your service’. (CSIRO). (http://www.biodiversity.csiro.au/2nd_level/Biodiversity%20Month/ecosystems%20at%20your%20service.pdf - accessed 3/4/03)

5 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1997) ‘Victoria’s biodiversity – our living wealth’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Victoria).

6 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1997) ‘Victoria’s biodiversity – sustaining our living wealth’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Victoria)

7 Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Scholefield Robinson Horticultural Services PL, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture (2000) ‘Grapevine Nutrition: Research to Practice™ Draft Training Workshop Manual’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture)

8 Department of Water Resources (2000) ‘ABC’s of Groundwater’. (Centre for Groundwater Studies. Adelaide, South Australia).

9 Jackson R (2000) ‘Wine science – Principles, practice, perception’ (2nd ed). (Academic Press).

10 Lane A (1997) ‘Best management practices - Soil management’. (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs).

11 Lower Murray Darling Catchment Management Board (2003) ‘Lower Murray Darling Catchment Blueprint’. (NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation).

12 Mallee CMA (2002) ‘Draft Mallee Regional Catchment Strategy’. (Mallee Catchment Management Authority, Victoria).

13 McMullen B (1995) ‘Soil management for New South Wales orchards and vineyards’. (NSW Agriculture, NSW).

14 National Land and Water Resources Audit (2001) ‘Australian Agriculture Assessment 2001 – Volume 1’. (Land & Water Australia. ACT).

15 Office of the commissioner for the environment (1991) ‘1991 State of the environment report – Agriculture & Victoria’s environment Summary Report’. (Government of Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria).

16 Sanderson G, Treeby M (1999) Inter-row management options. In ‘Vitec ’99 seminar proceedings’ pp 2-4. (Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, South Australia)

17 Sinclair Knight Merz (1999) ‘Review of the landfill disposal risks and the potential for recovery and recycling of preservative treated timber’. (Environment Protection Agency, South Australia).

18 Sitaula BK, Hansen S, Sitaula JIB, Bakken LR. (2000) Effects of soil compaction on N2O emission in agricultural soil. Chemosphere – Global Change Science. 2 (3-4) : 367 – 371.

19 Williams B (1999) The fate of herbicides used in viticulture – Part 1. Australian Viticulture. 6 : 4 – 9.

26 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region

Environmental Best Practices Environmental Best Practices

page

tab Full ENVIRONMENTAL BEST PRACTICES

• Irrigation Management

• Nutrition

• Pest & Disease Management

• Vineyard Floor Management

• Vineyard Development

• Native Vegetation Management

• Waste Management

• Biosecurity

• Machinery Operation

• Harvesting – Wine Grapes

• Harvesting – Dried Grapes

• Harvesting – Table Grapes

Irrigation Management

Irrigation Management Irrigation Management

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 30 Performance Measures 30 Potential Environmental Impacts 30 Relevant Legislation 30 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 31 Best Practice Information 32 1.0 Site and vine properties 32 1.1 Topography 32 1.2 Characteristics of soil 32 1.3 Water 34 1.4 Characteristics of vines 34 1.5 Crop objective 34 2.0 Irrigation system development 35 2.1 Selecting irrigation system components 35 2.2 Irrigation system design 40 2.3 Drainage system design 42 3.0 Irrigation scheduling and application 43 3.1 Irrigation water availability 44 3.2 Salt leaching 44 3.3 Vine/crop water requirements 44 3.4 Soil moisture 44 3.5 Weather 45 3.6 Other vineyard practices 45 4.0 Irrigation system maintenance 46 4.1 General maintenance 46 4.2 Furrow 47 4.3 Overhead and low level sprinklers 47 4.4 Drip irrigation 48 4.5 Drainage system 48 5.0 Measuring performance 49 5.1 Water use per hectare (ML/ha) 49 5.2 Gross return per megalitre ($/ML) 49 5.3 Assessment of water losses 49 References 50 Appendix 1 – Details of the various types of soil moisture monitoring equipment available 51

29 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To minimise water losses by ensuring the • Water contamination from nutrients, irrigation system applies water precisely, pesticides and sediments as a result of surface efficiently, and uniformly over the vineyard. run-off and erosion. • To maximise water use efficiency by matching • Soil degradation caused by rises in the water applications to the crop water regional water table and increases in salinity. requirements, the water-holding capacity of • Biodiversity decline including: soil in the rootzone, and the amount required - harm to native vegetation caused by for the leaching of salts. increases in salinity; - harm to aquatic flora and fauna as a result Performance Measures of the eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) of water bodies, and increases in salt levels; • Water use per hectare (ML/ha). and - harm to soil organisms as a result of • Gross return per megalitre ($/ML). increases in soil salinity. • Assessment of water losses. • Increased pressure on water supplies and environmental river flows as a result of water consumption. • Atmospheric pollution by greenhouse gases resulting from energy production required for irrigation system pumping.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Water Act 1989 • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Planning and Environment Act 1987 • Murray Darling Basin Act 1993

New South Wales • Water Act 1912 • Water Management Act 2000 • Soil Conservation Act 1938 • Rivers and Foreshores Improvement Act 1948 • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Murray Darling Basin Act 1992

Commonwealth • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • Murray Darling Basin Act 1993

30 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Summary of Environmental Best Practice Knowledge of site Irrigation scheduling and properties application • Obtain a good knowledge of the soil • Schedule irrigation applications: characteristics in the vineyard. - according to the defined yield and quality objectives of the crop; • Have a soil survey conducted by a registered - using irrigation scheduling tools (eg C- soil surveyor. Probe, EnviroSCAN, tensiometers); and Irrigation system - giving consideration to integration with other vineyard management practices development (eg chemical applications, fertiliser • Have the irrigation system designed by an applications). accredited Irrigation Association of Australia • Determine the amount of water to apply by specialist. considering: • Ensure irrigation system and soil moisture - the yield and quality objectives of the crop; monitoring sites match soil types and soil - management practices (eg. PRD, RDI, variation. summer pruning); - the growth stage and water requirements • Design the drainage system with of the vines; consideration of: - the water holding capacity of the soil; - the soil types and depths; and - the depth of the root zone; and - the water use efficiency of the irrigation - the weather. system. Irrigation system maintenance • Conduct comprehensive system maintenance prior to and during the irrigation season. • Check and maintain system at each irrigation application. • Check distribution uniformity of system annually.

Drip irrigation enables water to be applied precisely and can produce very high water use efficiencies

31 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Best Practice Information 1.1 Topography

The topography of the site needs to be taken into Irrigation is a key component to any viticultural consideration to maximise pumping efficiency and operation and requires careful planning to ensure the uniformity of water application, so as to that irrigation water is applied both efficiently and minimise energy and water losses. For example effectively (1). Reductions in water use will assist in undulating land will require greater system lowering regional water tables and reversing the pumping requirements and more control over effects of salinity. pressure variations to ensure a high uniformity of water application than flat land. Irrigation management involves consideration of:

• site and vine properties; 1.2 Characteristics of soil

• irrigation system design; Different soils have different characteristics, which can impact on the type and design of an irrigation • irrigation scheduling and application; and system as well as the scheduling of irrigation applications. It is important to have a good • irrigation system maintenance. understanding of the vineyard soil to ensure water use efficiency is maximised. A soil survey should be 1.0 Site and vine properties undertaken by an accredited soil surveyor to determine:

When designing an irrigation system and developing • the soil types and depths across the vineyard an irrigation strategy the properties of the site need (including any variations); to be considered, including: • the water holding capacity of the soil in the • topography; rootzone or potential rootzone; and

• soil characteristics; • the infiltration rate of the soil.

• water characteristics; For further information about soil surveying and for a list of accredited soil surveyors contact the • characteristics and requirements of the vines; and Department of Primary Industries.

• objectives of the crop.

32 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

1.2.1 Soil type and variations To determine the RAW of the soil in the rootzone the following steps need to be taken (12, 13):

Different types of soils absorb water in different • determine the distance from the top of the soil to ways and have varying capacities for holding water. the point where 80 – 90% of the rootzone This can have an affect on the frequency and volume penetrates; of irrigation water that can be applied efficiently (eg. volumes of water applied which exceed the water • determine the texture of the soil within the holding capacity will result in water losses). (12, 13, 18) rootzone; and then

It is important to understand any soil variation as it • calculate the RAW of the soil using: will impact on the irrigation system layout/design required to achieve the maximum water use RAW in mm = efficiency. depth of rootzone (m) x RAW of soil texture (mm/m).

1.2.3 Infiltration rate of soil

Different soils absorb water at different rates; for example coarse-grained soils or lighter soils (eg For efficient irrigation it is sandy) absorb water at a faster rate than fine-grained important to have a good soils or heavier soils (eg clay). knowledge of the soil types, depth and variation within the rootzone The irrigation system needs to be designed so that the capability of the system to discharge volumes of water matches the infiltration rate of the soil. Water losses from evaporation or soil erosion can occur if the discharge rate of the irrigation system exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil.

Other factors which can impede the infiltration rate of water into soil, include: 1.2.2 Water holding capacity of soil • surface crusting; and

Knowledge of the water holding capacity of the soil • soil compaction. in the vine rootzone is required when designing the irrigation system and when scheduling irrigation Vineyard floor management practices, which add applications to maximise water use efficiency. organic matter and improve soil structure, can also improve the infiltration rate of the soil and reduce The water holding capacity of the soil in the vine water losses from evaporation. rootzone is stated as RAW (readily available water). The RAW holding capacity of the soil is the amount For further information about how soil of water required to take the soil from the “refill characteristics relate to irrigation management point” (the stage at which soil moisture is low refer to: enough to slow vine growth) to “field capacity” (the point at which the soil can not hold any more water). • Right Amount – right time(13). Water applied which exceeds the “field capacity” • Irrigation Management Course Manual(18). will not be used by the vines, is wasted and can lead • Irrigation for Horticulture in the Mallee(12). to increased drainage water.

33 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

1.3 Water 1.5 Crop objective

The quality of the water supply is an important It is important to define the crop objective and to consideration. Impurities within the water and the achieve this objective by using the least amount of salt content of irrigation water can impact on: water as possible. The irrigation system then needs to be designed to achieve the crop objective. • the irrigation system type – as some systems are more prone to blockages from impurities than There are some new irrigation techniques which can others. manipulate the crop by applying stress to the vine at certain times during the crop development. The two • the filtration system - as the likelihood of the main techniques are Partial Rootzone Drying (PRD) irrigation system becoming blocked by impurities and Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI). present in irrigation water will determine the type of filtration system required. (It is important to Very precise irrigation scheduling and good reduce system blockages which can lead to distribution uniformity is required to implement reduced system efficiency); and these techniques. These techniques are capable of producing very high water use efficiencies and have • the frequency and extent of salt leaching required been shown to improve crop quality for certain - the salt content of the irrigation water affects the varieties. However crop losses can be high if likelihood of salt accumulation in the soil irrigation applications are not scheduled correctly. occurring.

Consideration also needs to be given to groundwater levels. This includes consideration of the depth of For further information about how vine the groundwater and fluctuations in groundwater characteristics relate to irrigation management levels. Groundwater levels can have an impact on refer to: the type of irrigation system to use as well as (18) irrigation scheduling and strategies. • Irrigation Management Course Manual . • Drip irrigation – a grape growers guide(20). 1.4 Characteristics of vines

It is important to have an understanding of the characteristics or requirements of the vines when planning an irrigation system to ensure the maximum water use efficiency is achieved. The following factors can have an effect on the irrigation system design (18, 20):

• Size of rootzone – the depth and width of the vine rootzone will affect the volumes of water to be applied and the required wetting pattern.

• Vine spacings – the spacings of the vines will have an impact on the wetting patterns required from the irrigation system.

34 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

2.0 Irrigation system The following components need to be considered: development • Irrigation system type.

The long-term water use and energy efficiency of • Filtration. irrigation systems require careful planning and development. This involves consideration of the • Soil moisture monitoring equipment. following: • Fertigation equipment. • Irrigation system components. • Pump. • Irrigation system design. 2.1.1 Irrigation system type • Drainage system design.

• Other vineyard practices. Each of the irrigation system types has advantages and disadvantages. All aspects of the vineyard operation need to be taken into account when 2.1 Selecting irrigation system selecting a system type (12, 13, 14, 18, 20). The different types components of irrigation systems used for viticulture in the Sunraysia region are: Once the properties of the site have been considered • Furrow. and assessed it is necessary to select an irrigation system type which best suits the vineyard • Overhead sprinkler. characteristics and requirements and will achieve the highest water use efficiency. • Undervine or low level sprinkler.

• Drip irrigation.

Furrow irrigation

Table 1 – Advantages and disadvantages of furrow irrigation

Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Low installation cost. • High surface evaporation. • Does not wet foliage. • Low water use efficiency. • No energy required for • Difficult to control depth and uniformity of irrigations. pumping on farm. • Cultivation to maintain furrows affects soil structure. • Time consuming / labour intensive. • Cover crop more difficult to establish than with sprinklers. • Not suited to fertigation. • High drainage volumes when the drain row is directly irrigated.

35 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Overhead sprinkler irrigation

Table 2 – Advantages and disadvantages of overhead sprinkler irrigation

Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Easy to check. • Water drifts in windy conditions. • Can control depth of application. • High pumping costs. • Low maintenance. • Can damage fruit. • Cover crop easier to establish. • Increased disease development. • Suitable for fertigation. • Salt uptake through leaves is possible. • Effective for frost control. • High evaporation losses. • Uniformity of application levels are generally low. • High installation costs.

Undervine or low level sprinkler irrigation

Table 3 – Advantages and disadvantages of undervine or low level sprinkler irrigation

Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Suitable for fertigation. • Checking is labour intensive. • Minimal wetting of fruit and foliage. • Requires good canopy management for even distribution. • Good uniformity. • Requires good under vine weed control for even distribution. • Good for establishing and maintaining • May be damaged by vineyard traffic. a cover crop. • High maintenance requirement. • Lower pumping cost than overhead sprays. • Minimal wind effects. • Suitable for frost control.

Low level sprinklers are suited to conditions in the Sunraysia. They provide a good level of uniformity and enable a cover crop to be successfully established and maintained

36 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Drip Irrigation

Table 4 – Advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation

Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Good water use efficiency. • Water must be readily available as frequent irrigations required. • Low pumping costs. • High level of monitoring and maintenance is required. • Reduced need for fungicide sprays • Not suited to frost and heat control. as irrigation water does not wet the foliage. • Difficult to establish a cover crop. • Good control over uniformity. • High number of emitters are required on sandy soils. • Improved vineyard access. • Difficult to apply fertiliser using methods other than fertigation. • Reduced weed growth. • Requires a good soil monitoring and irrigation scheduling • Well suited to fertigation. system. • Good control over application allows for • Higher filtration requirement compared to other systems. crop manipulation techniques to be used (eg RDI, PRD).

Drip irrigation enables water to be applied precisely and can produce very high water use efficiencies

37 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

2.1.2 Filtration 2.1.3 Soil moisture-monitoring equipment A filtration system is vital for preventing irrigation system blockages which can reduce the efficiency of Monitoring soil moisture is a key component to the irrigation system. The quality of the irrigation irrigation scheduling and ensuring water losses are water being used, the size of the nozzles/emitters, minimised. There are many different types of and the likelihood of the system becoming blocked equipment/techniques available for monitoring soil. are the key factors to consider when determining the These are used to determine the water requirements extent of the filtration system required. of the vines and function by measuring (5):

There are a number of filter types available (20): • resistance (eg gypsum blocks);

• Mesh filters – available in a number of mesh sizes • tension (eg tensiometers); to suit the level of filtration required. These filters still allow some fine particles to pass through and • capacitance (eg EnvironSCAN®, C-Probe); are suited for use as preliminary filtration. • neutrons (eg neutron probe); or • Sand or media filters – give the best filtration however require multiple media tanks to allow • electromagnetic pulse (eg TRASE®TDR, for back flushing. GroPoint™).

• Disc or centrifugal filters – also allow for different filtering levels and operate at very specific flow rates.

When deciding on a filtration system a balance Advanced equipment between the risk of system blockage and an such as the C-Probe acceptable level of pressure loss must be found as measure soil moisture at this can also reduce the efficiency of water several depths and can applications. Pressure loss/flow graphs are available provide for highly accurate irrigation for different filter types and sizes to assist with this. scheduling

For further information on filtration systems refer to:

• Drip irrigation – a grape growers guide(20).

Tensiometers are a basic form of soil moisture monitoring equipment

38 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Each of these has advantages and disadvantages as 2.1.4 Fertigation equipment described in Appendix 1. Fertiliser can be applied efficiently and effective When deciding on the equipment / technique to through the irrigation system in a process known as monitor soil moisture consider the: fertigation. Fertigation has many advantages/disadvantages as shown in Table 5 (20, 6). • accuracy of monitoring required; There are several different fertigation systems • suitability to vineyard soil; available that are suited to particular situations. When selecting a fertigation system it is important to • equipment maintenance required; ensure the irrigation system will still operate effectively given any pressure losses that may occur • availability of supplier/servicing agent; (as this can affect water use efficiency). If fertigating, it is important that the irrigation system has a high • ease of installation; uniformity of distribution as poor uniformity will lead to fertiliser losses as a result of uneven • ease of collecting and interpreting data; application.

• operator skill level required; For further information about fertigation refer to: • possible disruption/damage from other vineyard activities; and • Fertilisers for wine grapes – an information package to promote efficient fertiliser practices(6). • cost both short and long term. • Drip irrigation – a grape growers guide(20).

For further information about the different types of soil moisture monitoring equipment available refer to:

• Irrigation insights No.1 – soil water monitoring(5).

Table 5 – Advantages and Disadvantages of fertigation

Advantages Disadvantages

• More efficient fertiliser applications. • The potential for soil acidification (this is a greater risk with drip • Reduced leaching losses as a result of rain. irrigation systems). • Provides greater opportunity to reduce tillage. • Greater risk of system blockages. • Flexibility in fertiliser application timings. • Greater risk of corrosion. • Savings on labour and fuel costs. • The potential for uneven fertiliser distribution.

39 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

2.1.5 Pumps 2.2.1 General design considerations

Different pumps have different characteristics and The general design considerations across all are suited to different situations. The type of pump irrigation systems are (11, 12, 14, 8): selected needs to match the conditions in which it is required to operate including the location of the • Number and location of irrigation shifts – water source, the required operating pressures and determine these by considering the variability in the discharge rates for the irrigation system to ensure irrigating conditions (eg soil, vines) and the areas irrigation requirements are meet and energy being irrigated. If the irrigating conditions on the efficiency is maximised. Pump performance curves property varies then different irrigation shifts may available from manufacturers and suppliers can be required to ensure water is not wasted. assist with determining energy efficiency under particular pumping conditions (14). • Positions of main pipelines and sub-mains – these should be positioned so that friction losses There are two main types of pumps available: through laterals are reduced as such losses will affect the pumping efficiency. The length of the • centrifugal – the most common type and suited to main pipeline should also be minimised as this pumping from surface water sources; and also has a significant effect on pumping efficiency. The main pipelines and sub-mains should not be • turbine – typically used to pump water from wells installed along the top of existing drains. or where a considerable amount of vertical lift is required. • Size of pipelines - the pipe sizes for the laterals, sub-mains and main lines need to be chosen to Irrigation pumps can be operated using either an minimise any head variation which can lead to electric or internal combustion motor, depending on inefficient water applications. Pipe size selection the pump type. Electric motors should be selected should be determined by considering the required over internal combustion, as the energy source used discharge rate for each irrigation shift, the length is much cleaner. of the pipes, and the pumping efficiency.

• Pump and motor - the pump should be located to 2.2 Irrigation system design achieve maximum pumping efficiency for the system using the least materials possible. The Once the irrigation system type has been selected it pump size needs to be selected based on the is necessary to design the delivery system including required discharge rate and the pressure required the pumping and pipeline requirements. An at each irrigation shift. Irrigation Association of Australia Certified Irrigation Designer should be used to design the • Filtration - to assist in the prevention of blockages system. the filter mesh pores should be at least one quarter of the outlet size for sprinklers and one In order to obtain optimum irrigation efficiency the seventh of the outlet size for drip emitters. system needs to be designed so that water will be distributed evenly across the vineyard or irrigation • System flushing - the system needs to be designed shift. Poor uniformity may cause some areas of the to enable periodical flushing to occur which is vineyard to be over irrigated resulting in excessive required to maintain application efficiency. drainage, while other areas may not receive enough water.

40 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

• Back flush water – consideration needs to be Overhead and undervine sprinklers given to the disposal of back flush water from filters. If possible, provisions should be made to For sprinkler systems it is important that the wetting divert this water into a re-use settling dam patterns overlap for optimum uniformity and and/or to enable it to be re-used on a woodlot, efficiency. The system should be set up to achieve a lawn, or other non-productive area. Provisions high level of uniformity in a range of weather need to be made to ensure that back flush water conditions from calm to windy. The uniformity of does not flow back into the source water (eg sprinkler systems are stated as: channel, river) and does not run-off and cause soil erosion. • the coefficient of uniformity (CU) - the uniformity of the total water distributed; or • Soil moisture monitoring sites – the accuracy of the soil moisture information required to schedule • the distribution uniformity (DU) – the uniformity efficient irrigation applications is affected by soil of the lower quarter of water distributed. variation. Knowledge of soil variation as determined from a soil survey will assist in • A CU value greater than 84% and a DU greater deciding on the minimum number and than 75% indicates an efficient system (10). distribution of soil moisture monitoring sites. A large number of sites can be expensive so a balance needs to be found between cost and the Drip irrigation accuracy of monitoring required. Uniform-wetting patterns are required for an 2.2.2 Specific design considerations effective and efficient drip irrigation system. To achieve this a good understanding of the soil type, Each irrigation system type has some specific design infiltration rate and vine root distribution is considerations to ensure distribution uniformity and required. irrigation efficiency. • Wetting pattern – an effective drip system will have a uniform wetting pattern below the soil Furrow surface, which reaches the entire root zone of the vines and forms a continuous wetted strip along • Furrow shape - it is important to consider the the row (14, 20). infiltration rate of the soil when deciding on the shape of the furrows. In lighter soils with a high • Emitter spacings – the required emitter spacings infiltration rate “v – shaped” furrows should be will depend on the infiltration rate of the soil. used. In heavy soils broad-based furrows should Sandy soils have a rapid infiltration rate and be used, as the infiltration rate is slower (12, 13). produce a narrow wetting pattern so emitters will need to be spaced closer than with clay soils • Water flow - for water use efficiency it is which have a slow infiltration rate and produce a important that irrigation water is distributed broad wetting pattern. evenly along the length of the furrow. As a general guide the water flow should reach the end For further information about irrigation system of the furrow in approximately a quarter of the design refer to: (12, 13) time of the irrigation . • Design guidelines – whole farm planning for irrigation(8). • Efficiency - techniques such as alternate row • Micro-irrigation of vine and fruit trees(11). irrigation and irrigating drain rows last can • Right amount – right time(13). greatly improve the water use efficiency of furrow • Drip irrigation manual(14). irrigation systems. • Irrigation for horticulture in the Mallee(12). • Filtration of microjet/mini-sprinkler trickle irrigation(3).

41 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

2.3 Drainage system design If it has been determined that a drainage system is required it is then necessary to decide what type of Drainage is an important component of any system to adopt and how the drainage water will be irrigation system and is needed to remove excess disposed of. Different areas have different methods water from the vineyard. The failure to remove this and restrictions for drainage water disposal. wastewater can result in waterlogging of the soil, Irrigation districts generally have regional or increases in the water table, and increases in soil community disposal methods and areas, while salinity. It is important however to avoid the private diverters may need to dispose of wastewater generation of drainage water in the first place as it is on-farm. The options available for disposing of a waste of water and can lead to many drainage water are: (9) environmental impacts (including the leaching of contaminants into waterways, increases in regional • Re-use. salinity, and harm to native vegetation). • Salt tolerant crops (eg lucerne) The first step in developing a drainage system is to determine whether any artificial drainage is actually • Woodlots. required. • Evaporation basins (on or off farm). When making this decision the following need to be (19) considered : Consideration should be given to reduce potential environmental impacts when deciding on the • the soil type and depth to determine how well the disposal options. soil on the property naturally drains; The two main types of drainage systems are surface • the level of the water table and how it reacts to drainage and subsurface drainage. irrigation and rainfall events (installing a series of test wells across the property is an effective way 2.3.1 Surface drainage of monitoring the level of the water table and how it reacts to irrigation and rainfall events); In vineyards situated on undulating land or where • the water use efficiency of the irrigation system sprinkler irrigation is used excess water can collect (as this determines the level of drainage water and pond in low-lying areas. In such cases some produced); and form of surface drainage may be required to prevent rises in the water table. The main methods used for • the water quality because if the salt content of surface drainage are open channel, grassed (4) irrigation water is high enough salt accumulation waterway, and surface pipe drains . in the soil will occur (in such situations these salts will need to be leached from the soil in the rootzone). For further information about drainage system design refer to:

• Viticulture – Volume 2: Practices(19) • Irrigation for horticulture in the Mallee(12)

42 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

2.3.2 Subsurface drainage To determine the exact layout of the drainage system the following factors and specifications need to be Subsurface drainage systems are the most widely considered: used method of drainage in vineyards and involve the installation of pipes and porous drains below the • Drainage rate - the drainage rate or coefficient is soil surface to remove excess water from the defined as the discharge required for an vineyard to a pre-determined disposal point. agricultural pipe drain system, expressed as a depth of water that must be removed within a There are a number of factors to consider when certain time in order to prevent waterlogging and designing a subsurface drainage system, including (4): water table rises.

• Site properties - the properties of the site such as • Drain spacing and depth - drain spacings and topography, area, soil characteristics, depth of the depth are determined by considering the soil type impermeable clay layer (blanchetown clay) and and depth, the extent to which water table levels vine characteristics will all impact on the drainage rise, and the volumes of wastewater expected to system design. be produced.

• Drain type - a drain type needs to be chosen • Drain sizes - the sizes of the drains in the system which best suits the vineyard soil and drainage need to be able to cope with the maximum requirements. The main types of subsurface wastewater capacity that could be generated. drains are open ditch, and pipe. • Test wells - test wells are useful for determining • Drainage layout - there are four main types of the efficiency of, and to identify problems with drainage layouts (4): the drainage system, and should be installed throughout the vineyard. - grid - where a series of drainage pipes run laterally down a number of vine rows across 3.0 Irrigation scheduling and the vineyard. This is suited to all soil types; application - herringbone – with this layout the lateral drains enter either side of the main drain at an angle. To efficiently apply irrigation water and to meet the This layout is suited to situations where there objectives of the crop an irrigation scheduling is a slight depression; strategy for the season needs to be developed. In addition, monitoring needs to take place so that - random – this layout is used in undulating irrigation applications can be scheduled to meet the areas where valleys and ridges are present. short-term requirements of the vines. The following The lateral drains are scattered throughout the factors impact on irrigation scheduling and vineyard in areas where wet spots occur, with application: the main drains installed along the valleys; and • Irrigation water availability. - interceptor drain - in free draining soils such as deep sands, which are found on sand ridges, • Salt leaching. wastewater can accumulate at the base of such ridges. In circumstances such as this an • Vine/crop water requirements. interceptor drain should be installed in the slope of the ridge to remove wastewater from • Soil moisture. the soil. • Weather.

• Other vineyard practices.

43 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

3.1 Irrigation water availability 3.3 Vine/crop water requirements

The first step in developing an irrigation strategy and The water requirements of vines and crop vary at determining when to schedule irrigation applications different stages of growth. So to optimise water use is to consider when irrigation water will be available efficiency and reduce water losses it is crucial to and how much water can be used. This is of particular understand how much water the vines require at importance in irrigation districts where water is only these different growth stages. The evapotranspiration available at certain times and may need to be ordered. requirement (ET) is an estimate of the water requirements of crops and can be used to determine 3.2 Salt leaching how much water to apply. Regional ET figures are available for vines and when used in conjunction with soil moisture monitoring information can When vineyards are frequently irrigated salts can provide for accurate and efficient irrigation accumulate in the rootzone of the vines affecting the applications (12, 13). sustainability of the land. When this occurs it is necessary to leach the salts from the rootzone. It is 3.4 Soil Moisture however important to manage irrigation applications so as to reduce or eliminate the need for salt leaching as it results in the generation of waste water and Monitoring soil moisture determines how much leads to environmental impacts. water is available in the soil for the vines to use and when irrigation water needs to be applied. Soil Salt leaching can be achieved by either applying a moisture monitoring helps avoid unnecessary specific irrigation application at certain times of the irrigation applications which lead to water wastage year (eg end of season), or by factoring a leaching and the generation of drainage water and rises in fraction into irrigation applications throughout the water tables. season. Salt leaching can also occur following a rain event. It is important to note that leaching irrigations Water needs to be applied if the soil moisture can only occur in free draining soils or where sub- readings state that the soil has reached the refill surface drains are present. point (as illustrated in Figure 1, page 44). The refill point of the soil can vary depending on the The required leaching fraction can be determined if objectives of the crop. The amount of water to apply the salinity of the irrigation water and the soil is determined by considering the field capacity of the salinity that the crop can tolerate are known. The soil, readings from soil moisture monitoring following equation can be used to determine the equipment, the requirements of the vine and crop, leaching fraction for irrigation application (12, 14, 13): and any leaching fraction required (11, 12, 18, 15).

LR (leaching requirement) = Soil moisture should be monitored frequently ECw ———————- throughout the season using a suitable method. This 5(ECe) - ECw monitoring will need to occur more frequently

ECw = salinity of irrigation water in dS/m during hot weather.

ECe = average soil salinity tolerated by the crop as measured on a soil saturation extract For further information about soil moisture monitoring refer to: The ECe value changes depending on the level of acceptable yield losses (14). • Micro-irrigation of vines and fruit trees(11). (18) For further information about salt leaching refer to: • Irrigation Management Course Manual . • Irrigation for horticulture in the Mallee(12). • Right amount – right time(13). • Drip irrigation manual(14). • Irrigation for horticulture in the Mallee(12).

44 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Figure 1 – Example of a soil moisture monitoring graph

3.5 Weather 3.6 Other vineyard practices

It is important to consider the current and future It is important to coordinate irrigation applications weather conditions when scheduling and applying with other vineyard practices so that neither the irrigations. Weather conditions can have an impact effectiveness of the irrigation application, the on the frequency and suitability of irrigation effectiveness of the other vineyard practice, nor the applications. For example if rainfall is expected then potential for environmental impact is compromised. it may be possible to reduce irrigation applications and water use. Water requirements in hot weather Some key issues to consider are: will increase due to evaporation losses, so it may be more appropriate to irrigate during the night. • Ensuring irrigation applications don’t wash pesticides from foliage as this will result in the High winds can also affect water distribution if using need for additional chemical applications (this overhead sprinkler irrigation systems and lead to only occurs with sprinkler irrigation). water wastage. The use of overhead sprinkler irrigation should be avoided in windy conditions if • Ensuring irrigation applications don’t leach possible. herbicides and/or nutrients from the rootzone as it results in the leaching of chemicals and nutrients into the environment.

• Ensuring that machinery is not required to enter the vineyard following an irrigation application as this will cause soil compaction and eventually the need for cultivation. Soil compaction can occur with drip irrigation systems as the soil surface may appear dry but the subsurface soil is wet.

Some other vineyard practices also have an effect on irrigation efficiency:

45 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

Vineyard floor management: 4.1 General maintenance

• Floor management techniques such as cover The general maintenance considerations are: (18, 13,12) cropping or mulching which create a ground cover can assist in reducing surface evaporation • Check for system leaks. and improving the infiltration rate of the soil leading to greater water use efficiencies. • Check pumps – need to check bearings (grinding noise is bad), coupling (check for distorted • Weeds and cover crops can compete with the bushes), grease (once a year), gland (should be vines for water and increase water use so need to dripping approx three times per minute), and be controlled. A balance however needs to be operating pressure. found as cover crops provide many benefits to the vineyard including controlling soil erosion and • Check filters – at the start of the season filters improving the fertility of the soil. should be disassembled and cleaned. Also check for damage. Pressure gauges should be installed either side of filters so that the cleanliness can be Canopy management: monitored. Filters should be cleaned (flushed or brushed) before the pressure difference is greater • The vine canopy needs to be managed to than 20 kPa. minimise water use. As foliage increases so does the water requirement of the vine. Low foliage It is important that any back flush water from filters can also reduce the uniformity of undervine is disposed of appropriately. It is important to irrigation systems. A balance needs to be found ensure that back flush water does not flow back into between limiting vine foliage and the effects of the water source (eg channel, river) and that it does sun exposure on grape quality. not run-off and cause soil erosion.

• Check mains and sub-mains – these should be 4.0 Irrigation system flushed out (if flushing valves installed). Flush the laterals at the end of the season and throughout maintenance the season depending on the water quality.

No matter what irrigation and drainage system is • Check pumping efficiency - The efficiency of the being used it is important to have a regular pump should be periodically checked. Pumping (14) maintenance system in place to maintain the efficiency can be calculated using the following : optimum efficiency of the system and to prevent problems before they occur. Pump efficiency = Pump flow (L/s) x Total pump head (m) —————————————————————————- The irrigation system should be thoroughly checked 1.02 x (kW) used x motor efficiency* prior to the start of the season. This will help ensure the system is distributing water evenly (to reduce *For electric motors driving a centrifugal pump, use water losses) and is operating efficiently (to reduce 0.9; for a submersible pump, use 0.77; for a diesel energy use). This should occur in time to have the driven pump use 1. For all non-direct coupled driver system fully operational before any frost control is units reduce by an extra 0.05 required. The calculated pump efficiency can then be compared against the manufacturer’s pump performance chart.

Fertigation injections should be thoroughly flushed after use and the pump maintained.

46 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

4.2 Furrow System output and operating pressure Furrow irrigation systems need to be checked regularly to ensure (13): • Check that the flow rate out of each of the sprinklers and operating pressure is uniform • there is no debris such as leaves obstructing the across the entire block. Select a number of flow of water in the furrows; sprinklers across the block, which represent a range of pressure differences (eg highest sprinkler • the furrow banks are well formed. Furrow banks versus lowest sprinkler). can be damaged by cultivation and vehicles therefore should be checked and repaired as • If significant variations in output and/or pressure necessary after any such activity; are detected the system needs to be checked to determine what is causing the problem. • the water flow is reaching the end of the furrow in approximately a quarter of the time of the • The operating pressure of each of the selected irrigation: and sprinklers should be checked against the manufacturer’s design specifications and the • any run-off and ponding at the furrow ends is requirements specified in the system design. minimal. Furrows should be periodically Any variation may indicate blocked or worn reworked if required. sprinklers, which should be replaced as required (18). 4.3 Overhead and low level sprinklers Uniformity of distribution At the start and during the season check:

• for wear in the sprinkler bearings; • Regularly check that the water being distributed from the system is uniform. To do this select an • for sprinklers not turning; area which is covered by a known number of sprinklers and collect the water distributed (18). • for any system blockages. The laterals should be flushed out regularly to assist in the prevention of • The coefficient of uniformity (CU) can then be system blockages; measured using the following formula:

• the speed of the sprinkler head rotation; CU = (sum of differences of individual • that sprinklers are standing upright; and readings from the average) —————————————————————— x 100 • that sprinklers are not obstructed (eg by weeds or sum of all readings foliage).

• The nozzle size against manufacturer’s recommendations.

The key factors to consider when checking the distribution efficiency of sprinkler irrigation systems are:

47 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

• The distribution of uniformity (DU) can also be - pressure and discharge rate - measure the pressure calculated to highlight the uniformity of the lower and discharge rate from a number of emitters quarter of water distributed. The DU can be across the vineyard. If the variation in the flow calculated using the following formula: rates and pressure are greater than +/- 10% the system needs to be checked to determine what DU = is causing the problem. Flow rate measurement Average of lower for emitters should be checked against the quarter readings manufacturer’s specifications. —————————————————————- x 100 For further information about irrigation system Average of all readings maintenance refer to: • A CU value greater than 84% and a DU • Right amount – right time(13). greater than 75% indicate an efficient • Irrigation Management Course Manual(18). (10) system . If values are less than this the • Drip irrigation – a grape growers guide(20). system needs to be checked to determine • Ag Note: Chlorination maintenance of low what is causing the loss in uniformity. volume irrigation systems(2). • Irrigation for horticulture in the Mallee(12). 4.4 Drip irrigation 4.5 Drainage system Drip irrigation systems are most prone to blockages, therefore regular maintenance needs to focus on this. The drainage system is an important part of irrigation The following measures should be considered (12, 14, 20): and also requires maintenance to ensure it is operating effectively. An ineffective drainage system • Impurities - frequently monitor the level of can lead to water table rises. The drainage system impurities in your system, checking the discharge should be monitored after irrigation applications and when flushing the system, the drippers and lines rainfall events to detect any problems. for blockages and at least one dripper and lateral for internal build up every year. The following symptoms may indicate a drainage problem: • System flushing - the system should be flushed before the start of the season, at least three times • Land wet for long periods. during the season, and at the end of the season to prevent build up of matter in the drip lines. • Water table readings remaining high for a long period. • Chlorination - the system should be chlorinated as required to prevent and treat the build up of • Vines showing lack of vigour. organic matter such as bacteria and algae (2). • Vines showing signs of salt burn. • System efficiency - the efficiency of the system also needs to be checked including the: • Lack of drainage discharge following heavy rain.

- wetting pattern - the wetting pattern needs to be Test wells or auger holes adjacent to drains are checked to ensure that a continuous wetting useful for identifying problems with your drainage strip is being created, the wetted area is system. If the water table remains at a level near the meeting the root zone requirements and that rootzone for more than five days after irrigation or the wetting area is not extending too far rainfall a drainage problem is likely to be present and action should be taken to determine the cause. outside the root zone; and This can also be an indicator that excessive irrigation applications have been applied.

48 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

5.0 Measuring performance 5.3 Assessment of water losses The environmental performance of the irrigation The environmental performance of the irrigation system and strategy can be measured. The system and strategy can be measured by performance measures include: undertaking an assessment of water losses (i.e how much of the water applied is actually used by vines • Water use per hectare (ML/ha). and how much is wasted). An assessment of water losses involves consideration of the amount of water • Gross return per megalitre ($/ML). applied, the water-holding capacity of the soil, the crop coefficient, and evapotranspiration rates. • Assessment of water losses. Results from soil moisture monitoring are helpful in assessing water losses. Growers should be aiming to 5.1 Water use per hectare (ML/ha) reduce water losses and maximise the irrigation efficiency.

The amount of water used per hectare can be determined by calculating the total water use (ML) over an irrigation season and dividing it by the total number of hectares. Water use per hectare gives a direct measure of water use. Growers should be aiming to reduce the amount of water used per hectare. The water use per hectare (ML/ha) measurement should be compared across the same crop/variety only.

5.2 Gross return per megalitre ($/ML)

The gross return per megalitre can be calculated by firstly determining the gross return per hectare ($/ha) and dividing this by water use per hectare (ML/ha) (17). The gross return per megalitre provides an indication of how well water is being used to produce quality fruit. Growers should be aiming to achieve a higher gross return per megalitre. The gross return per megalitre ($/ML) measurement should be compared across the same crop/variety only.

The gross return per megalitre ($/ML) may also need to be adjusted when comparing different years to take into account variations in fruit price.

An alternative measure to gross return per megalite ($/ML) is tonnes of fruit produced per megalitre.

49 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management

References

1 (2001) ‘Australian Code of Practice for On-Farm Irrigation’. (Murray Darling Basin Commission, Irrigation Association of Australia, NSW Agriculture)

2 Ashcroft B (1995) ‘Chlorination maintenance of low volume irrigation systems’. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Agriculture Notes Series No. AG0135, Victoria.

3 Ashcroft B (1995) ‘Filtration of microject/mini-sprinkler trickle irrigation systems’. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Agriculture Notes Series No. AG0136, Victoria.

4 Bastick C, Cotching B (1996) ‘Drainage information package’. (Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Tasmania).

5 Charlesworth P (2000) ‘Irrigation Insights No. 1 – Soil Water Monitoring’. (Land and Water Australia).

6 Goldspink B, Campbell-Clause J, Partridge S, Lantze N, Gordon C (1996) ‘Fertiliser for wine grapes’. (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia).

7 Goodwin I (1995) ‘Irrigation of vineyards – A winegrape grower’s guide to irrigation scheduling and regulated deficit irrigation’. (Agriculture Victoria).

8 Irrigation Association of Australia (1991) ‘Design Guidelines – Whole farm planning for irrigation’. (Irrigation Association of Australia Ltd).

9 Martin J (1995) Disposing of drainage water. In ‘Efficient irrigation in Sunraysia information & management kit’. (Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Victoria).

10 McCarthy M (1993) Achieving Optimal Water Use Efficiency. In ‘Vineyard development and redevelopment: proceedings of a seminar held on 23rd July 1993, Mildura, Victoria’. (Ed. P Hayes) pp 37 -41 (Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology. Adelaide, South Australia).

11 Mitchell P, Goodwin I (1996) ‘Micro-irrigation of vines & fruit trees’. (Agriculture Victoria).

12 NSW Agriculture (2002) ‘Irrigation for horticulture in the Mallee’. (NSW Agriculture).

13 Nickels K, Thompson C, Blennerhassett R, Jacka L (1992) ‘Right amount – Right time’. (Rural Water Commission of Victoria, Department of Food and Agriculture, NSW Agriculture).

14 PIRSA Rural Solutions (2001) ‘Drip Irrigation Manual’ (Primary Industries and Resources South Australia).

15 PIRSA Rural Solutions (2001) ‘DRAFT Soil Water Interpretation Workshop’. (Primary Industries and Resources South Australia).

16 Pudney S, Proffitt T, Brown A, Wiloughby P (2001) Soil moisture sensor demonstration – Barossa Valley Season 2000/2001. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 449a : 76 – 84.

17 Skewes M, Meissner T (1997) ‘Irrigation benchmarks and best management practices for winegrapes – Technical report No. 259’. (Primary Industries and Resources SA).

18 Sunraysia Community Salinity Management Plan (1995) ‘Irrigation Management Course Manual’. (Sunraysia Community Salinity Management Plan).

19 Webber RTJ, Jones LD (1995) Drainage and soil salinity. In ‘Viticulture – Volume 2 Practices’. (Eds. B.G Coombe, P.R Dry) pp 129 – 147 (Winetitles, Adelaide).

20 Wilson H (1995) ‘Drip Irrigation – a grapegrower’s guide’. (2nd edn). (New South Wales Agriculture).

50 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management ® ® ® ® (14, 5, 15, 16) Possible influence of soil salinity on readings on readings water content without air gaps Blocks dissolve over time Readings affected by temperature Readings affected Measuring disturbed soil Difficult to convert readings to soil to convert readings Difficult Inaccurate readings in very coarse Inaccurate readings Gypsum block Difficulty in installing access tubes Difficulty High maintenance Manual data collection Not suitable for controlled stressing stressing Not suitable for controlled Tensiometer Radioactive Probe Neutron Calibration equation required Theta Probe to air gaps Sensitivity of the probe Calibration equation required Small zone of influence EnviroSCAN in disturbed soil Measurements Requires a license to operate Requires Small zone of influence Possible influence of soil salinity C-Probe Sensitivity of the probe to air gaps Sensitivity of the probe Diviner2000 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • of plant Suitable for controlled stressing stressing Suitable for controlled Cheap Low maintenance Good resolution in wetter soils Good resolution Easy to understand by salinity Not affected of vine (eg RDI, PRD) Cheap Not affected by salinity Not affected Continuous measurement soils - textured Sensitive to small changes Possible to measure large volumes large Possible to measure Continuous measurement in undisturbed soil Measurements Sensitive to small changes Continuous measurement depths at different Measurements • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • electrodes via direct soil via direct electrodes contact moving through a porous tip a porous moving through vacuum created by moisture by moisture vacuum created determined by measuring the neutrons via indirect soil via indirect neutrons contact of soil contact soil Capacitance via indirect contact Resistance Resistance between two Tension Tension tension is Soil moisture Neutrons Neutrons Thermilisation of fast moving Measure Mode of operation Advantages Disadvantages Examples Capacitance soil Capacitance via direct Appendix 1 – Details of the various types of soil moisture monitoring equipment available

51 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Irrigation Management ™ TDR ® (14, 5, 15, 16) Affected by soil salinity Affected Sensitivity to air gaps Disruption to soil Disruption GroPoint Small zone of influence TRASE • • • • Rapid measurements Universal calibration equation Continuous measurement Depth averaged soil moisture content Depth averaged soil moisture Continuous measurement • • • • • pulse via direct soil contact pulse via direct electromagnetic pulse via electromagnetic soil contact direct pulse (TDT) of an Transmissometry Electromagnetic Time Domain Time Electromagnetic pulse (TDR) of an electromagnetic Electromagnetic Domain Reflectometry Time Measure Mode of operation Advantages Disadvantages Examples Appendix 1 – Details of the various types of soil moisture monitoring equipment available

52 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Nutrition Nutrition

NUTRITION

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 54 Performance Measures 54 Potential Environmental Impacts 54 Relevant Legislation 54 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 55 Best Practice Information 56 1.0 Nutrient uptake 56 2.0 Soil characteristics/condition 56 2.1 Texture 56 2.2 Structure 57 2.3 Organic matter 57 2.4 Chemistry 57 3.0 Fertiliser types 57 3.1 Inorganic fertilisers 57 3.2 Organic fertilisers 59 4.0 Fertiliser application 62 4.1 Nutrient requirements 62 4.2 Selecting type of fertilisers 63 4.3 Method of application 63 4.4 Timing of application 66 5.0 Monitoring and record keeping 67 6.0 Measuring performance 67 6.1 The level of nutrient losses 68 6.2 Fertiliser use 68 References 69 Appendix 1 – Seasonality of nutrient uptake by the roots of the grapevines 70

53 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To minimise the use of fertilisers in the • Water contamination as a result of nutrient vineyard. leaching, surface run-off and erosion causing eutrophication (nutrient enrichment). • To minimise nutrient losses through leaching, run-off, and atmospheric loss by selecting and • Atmospheric pollution by greenhouse gases applying fertilisers according to plant needs associated with the use of nitrogen based and at times and conditions that will create fertilisers. minimum losses. • Soil contamination as a result of fertiliser use. • To prevent contamination of water systems (eg • Biodiversity decline including the rivers, channels, streams, wetlands) and to harm/destruction of native vegetation as a ensure that soil health (structure, pH and soil result of increased soil nitrogen levels. flora / fauna) is maintained or improved. • The consumption of non-renewable energy sources and the production of greenhouse Performance Measures gases associated with the manufacture of fertilisers. • The level of nutrient losses. • Fertiliser use.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Wildlife Regulations 2002 • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (Fertilisers) Regulation 1996 • Water Act 1989 • National Environment Protection Council (Victoria) Act 1995

New South Wales • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 • Soil Conservation Act 1938 • Ozone Protection Regulations 1997 • National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 • Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 • Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 • Fertilisers Act 1985 • Water Management Act 2000 • National Environment Protection Council (New South Wales) Act 1995

Commonwealth • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • Environment Protection Council Act 1994 • National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999.

54 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Summary of Environmental Best Practice Knowledge of soils Timing of fertiliser • Obtain a good knowledge of the vineyard soil applications characteristics and condition. • Time fertiliser applications by considering: • Conduct tests annually to review the - the periods of nutrient demand and uptake condition and nutrient status of the vineyard by the vines; soils. - the type of fertiliser applied and when • Understand what the natural soil conditions nutrients will be made available; are and be aware of the effect fertiliser use has - the irrigation schedule; on the condition of the soil. - the avoidance of leaching irrigations (eg Assessing nutritional irrigation applications required to leach salt from the rootzone); and requirements - avoiding likely heavy rainfall. • Conduct soil tests and/or tissue analyses • Preference should be given to applying small on an annual basis. fertiliser applications more frequently to avoid • Assess the performance of the vines at harvest. the leaching of nutrients passed the rootzone. • Use results of nutritional assessments to develop and modify nutrition program. Record keeping Fertiliser selection • Keep detailed records relevant to the nutrition program. Refer to these records when making • Select fertilisers which match the nutritional decisions relating to the nutrition program. requirements of the vines and soil. • Consider soil characteristics and condition when selecting fertilisers to prevent/reduce the potential for environmental degradation as a result of nutrient leaching, soil acidification, and volatilisation. • Select fertilisers suitable for the application method and time of the year.

The use of mulches and cover crops can assist in increasing soil organic matter levels

55 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Best Practice Information 2.0 Soil The use of fertilisers in the vineyard can result in characteristics/condition many impacts to the environment. It is therefore important to firstly work towards minimising the The characteristics and condition of the soil affect the amounts of fertilisers applied in the vineyard. If ability for soil to hold nutrients and the likelihood of fertilisers need to be applied it is then crucial that nutrient leaching. For efficient fertiliser use it is they are applied carefully to prevent/reduce any therefore important to have a good understanding of potential environmental impacts associated with the soils in the vineyard when deciding on a their use. nutrition program. The soil factors which impact on nutrition are (5):

1.0 Nutrient uptake • texture;

• structure; The management of nutrition to prevent environmental impacts requires knowledge of the • organic matter content; and uptake of nutrients by vines. • chemistry. Nutrients contained in vineyard soils are (17):

• attached to soil particles; 2.1 Texture • part of the organic matter; or Soil texture relates to the amount of sand, silt and • dissolved in the soil moisture (this is called the clay particles that make up the soil. The texture of soil solution). the soil affects the availability and mobility of the nutrients (5). Vines take up these nutrients when the roots absorb water from the soil. • Sandy soils - in sandy soils water infiltrates rapidly potentially causing nutrient leaching. Vines take up nutrients at critical stages of the Sandy soils also retain low amounts of water and growth cycle and it is important to understand when are low in organic matter and nutrient levels. these times occur. Nutrients that are made available at times when they are not needed by the vines are • Loamy soils - loamy soils retain more water than (5) wasted and are prone to leaching . The seasonality sandy soils and can also contain more nutrients. of nutrient uptake by the roots of vines is illustrated in Appendix 1. • Clay soils – nutrients bind strongly to clay particles in the soil. In soils with high-clay For Further information relating to nutrient content this may cause nutrient deficiencies, as uptake by vines refer to: the nutrients are not easily accessible for the vine to use. • Grapevine Nutrition Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual (5).

56 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

2.2 Structure 3.0 Fertiliser types The soil structure refers to the arrangement of sand, silt, There are various types of fertilisers suitable for use clay and the pores between the aggregates. Soil structure in vineyards, each of which are suited to different has an effect on root penetration, water movement, and situations and serve different purposes. It is the nutrient holding capacity. Soil structure can be important to understand the properties and improved through management practices such as by behaviours of different fertiliser before use as increasing organic matter or by adding gypsum(5). fertiliser used at the wrong time and in the wrong conditions can lead to environmental impacts (such 2.3 Organic matter as volatilisation, nutrient leaching, and harm to aquatic organisms as a result of eutrophication). Soil organic matter consists of residues of plants and animals. Soil microorganisms feed on this soil organic The two main types of fertilisers are inorganic or matter and the continual recycling of this organic organic. matter makes nutrients available for the vine roots. It is important to gain an understanding of the level of 3.1 Inorganic fertilisers organic matter in the soil before trying to increase it (5).

2.4 Chemistry Inorganic fertilisers are generally manufactured on a large scale. Table 1 lists the advantages and disadvantages of inorganic fertilisers. (17) The soil chemistry components that affect nutrition are (5): Inorganic fertilisers are used to supply: • sodicity – this refers to the concentration of sodium relative to calcium and magnesium. • Nitrogen. Increases in soil sodicity can affect soil structure; • Phosphorus. • carbonates - soft carbonates occur as fine particles mixed with other fine particles in soils. Carbonates • Potassium. can affect the availability of some nutrients and may also decrease the permeability of the soil; and • Magnesium. • soil pH - the pH of the soil is a measure of its • Micronutrients (zinc, copper). acidity or alkalinity. Soils with a pH of 3 – 5.5 are considered acidic and those with a pH above 8.5 considered alkaline. The soil pH most suitable for grapevines is between 5.5 and 8.5. The use of fertilisers may cause changes in soil pH. It is important that the pH of the soil is known before using fertilisers.

It is also important to gain an understanding of the natural soil conditions and to be aware of the effects that fertiliser use has on the condition of the soil.

For further information on how soil characteristics and condition effect nutrition refer to:

• Grapevine Nutrition Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual (5).

57 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Table 1 – Advantages and disadvantages of inorganic fertilisers

Advantages of inorganic fertilisers Disadvantages of inorganic fertilisers

• Nutrients are available quickly. • Manufactured from non-renewable energy sources. • Nutrients are concentrated. • Manufacturing process is very energy intensive. • Consistent : know nutrient content. • No organic matter is added to the soil. • Easy to handle, transport, and apply. • Can be hazardous to handle and apply. • Blends can be made to match needs. • Timing of application can be flexible. • Only the nutrients that need to be applied can be applied.

3.1.1 Nitrogen 3.1.2 Phosphorus

There are three forms in which inorganic nitrogen Phosphorus is always applied to the soil in the form 3- can be added to the soil: of the phosphate ion (PO4 ) and is available in the following fertiliser compounds: • urea; • superphosphates (available as single, double, and • ammonium; and triple strength superphosphate);

• nitrate • ammonium phosphates (the mono-ammonium phosphate and di-ammonium phosphate forms Each of these forms of nitrogen has specific are also nitrogen sources and pose a soil properties, which can affect the potential for acidification risk); environmental impacts. Table 2 lists the important factors to consider if using each type of nitrogen • phosphoric acid (phosphoric acid is sometimes fertiliser. (12, 13) used in fertigation systems); and

• rock phosphate (is not soluble in water and becomes available to plants very slowly).

Phosphorus fertilisers are not prone to volatilisation and have a low degree of mobility in soil.

Table 2 – Leaching potential, soil acidification risk, and volatilisation potential associated with the use of nitrogen based fertilisers

Leaching potential Soil acidification risk Volatilisation potential

Urea Highly soluble, prone to Can cause soil acidification. Most alkaline conditions leaching. Do not use on acid soils stimulate the loss of urea as Use carefully on light textured (below pH 5.5). ammonium gas. soils. Ammonium Does not leach as readily as Can cause soil acidification. Prone to loss as ammonia gas urea or nitrate. Do not use on acid soil in moist alkaline soils. (below pH 5.5). Nitrate Prone to leaching. Does not cause soil acidification.

58 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

3.1.3 Potassium 3.1.5 Micronutrients

Potassium fertilisers are available in nitrate, chloride There are a number of micronutrients that can be and sulfate forms. Potassium chloride can cause applied. These may cause environmental impacts increases in salinity and can be harmful to bacteria in and include: the soil. An excess of potassium can also affect the uptake of magnesium, ammonium, calcium and • boron; sodium (9). • copper;

3.1.4 Magnesium • iron;

Magnesium is normally applied in the following • manganese; forms: • molybdenum; and • dolomitic lime (applied prior to planting); • zinc. • epsom salts (applied through fertigation or as a foliar spray); or 3.2 Organic fertilisers • potassium magnesium sulphate. An organic fertiliser is one that is made from the Care must be taken when using magnesium on sodic remains or the by-product of something that was soils or where the exchangeable calcium to once living. Organic fertilisers are quite different magnesium ratio is about 1:1. The addition of to manufactured (inorganic) fertilisers. Organic magnesium in these situations can cause loss of soil fertilisers have properties which can assist with (5) structure . the long-term health of the vineyard. Table 3 lists the advantages and disadvantages of organic fertilisers (1, 7, 10, 14, 15, 17).

Table 3 – Advantages and disadvantages of organic fertilisers

Advantages of organic fertilisers Disadvantages of organic fertilisers

• Improve soil structure, texture and tilth. • The slow release of nutrients can cause problems with nutrient • Improve moisture retention. leaching. • Can control soil erosion. • Phosphorus can be supplied in a form which is more prone to • Can control weeds. leach that other forms of phosphorus. • Can have a similar effect to lime amendment. • Difficult to transport. • Increases nutrient availability. • Composition can be highly variable and unpredictable. • Can be a good single source of nutrients. • Increased likelihood of emissions of greenhouse gases. • Provide nutrients over several years after • Animal manures can contain toxic metals. application. • Manures can be a source of pathogens. • May lock up off-target pesticide sprays. • Increases populations of soil organisms. • Increased nitrogen fixation.

59 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

The main types of organic fertilisers are: 3.2.2 Composts

• animal manures; Composts are created as a result of the breakdown of organic materials by microorganisms. (Composting • composts; can be controlled by breakdown materials such as manure and grape marc in windrows or pits under • cover crops and green manures; controlled conditions). Some of the benefits of composted organic material are: (18) • mulch; and • that weed seeds are made non-viable; • soil conditioners and other supplements. • that composts have a lower carbon:nitrogen ratio than many non-composted materials which is 3.2.1 Animal manures better for the health of the soil; and

Animal manures can provide a good source of • that composts provide a more readily available nutrients and are available as raw or pelletised source of organic matter (18). manure. Compost is also available in the form of The main advantages and disadvantages (problems) vermicompost (worm castings). for each of these forms are given in Table 4.

Table 4 – Advantages and disadvantages of manures

Advantages of manures Disadvantages of manures

Raw manure • Increases organic matter encouraging • Difficult to get a uniform application. earthworm populations. • May introduce weed seeds and/or pathogens. • Improves the long-term health of the vineyard • Some sources can contain large amounts of soils. straw, saw dust or wood chips. • Makes use of a waste product. • Composition can be variable. • Difficult to apply.

Pelletised • Contains known nutrient ratios. • The processing of pelletising manure can be manure • Does not present a problem of introducing energy intensive. weeds seeds and pathogens. • Easier to apply than raw manure.

60 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

3.2.3 Cover crops and green manures 3.2.5 Soil conditioners and other supplements Cover crops in general can be considered as organic fertilisers as they provide improvements to the There are a number of organic products designed to structure and fertility of the soil. Green manures are supplement vineyard nutrition programs by cover crops grown because of their ability to supply providing additional benefits to the soil. nitrogen to the soil. Some cover crops can add nitrogen to the soil by fixing nitrogen from the Soil conditioners are most commonly made from the atmosphere. Medics are an example of a cover crop following naturally occurring substances: that does this. • seaweed (especially kelp);

3.2.4 Mulch • fish; or • leonardite. Mulch refers to any material which is laid over the soil surface. Mulches used in vineyards are typically There are also some supplements available known as in the form of composted and non-composted probiotics. These contain beneficial microbes and organic material which are brought into the may provide benefits by breaking down organic vineyard. Mulch can also take the form of cover matter and converting atmospheric nitrogen into crops or other vegetative material that has been useable forms. slashed or mulched in the vineyard.

The main advantages and disadvantages of mulches are given in Table 5.

Table 5 – Advantages and disadvantages of mulches

Advantages of mulches Disadvantages of mulches

• Increases soil organic matter. • Can lower soil surface temperature, which can increase the risk • Improves long-term health of vineyard soil. of bud/fruit damage in areas prone to frost (4). • Improves moisture retention. • Can cause waterlogging in poorly drained areas. • Can control erosion. • Straw mulch can sometimes act as a thatched roof, allowing • Can suppress weeds. water to shed from the surface. • Can reduce surface water run-off. • Mulches, which have a high carbon: nitrogen ratio (e.g. straw) can cause the “nitrogen draw down effect”, which results in nitrogen being unavailable for vine roots.

For further information about fertiliser types refer:

• Grapevine Nutrition Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual (5). • Fertilisers for wine grapes - an information package to promote efficient fertiliser practices (9).

61 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

4.0 Fertiliser application • sampling and testing; • visually monitoring vine health; and To ensure the efficient and effective use of fertilisers and to minimise environmental impacts the • evaluating vine performance. following points need to be considered before applying fertilisers in the vineyard: 4.1.1 Sampling and testing • Nutrient requirements. Sampling for nutritional status should be undertaken • Type of fertilisers. during vineyard establishment and then continued regularly throughout the life of the vineyard to avoid • Method of application. the unnecessary application of fertilisers. Nutritional status can be determined through soil tests and • Timing of application. tissue analysis. The advantages and disadvantages of tissues analysis and soil tests are given in Table 6. (5, 8) 4.1 Nutrient requirements When sampling soil or vines it is important to To avoid unnecessary and excessive fertiliser develop standard methods to ensure consistent applications, and to plan for the long-term fertility of results are obtained each year. Records of soil tests the vineyard, it is important to determine what the and tissue analyses should be kept and referred to nutrient requirements of the vines are; and to assess when making decisions about fertiliser applications. the nutritional status of both the soil and vines. This involves the following:

Table 6 – Advantages and disadvantages of tissue analysis and soil tests

Advantages Disadvantages

Tissue analysis • Provides a rough estimate of the vines nutrient • Sample collection can be time consuming. - Petiole and status. • Tissue analysis does not produce precise leaf blade • Assesses the actual nutrients that the vines results. analysis. have been able to take up. - Sap tests. • Useful for confirming suspected deficiencies / toxicities in vines.

Soil tests • Useful for determining soil pH, • Not as reliable as tissue analysis. salinity, sodicity. • Don’t necessarily provide a good indication of • Useful for identifying where applied nutrients available to vine. fertilisers end up. • Difficult to collect a representative sample. • Provide a general assessment of fertility. • Can give an indication of whether acidification is occurring.

62 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

4.1.2 Visually monitoring vine health 4.3 Method of application Different fertilisers require different application Throughout the year it is important to regularly methods to ensure the most efficient uptake of monitor the health of the vines. Monitoring involves nutrients by the vine. The main fertiliser application visually inspecting the vines for symptoms of methods are: nutritional disorders or problems. Monitoring provides another tool for identifying fertiliser • fertigation; requirements. 4.1.3 Evaluating vine performance • direct soil application (broadcasting, banding, ripping); and

Evaluating vine performance can assist in the • foliar application. evaluation of the nutrition program. This involves assessing the quality of the crop and how well it met specifications and whether fertiliser use can be 4.3.1 Fertigation reduced. Feedback from wineries, packing sheds, and customers should also be considered. Fertigation is the application of fertiliser through the Monitoring vine performance is useful for fine irrigation system and is capable of applying tuning the nutrition program and to identify when fertilisers precisely and efficiently. Fertigation is most further soil tests or tissue analyses should be suited to drip irrigation systems but can also be used undertaken.(5) with low level and overhead sprinklers. To use fertigation the fertilisers must be soluble in water so that they can be distributed. Fertigation is most For further information about the assessment suited to the following types of fertilisers: of nutritional requirements refer to: • Grapevine Nutrition Research to Practice™ • nitrogen (eg urea, ammonium); Training Workshop Manual (5). • Fertilisers for wine grapes – an information • potassium (eg potassium nitrate, potassium package to promote efficient fertiliser chloride); and practices (8). • phosphorus (eg mono-ammonium phosphate, di-ammonium phosphate). 4.2 Selecting type of fertilisers Some organic supplements (eg fish fertilisers) can Before applying fertilisers it is important to ensure also be distributed through fertigation. that the type being applied will meet the nutritional requirements of the vines and is suited to the The main advantages and disadvantages of vineyard soil. (5) fertigation are given in Table 7 (2,6). Fertilisers applied that do not meet the requirements of the vine are wasted. Consideration should be given to selecting fertilisers that will meet the long and short-term needs of the vines. Fertilisers applied that are not suited to the vineyard soil can result in nutrient leaching, soil acidification and volatilisation. When selecting fertilisers consider the information provided previously in Section 3.0 to ensure the correct decision is made.

63 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Table 7 – Advantages and disadvantages of fertigation

Advantages of fertigation Disadvantages of fertigation

• Reduces labour and fuel costs. • Requires irrigation system to have a high level of distribution • Improved accuracy of application leading uniformity (eg > 85%). to a high level of plant uptake. • Can result in acidification of the soil in the rootzone. • Is flexible and allows for small and more • Substances used for fertigation can cause corrosion. frequent amounts of fertiliser to be applied. • Can increase the chances of irrigation system blockages. • If used correctly can prevent/reduce nutrient leaching and run-off.

Some important points to consider if using 4.3.2 Direct soil application fertigation: (5) Fertilisers have traditionally been distributed directly • Ensure the system has features to prevent the to the soils in the vineyard. There are three main soil back flow of fertiliser into the water supply as this application methods: will lead to contamination. • broadcasting (this involves spreading / • Isolate storage tanks to prevent the contamination distributing fertiliser across the soil surface in the of water supplies (eg domestic water). vineyard);

• Ensure the irrigation system has a high level of • banding (this involves applying fertiliser in a distribution uniformity (eg > 85%) to ensure band on the soil in the undervine area); and fertiliser is applied evenly. An uneven fertiliser application can result in nutrient leaching. • ripping (this involves using cultivation equipment to incorporate fertilisers into the soil). • Ensure that the depth of the irrigation is known so that nutrients are not being flushed past the Broadcasting, banding, and ripping are suited to the rootzone where they can then enter drainage, application of solid fertilisers especially those which ground water and surface water (eg rivers). do not dissolve in water. These methods are suitable for applying both inorganic and organic fertilisers. • Do not fertigate if rain is imminent. The fertilisers most commonly applied direct to the • Monitor the distribution uniformity of the soil are shown below. fertiliser by measuring the time it takes for the fertiliser to get through the system. Inorganic fertilisers Organic fertilisers applied direct to soil applied direct to soil • Monitor fertiliser movement through the soil profile to assess the efficiency of fertiliser - Urea. - Pelletised manure. applications (ceramic tip samplers can be used for - Ammonium nitrate. - Raw and composted this). - Phosphate. manure. - Potassium. - Organic mulches (eg straw) • Monitor the pH of the soil to ensure that soil acidification is not occurring. Ripping is also commonly used to incorporate amendments such as lime and gypsum into the soil. • Pre-wetting the soil before fertigation will help the soil to retain nutrients. The advantages, disadvantages and important points to consider for each method are given in Table 8.

64 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Table 8 – Advantages and disadvantages of direct soil application

Advantages Disadvantages

Broadcasting • Useful when establishing a vineyard. • Fertilisers are prone to volatilisation. • Useful for fertilising cover crop. • Increased likelihood of nutrient run-off and • Suitable for distributing solid fertilisers. leaching. • Fertiliser is wasted if it is applied to areas outside the rootzone of the vines. • Higher labour input and fuel costs than fertigation. • Uniformity of application can be poor.

Banding • Reduces wastage by only applying fertiliser • Fertilisers are prone to volatilisation. to undervine area. • Increased likelihood of nutrient run-off and • Suitable for distributing solid fertilisers. leaching. • Higher labour input and fuel costs than fertigation. • Uniformity of application can be poor.

Ripping • Incorporates fertiliser into the soil. • Difficult to get an even distribution through the • Useful for amending soil problems, especially soil profile. prior to planting. • Causes disturbance to the soil which can lead • Can reduce the potential for nutrient leaching, to soil structure problems. run-off and volatilisation. • Higher labour input and fuel costs that fertigation.

Some important points to consider when using soil 4.3.3 Foliar application application methods: Fertilisers can also be applied directly to the vine • If banding urea or ammonium nitrate ensure the foliage where nutrients are taken up by the leaves. fertiliser is incorporated immediately by irrigation Foliar application is best suited to the application of or tillage to prevent/reduce volatilisation. micro-nutrients; however some macro-nutrients can also be applied (eg sulfates, magnesium) (5). • Manures should be incorporated into the soil within 24 hours to prevent/reduce volatilisation The advantages and disadvantages associated with of ammonia (17). foliar applications are given in Table 9 (5).

Table 9 – Advantages and disadvantages of foliar applications

Advantages of foliar applications Disadvantages of foliar applications

• Applies nutrients directly to foliage. • Fertiliser must be soluble. • Useful for applying micro-nutrients and • Fertiliser can be washed from the foliage by rain or by irrigation correcting minor deficiencies. applications. • Can be applied at the same time as fungicide • Higher labour and fuel costs than fertigation. or pesticide applications.

65 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

Some important points to consider if applying 4.4.1 Nutrient demand and uptake by (5) fertilisers via foliar application: vine

• Foliar nutrients are best absorbed if they stay on To prevent/reduce the likelihood of nutrient the leaves for a long time, be careful to ensure that leaching it is crucial that fertiliser applications are nutrients are not washed from the foliage. timed so that the nutrients will be available to the vines during the periods in which they need them. • Coverage is important in determining The main periods of nutrient demand are (also refer effectiveness. to Appendix 1):

• Apply foliar sprays when evaporation is low. • after budburst until veraison; and

• The use of wetting agents can improve the uptake • between harvest and leaf fall. of nutrients. The most important points to consider when 4.4 Timing of application determining the timing of various fertiliser applications are: (3, 5)

The timing of fertiliser applications requires careful • Nitrogen applications should occur earlier in the consideration to ensure the effective and efficient season rather than later. It is best applied three to uptake of nutrients by the vines and to four weeks pre-flowering through to veraison. prevent/reduce the potential for environmental impacts (particularly as a result of leaching). The • Be careful not to apply nitrogen too early as the timing of fertiliser applications depends mainly on vine may not be ready to take it up, this can result the type of fertiliser being applied, but also the in nutrient leaching. method of application and requires consideration of: • Nitrogen should also be applied after harvest in • the periods of nutrient demand and uptake by the Sunraysia as there is a significant period of vine; and growth post-harvest and vines need to store nutrients for the following season. • the weather and irrigation applications. • Nitrogen is best applied in a series of small doses for more efficient uptake by the vine and to For further information about the methods of prevent/reduce the potential for nutrient fertiliser application refer to: leaching. This is best achieved through fertigating. • Grapevine Nutrition Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual (5). • If applying phosphorus or potassium via banding • Fertilisers for wine grapes – an or broadcasting it is best applied in autumn or information package to promote efficient spring. fertiliser practices (2). • If fertigating phosphorus it should be applied early in the season.

• Young vines may need to be sprayed with zinc monthly, in mature vines zinc is best applied 10 – 20 days before flowering.

66 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

• When applying organic fertilisers be aware of the lag time between application and the time when 5.0 Monitoring and record nutrients will be available in a form for the vines keeping to use. Monitoring and record keeping are important parts • Manures are best applied in late spring and early of good vineyard practice. Monitoring nutrient summer. If applied too late nutrients may become applications and the efficiency of fertiliser use, vine available during winter, greatly increasing the performance, and other relevant factors (e.g. potential for nutrient leaching. weather) will assist in making better decisions in the future, to fine-tune the nutrition program, and to 4.4.2 Weather and irrigation prevent/reduce environmental impacts associated with the use of fertilisers.

Good nutrient management requires making sure The following records should also be kept:(5) that nutrients are placed at the right depth in the soil (the area containing 90% of the roots), so that they • details of fertiliser applications; are available for the vine to use and not wasted. It is therefore important to ensure nutrients are not • information about the characteristics and leached past the rootzone by irrigation applications condition of the soil; or rainfall events. The weather conditions can not be controlled but • results from nutritional analyses (eg. soil tests, forecasts should be considered before applying petiole analysis); fertilisers. • vine performance and crop quality measurements; Irrigation management can be controlled and the and following points should be considered to ensure that nutrients remain at the correct soil depth: (11, 13,) 16) • records relating to the health of the vines and any nutritional disorders or problems that have • Co-ordinate the scheduling of irrigation and occurred. fertiliser applications to ensure nutrients do not move too deep in the soil profile where they are It is important to store records in a form that they wasted and prone to leaching (the soil should can be easily found and understood. These records however be moist when applying fertilisers as if should be referred to frequently when making the soil is too dry the vine roots will not be decisions relating to the nutrition program. actively taking up water and nutrients). • Take care not to over-irrigate as this can cause nutrients to leach from the soil. This is 6.0 Measuring performance particularly important when using fertigation or washing in fertilisers applied directly to the soil. The environmental performance of the nutrition • If the controlled leaching of salts from the program can be measured. The performance rootzone is required schedule it for a time of low measures include: fertiliser input to reduce the degree of nutrient leaching. • The level of nutrient losses.

For further information about the timing of • Fertiliser use fertiliser applications refer to: • Grapevine Nutrition Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual (5). • Fertilisers for wine grapes – an information package to promote efficient fertiliser practices (9,2).

67 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

6.1 The level of nutrient losses 2. Apply fertiliser at the recommended/required rates. The level of nutrient losses refers to how much of the fertiliser/nutrients applied are not available to be 3. Collect soil water samples during and after an used by the vines (eg the nutrients have leached past irrigation or rain event. the rootzone). The level of nutrient losses can be determined by assessing nutrient levels in drainage 4. Test for nutrients within the soil water samples water and nutrient levels within the rootzone in the (using test strips) and use the results to estimate soil. what % of the fertiliser applied remained in the rootzone and what percentage moved past the Ceramic tip samplers can be used to assess the levels rootzone and became waste. of nutrients within the soil profile and to then determine the level of nutrient losses (through 6.2 Fertiliser use leaching). Ceramic tip samplers comprise of a length of plastic micro-tubing sealed in a piece of porous ceramic, a syringe is then used to create a vacuum The amount of fertiliser use provides an indication of and collect soil water.(19). the environmental performance of the nutrition program. Fertiliser use can be expressed as: To determine nutrient levels in the soil using ceramic tip samplers (19): • Fertiliser use (tonnes) per hectare. 1. Insert a series of ceramic tip samplers into the soil • Total fertiliser use (tonnes) per vineyard. across the property. The samplers should be placed at different depths in the soil. As a • Fertiliser use (tonnes) per tonne of fruit. minimum, samplers should be placed within the rootzone and then below the rootzone to detect Growers should be aiming to reduce the amount of any nutrient leaching. fertiliser (especially inorganic fertiliser) applied.

For further information about ceramic tip sampling refer to:

• Installation of ceramic samplers – a growers guide (19).

68 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition

References

1 Buckerfield JC, Webster KA (1996) Earthworms, mulching, soil moisture and grape yields. Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Journal. 11 (1) : 47 – 53. 2 Campbell-Clause J (1996) Fertigation. In ‘Fertiliser for wine grapes’. (Eds B Goldspink, J Campbell-Clause, S Partridge, N Lantze, C Gordon) pp 46 - 55 (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia). 3 Cass A, Crockfort B, Tisdall J (1993) New approaches to vineyard and orchard soil preparation and management. In ‘Vineyard development and redevelopment: proceedings of a seminar held on 23rd July 1993, Mildura, Victoria’. (Ed P Hayes) pp 18 – 24. (Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology. Adelaide, South Australia). 4 Cass A, Maschmedt D, Chapman J (1998) Managing physical impediments to root growth. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 414 : 13 – 17. 5 Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Scholefield Robinson Horticultural Services PL, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture (2000) ‘Grapevine Nutrition: Research to Practice™ Draft Training Workshop Manual’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture). 6 Freney JR, Peoples MB, Mosier AR (1995) ‘Efficient use of fertiliser nitrogen by crops’. (Food and Fertilizer Technology Centre). (http://www.agnet.org/library/article/eb414.html – 5/7/01). 7 Gaur AC (1994) Bulk organic manures and crop residues. In ‘Fertilisers, organic manures, recyclable wastes and biofertilisers’ (Eds H.L.S Tandon) pp 44 – 50. (Fertiliser Development and Consultation Organisation). 8 Goldspink B (1996) Assessing the vine nutrient status. In ‘Fertiliser for wine grapes’. (Eds B Goldspink, J Campbell-Clause, S Partridge, N Lantze, C Gordon) pp 71 – 82. (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia). 9 Goldspink B (1996) Fertilisers, registration, composition and selection. In ‘Fertiliser for wine grapes’. (Eds B Goldspink, J Campbell-Clause, S Partridge, N Lantze, C Gordon) pp 14 – 23. (Department of Agriculture, Western Australia). 10 Goss MJ, Unc A, Chen S (2000) Transport of nitrogen, phosphorus and microorganism from manure into surface and groundwater. In Proceedings of the conference on Biological resource management : connecting science and policy’ ‘Biological Resource Management’ (Ed E Bal*azs) pp 31 – 54. (Springer). 11 IAA (1994) ‘“Fertigation” – Notes from a seminar held 6th July 1994’. (Irrigation Association of Australia limited). 12 Jerie P, McNab S (1994) The significance of nutrient movement and soil acidification in perennial horticulture. In ‘Nutrient and fertiliser management in perennial horticulture. Proceedings of a workshop, June 15-16, 1994’. (Eds S McNab, P Jerie, R Dick) pp 5 – 9. (Land and Water Resources and Development Corporation). 13 Jerie P, McNab S (1995) ‘HRDC Final Report – Amelioration and prevention of soil acidification and efficient nitrogen fertiliser use’. (Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture, Tatura, Victoria). 14 Kingston C (2001) Waste management and sustainable grapegrowing. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 444 : 29 – 31. 15 McConnell DB, Shiralipour A, Smith WH (1993) Compost application improves soil properties. Biocycle. 34 (4) : 61 – 63. 16 McNab S, Jerie P, O’Connor R, MacDonald P (1994) Efficient fertiliser application techniques and nutrient losses in irrigated horticulture. In ‘Nutrient and fertiliser management in perennial horticulture. Proceedings of a workshop, June 15-16, 1994’. (Eds S McNab, P Jerie, R Dick) pp 33 – 41. (Land and Water Resources and Development Corporation). 17 Morris D (1997) ‘Best management practices – Nutrient Management’. (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Food and Rural Affairs). 18 Schefe C (1999) Composts in viticulture. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 431 : 31. 19 Sunraysia Horticultural Centre (1996) ‘Installation of ceramic samplers – a growers guide (video). (Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria). 69 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Nutrition (6) growth Dormant period BudNitrogen burst RapidPhosphorus shoot Flowering Set Potassium VeraisonCalcium Harvest Leaf Magnesium fall Appendix 1 – Seasonality of nutrient uptake by the roots of grapevines

70 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

Pest and Disease Pest and Disease

PEST & DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 72 Performance Measures 72 Potential Environmental Impacts 72 Relevant Legislation 72 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 73 Best Practice Information 74 1.0 Monitoring and identification 74 2.0 Management options 77 2.1 Cultural practices 77 2.2 Biological control 81 2.3 Chemical control 82 3.0 Spray application 84 3.1 Spray equipment 84 3.2 Spray droplets 85 3.3 Spray nozzles and pump pressure 85 3.4 Spray equipment and set-up 86 3.5 Chemical mixing 86 3.6 Calibration 86 3.7 Weather conditions 87 3.8 Reducing off-target/off-site impacts 87 3.9 Evaluating spray effectiveness 87 3.10 Spray equipment cleaning and maintenance 88 4.0 Timing of actions 89 5.0 Record keeping 89 6.0 Chemical storage, handling, and disposal 90 6.1 Storage area 90 6.2 Mixing areas 90 6.3 Chemical disposal 90 7.0 Measuring performance 91 7.1 Populations of beneficial species in the vineyard 91 7.2 Pesticide use (litres) 91 References 92 Appendix 1 – Types of spray equipment and features 94 Appendix 2 – Characteristics of natural enemies (predators and parasites) 96

71 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• Use an effective pest and disease management • Water contamination (including groundwater, strategy, which minimises the use of chemicals rivers, channels and other water bodies) with and maintains or increases beneficial agricultural chemicals. organisms in the control of pests and diseases. • Biodiversity decline including: • Apply chemicals at the correct dose and to - a reduction in native flora and fauna minimise off target contamination whilst populations as a result of ingestion of, ensuring effective control of the target pests or contact with agricultural chemicals; and diseases. - a reduction in soil organisms as a result of chemical persistence in soil; and - harm to native vegetation and wildlife Performance Measures habitats. • Community concern and harm associated • Populations of beneficial species in the with chemical spray drift into neighbouring vineyard. properties/roadways. • Pesticide use (litres). • Soil contamination as a result of the spraying of, and the incorrect disposal and storage of agricultural chemicals.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (Control of Use) Act 1992 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Water Act 1989 • Health Act 1958 • Wildlife Act 1975 • Wildlife Regulations 2002 • Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling) Regulations 2000

New South Wales • Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 • Pesticides Act 1999 • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 • Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 • Water Management Act 2000 • Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 • Rural Lands Protection Act 1998 • National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 • National Parks and Wildlife Regulation 2002 • Dangerous Goods (General) Regulation 1999

Commonwealth • Environment Protection Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Act 1994 • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Code Act 1994 • National Environment Protection Council Act 1994 • National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999

72 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

Summary of Environmental Best Practice Monitoring Chemical use • Monitoring occurs weekly during the growing • Chemicals selected: season. - based on the identification of pest/disease; • Action thresholds determined for all pests and - considering the potential impact to diseases and are based on assessments from beneficial organisms and the environment; previous years. and - considering the chemical resistance strategy. • Records kept of each monitoring session. • Time chemical applications by considering: • Professional advice/assistance obtained as - the pest/disease populations and action required to assist with monitoring. threshold; and Overall control strategy - the life cycle of the pest/disease. • Apply chemicals after: • Take specific measures to prevent pests and - considering weather conditions; and diseases being introduced and becoming established. - setting-up and calibrating the spray equipment to suit application target (eg • Take specific measures to encourage and canopy size and density). prevent harm to beneficial organisms. • Use biological control agents where suitable. Chemical storage and • Use chemicals as a last resort and only after handling carefully assessing the need (eg by considering • Prevent the contamination of the environment presence of pest/diseases, action thresholds, by having storage and mixing areas: weather conditions). - with an impermeable floor and spill • Keep records of all control measures and refer containment provisions; and to them when making decisions. - located away from water ways.

Chemical storage areas should have concrete floors and spill containment provisions

73 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

Best Practice Information 1.0 Monitoring and Significant inputs are required to prevent and control Identification pests and diseases in the vineyard. These inputs (especially the use of chemicals) can result in An effective pest and disease management program significant impacts on the environment. requires accurate information about the presence, quantity and potential economic impact of pests, A long-term pest and disease management strategy diseases and beneficial organisms in the vineyard. is required to assist in: This information is needed to make an assessment about; firstly, whether any measures should be taken • preventing/reducing environment impacts (such to prevent or control a pest or disease; and secondly, as the contamination of water bodies and harm to the extent and type of control measure if needed. native flora and fauna); Monitoring includes an assessment of (11): • preventing the introduction and establishment of pests and diseases; • pest and disease location, distribution, and density; • minimising the amount of chemicals required; • the stage of pest and disease development eg. egg, • reducing the reliance on broad spectrum larvae, or adults of lightbrown apple moth chemicals, which have a greater effect on the (LBAM); environment and beneficial organisms; • the presence of beneficial organisms; • protecting against the development of chemical resistance (as this leads to an increased • the stage of vine development; requirement for chemicals); • climatic data and forecasts; • increasing the populations of beneficial organisms (these organisms help to eliminate/reduce the • any other disorders; and need for chemicals); and • the effectiveness of control measures (and the • optimising the efficiency of spray delivery to effect of control measures on beneficial organisms maximise the effectiveness of each spray. and native flora and fauna).

Pest and disease management involves the following Monitoring is crucial for the early detection of pests key components: and diseases and should be based on a systematic survey of the vineyard, ideally each week during the • monitoring and identification; growing season. Monitoring should also be undertaken after control treatments are applied to re-evaluate pest • management options (cultural practices, biological status. Tagging sites where pests and diseases are and chemical control); detected provides a useful reference point to check the effectiveness of control measures (11). • spray application; For further information on the monitoring for • timing of actions; specific pests and diseases refer to:

• record keeping; and • Australian and New Zealand Field Guide for Diseases Pests and Disorders of Grapes (21). • chemical storage, handling and disposal. • Diseases and Pests – Grape Production Series No. 1 (22). • Bugmatch Grapes™ software.

74 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

1.1 Action thresholds When monitoring, it is not possible to measure entire populations so it is necessary to determine a sample size. The size of the sample will depend on what is Action thresholds for economic damage need to be being monitored, the potential impact of the determined before undertaking monitoring. The pest/disease, and the time of the year. The sample economic or action threshold is the predicted size of points can be either random (eg when plant parts are pest populations, or the severity of a disease sampled) or set points (eg when traps are set and infection, that the crop can tolerate if not treated checked throughout the season). before economic loss is incurred. If pest populations exceed the threshold, then a control action needs to There are a number of monitoring techniques that be taken to protect the crop. If a control action is can be used to obtain the sample. These are as taken when predicted pest populations and disease follows (11): severities are below the threshold, it is possible that the costs of the action (cash, time, energy, and • Direct counts – taking a set sample size and environmental impact) will be incurred for no real measuring the pests, disease or beneficial benefit. Pest populations may have been kept below organisms in that sample (eg number of mites the threshold naturally by factors such as adverse found on 50 leaves). weather or biological control. • Presence/absence sampling – measuring the The assessment of levels of pest and disease damage presence of specific pests/diseases or beneficial at harvest is important in the development of organisms. thresholds and the evaluation of strategies used during the season (11). • Timed sampling – detecting pests or beneficial organisms during a set inspection time (eg. 30 minutes). 1.2 Monitoring techniques • Trapping – the use of attractants such as light, The correct selection of the monitoring technique is food lures, sex and aggregation pheromones; or crucial for obtaining an accurate picture of the pest interception methods such as pitfall traps or and/or disease problem and to accurately determine sticky traps to determine population size. populations of beneficial organisms as this is needed to make the correct decision about the type and Monitoring in the vineyard will often involve a extent of control measure to use if needed. The combination of the above sampling techniques. monitoring technique needs to be matched to the type of pest, disease or beneficial organism being monitored. Before undertaking any monitoring and when determining the technique to be used, the following should be considered:

• the appearance of the pest/disease or beneficial organism being monitored;

• the damage that the pest/disease causes to the plants/property and the pre-determined action It is important to monitor for threshold; and common vineyard pests such as light brown apple moth (LBAM) • the life cycle of the pest/disease or beneficial organism and the time of year when the steps in the life cycle occur.

75 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

1.3 Monitoring vine health and 1.5 Monitoring records growth stage To maintain an effective pest and disease control The health of the vineyard and the pest and disease program it is crucial to keep detailed records of all levels in the previous season should be considered monitoring. These records are useful for tracking the when making decisions on control methods. This history of pests and diseases in the vineyard within will assist in the identification of opportunities to and between seasons, as well as determining the eliminate/reduce chemical use. factors which cause pest and disease outbreaks. Past information is essential when making management The growth stage of the vines should be monitored. decisions about the prevention and control of pest Different stages of the growth cycle are more prone and disease problems and should be used to look for (11) to pests and diseases. This is an important opportunities to reduce chemical use . consideration when determining the times to monitor for pests and diseases. The growth stage of 1.6 Decision-making the vines is also a consideration when implementing control measures (eg whether to target the bunches or the foliage). The information collected through monitoring needs to be compiled, evaluated and a decision made on the type and extent of the control measure/s to be taken 1.4 Weather monitoring and whether a control measure is needed at all.

Weather conditions should also be monitored, as this For effective pest and disease management, decisions will assist in predicting the onset of pest and disease on control measures rely on: problems and determining when pest and disease monitoring needs to be more detailed or frequent. If • the correct identification of pests, diseases and action can be taken before a pest or disease beneficial organisms; establishes then it may be possible to avoid subsequent reactive control measures (which could • the accurate prediction of pest/disease events (eg involve increased chemical use). outbreaks or infection periods);

Weather information obtained at the vineyard level • a good understanding of the economic or action (where the use of weather monitoring equipment is threshold and potential impact of the identified recommended), and at a regional level are both and/or predicted pest/disease; useful. • a good understanding of how to control the Weather data is also useful for determining the identified pest/disease in both the short term and timing and ensuring the effectiveness of control long term; and measures (11). • an assessment of the potential environmental The most useful weather information includes: impacts related to the possible control measures (eg potential impact on native flora and fauna, • regional and site temperatures; potential impact on beneficial organisms) • canopy temperature and humidity; • rainfall and expected rainfall; • leaf wetness and duration; and

• wind speed.

76 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

To assist with decision making the following tools The main types of control measures include: can be used: • Cultural practices Most preferred options • Pest and disease identification books. (eg vineyard floor (lowest potential for management, canopy environmental impact) • BugMatch Grapes™ software. management)

• Pest and Disease Consultant • Biological control

• AusVit™ software.

• State Departments of Agriculture (eg Department • Chemical control Least preferred option of Primary Industries, Victoria, New South Wales (highest potential for Agriculture). environmental impact) For further information about monitoring refer to: 2.1 Cultural practices • IPM Viticulture: Research to Practice Training Workshop Manual(11). There are a number of vineyard management • Australian and New Zealand Field Guide for practices which can assist in the prevention and Diseases Pests and Disorders of Grapes (21). control of pest and disease problems and lower the • Diseases and Pests – Grape Production Series potential for environmental impact. These practices No.1 (22). can:

• prevent pests and diseases being introduced into 2.0 Management options the vineyard (also see Biosecurity chapter and the Biosecurity section in the Volume 2 – Legal The measures for the control and prevention of pests Obligations); and disease should be aimed at: • create an environment which encourages diverse • minimising inputs and costs; populations of insects (including beneficial and native organisms) and discourages pests and • minimising the effect on off-target plants and disease; and organisms (eg beneficial organisms, native flora and fauna); and • improve the effectiveness of pest and disease controls. • targeting specific pests and diseases identified (to ensure they are effectively and efficiently Cultural practices should be the first consideration controlled) (11). when planning the pest and disease control program.

A range of control measures should be considered and utilised to avoid/reduce the need for chemicals. The preferred control measures to use are those which have the lowest inputs and the lowest potential to cause environmental impacts.

Records of controls undertaken should be kept to assist with the monitoring and forecasting of pests and diseases, and to review the effectiveness of the action taken.

77 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

2.1.1 Vineyard site selection • selection of planting material – the planting material obtained should be pathogen and virus tested and is best obtained from a vine Careful site selection can avoid and/or reduce the improvement program (see Biosecurity section in potential impacts associated with the control of pests Volume 2 – Legal Obligations for information and diseases. Consider (11): about obtaining planting material from outside the region); • Drainage – the site needs to have adequate drainage, as waterlogging in the soil can cause • varieties – these should be chosen to suit the local problems with soil-borne pests and diseases (eg climate and growing conditions. Consideration nematodes, root rot). should be given to the types of pest and disease problems that occur in the area and select • Prior land use – this needs to be established and varieties resistant to these problems; consideration given to the types of soil-borne pests and disease which may be present. • rootstocks – phylloxera resistant rootstocks should be used; • The local environment – consider whether any pest or disease problems may be associated with • trellising styles and pruning methods – the canopy neighbouring crops, vegetation, or residential architecture has an effect on light penetration and properties. Also consider any sensitive areas (eg humidity within the canopy (this influences the native vegetation, known wildlife habitats, likelihood of disease development) as well as residential properties) on and surrounding the chemical spray penetration (influencing site. pest/disease control); and

The consideration of site selection issues may result • nutrition – vine health is important for resisting in potential sites being unsuitable for vineyards. pests and diseases and reducing the need for control measures so it is important to make sure that the soil has adequate nutrients for the vines. 2.1.2 Vineyard establishment 2.1.3 Canopy management The way in which the vineyard is set up is important for the long-term prevention and control of pests and For good pest and disease management an open vine diseases and reduction in potential environmental canopy is encouraged as (11): impacts. Consideration needs to be given to (11): • this will reduce the likelihood of disease • row orientation – this should be determined to development by improving light penetration and achieve the optimum light penetration and air air circulation; and circulation in the canopy to prevent disease development. Consideration must also be given • it allows for greater penetration and coverage of to soil variations along rows as this is an chemical applications which will improve the important factor for good irrigation practices; effectiveness of the pest/disease control. • surrounding native flora and fauna – this should be considered to ensure there are sufficient buffer zones to prevent harm to native flora and fauna as a result of spray drift;

78 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

2.1.4 Vineyard floor management • Taller cover crops should be slashed to enable greater airflow around the vine canopy and to protect against pest and disease development. The vineyard floor should be managed to (11): • Prior to bud burst consider slashing cover crops • encourage plants that support beneficial and removing weed growth to control pests such organisms (as these can control pests); as lightbrown apple moth (LBAM) and snails.

• control plants (eg weeds) which may harbour or 2.1.5 Vineyard hygiene encourage pests and diseases (see Vineyard floor management legal requirements); and It is essential that people or machinery do not spread • enhance the infiltration of water, as surface water pests and diseases into and within the vineyard as can encourage pest activity (11). well as out of the vineyard and into sensitive areas such as areas of native vegetation. (See Biosecurity The use of cover crops should be considered as they section in Volume 2 - Legal Obligations for further can improve pest management by utilising excess information about vineyard hygiene requirements). water, harbouring beneficial organisms, and The key hygiene points to consider are (11): suppressing weeds. • Don’t take contaminated soil (eg on boots or However, care needs to be taken when selecting the machinery) into the vineyard or into areas of type of cover crop as they can also provide a host for native vegetation. pests and diseases. The following should be considered if using a cover crop: • Be careful when moving from diseased plantings into clean plantings. • Ryegrass is a suitable cover crop for IPM (17). • Educate staff and contractors ensuring they • Single grass crops including BlockOut™ understand the concept of controlling the spread discourage widespread migration of insects and of pests, diseases and weeds and the requirements minimise broadleaf weed growth (17). of quarantine regulations. • Ensure contractors clean any machinery of soil • Cereal cover crops should be used in place of prior to entering the property. legumes if the soil is infested with nematodes (13). • Control staff and visitor movement around the • Oats, peas, beans, radish, lupins, and mustard property. cover crops have been found to be suitable if lightbrown apple moth (LBAM) is a problem (11, 22, • Clean bins and buckets at harvest. Ensure all bins 17, 9). are cleaned before they are moved into the vineyard. • Cereals are the best for preventing snail problems (17).

• Use native grasses or ground covers if at all possible.

• The cover crop should be checked regularly as part of the monitoring program to make sure it is not harbouring any pests and/or providing a host for diseases.

79 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

2.1.6 Pruning 2.1.7 Nutrition/Irrigation

Pruning is a time when vines are exposed to some Vine health should by maintained through effective diseases (eg trunk diseases), as the cut surface of the management of irrigation and nutrients as healthier plant is open to infection. To minimise the vines are the more resistant to pests and diseases. possibility of disease infection the following control Nutrient and water balance is important as (11): measures should be considered (11): • over fertilisation can lead to increased disease • To reduce the spread of diseases such as Eutypa, problems due to excessive growth; avoid pruning in wet weather. • under- or over-irrigation of vines can put vines • Treat large pruning cuts to prevent trunk diseases under stress; and infecting vines. • nutrient deficiencies or excesses can make vines • Remove diseased parts of vines and burn them more susceptible to pests and diseases. (eg Phomopsis, Eutypa).

• Remove canes or spurs severely infected by 2.1.8 Buffer zones and vegetation Phomopsis Type 2. Buffer zones are used to protect sensitive areas, such • Where practical remove mummified fruit and as areas of native vegetation, waterways or dead wood from the vines; and cane prunings residential properties, from chemical spray drift (see from the floor at pruning time to eliminate Pest & disease Section in Volume 2 - Legal sources of over-wintering Botrytis (2). obligations). The buffer zone can take the form of a vegetative barrier, which can capture and/or filter drifting spray droplets thereby protecting the sensitive area. To be effective the vegetative buffer needs to (10):

• be a row of trees, tall grass or bushes;

• be taller than the vines or the spray unit being used; • have foliage thin enough to see through (50% porosity); and • have long, thin, rough foliage.

Native vegetation can also attract and harbour beneficial insects and birds. Consideration should be given to the potential benefits of planting native vegetation around the vineyard. Avoid planting of species which produce soft berries, fleshy fruits, or are prolific nectar producers as these may attract pest insects and birds. Light brown apple moth (LBAM) may also present a problem with some native species. Consideration should also be given to the structure of the vegetation. Different layers of vegetation can provide a more attractive habitat for beneficial organisms (25).

80 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

2.1.9 Mating disruption 2.2 Biological control

Many insects release sex pheromones to attract a After implementing cultural practices to control mate. If large amounts of pheromone are artificially pests and diseases, the use of biological controls released in an area the insects become confused and should be considered before any chemicals are used. their mating cycle is disrupted. Pheromone Biological control can involve natural enemies dispensers for this purpose are available (predators and parasites) of pest species or microbial commercially for light brown apple moth (LBAM) biological control agents for the control of diseases. and other pests (7). The use of pheromone dispensers can be an effective technique to avoid the need for 2.2.1 Natural enemies (predators and chemical applications. parasites)

2.1.10 Bird control techniques There are many beneficial organisms (including native species) that act as natural enemies to control There are a number of techniques available to control pests in the vineyard and these can either eliminate birds if they are a problem in the vineyard. These or reduce the need for chemical applications. As a techniques include: result a pest and disease management program should focus on building up and sustaining • Scaring devices – these rely on either noise or a populations of natural enemies. physical object. It is important to be careful with noise generating devices as they can cause Vineyard management practices can be used to community disturbance (See Pest & Disease encourage and support existing populations of Section in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations). natural enemies. Alternatively, commercially available predators can be released (eg trichogramma • Nets – very effective as they provide for total for the control of light brown apple moth). exclusion. Take care to ensure that non-target bird species (eg native birds) do not become trapped. The table in Appendix 2 provides information on the most common natural enemies that control • Decoy crops – this involves providing an grapevine pests and diseases, how they can be alternative food source to lure birds away from encouraged, and what disrupts them. the grapes.

Take care when choosing a bird control technique to ensure that native birds will not be harmed as there are laws to protect them. Attempts must also be made to live with problem birds, especially native birds. For advice on appropriate bird control contact the Department of Sustainability and Environment.

For further information about cultural practices A LBAM egg mass that has been parasitised related to pest and disease management refer to: by Trichogramma • IPM Viticulture: Research to Practice Training Workshop Manual(11). • Cover crops for vineyards(13). • Grape production series No. 1 – Disease and Pests(22). • Code of practice for farm chemical spray application(10). • Flora and Fauna Note (FF0013) : Problems caused by birds in grape crops(27 ).

81 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

2.2.2 Microbial biological control 2.3.1 Types of chemicals agents (diseases) There are many chemicals available for use in Commercially available products containing bacteria vineyards, all of which control specific pest and or fungi are available for spraying onto vines. These disease problems. Before using a chemical it is include: crucial to check that it is registered for use on grapevines in Australia, and that it satisfies • bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) – a bacterium which is winery/packing shed and any export/market toxic when ingested by lightbrown apple moth requirements. The chemical must then be used in the (LBAM) and grapevine moth. Bt sprays should manner specified on the label. never be applied when rainfall is likely, the temperature very high (>35oC) or during periods Chemicals control pests using various modes of of greatest UV radiation. Late afternoon or action. Understanding the mode of action can assist evening sprays are recommended (16); and in deciding on the best chemical to control the biological target. The use of a chemical with the • trichoderma harzianum – a fungus used mainly for incorrect mode of action will not control the the control of Botrytis. Trichoderma requires pest/disease resulting in a waste of chemical, the temperatures between 15 and 25oC and good potential for environmental impact, and the need for coverage to be effective (24). further chemical applications.

The three main modes of action are (24): 2.3 Chemical control • translaminar – the chemical penetrates into the Chemical control of pests and diseases should only plant tissue and is moved within a plant organ (eg be used to supplement cultural and biological a leaf); controls as it is the control measure which has the greatest potential for environmental impact. • systemic – the chemical enters the plant via the Chemicals should only be applied if the pest and/or roots or shoots and then moves through the disease has the potential to cause economic damage. phloem or xylem; and For pests, chemicals should be applied when the pest is at the most vulnerable stage of its life cycle. • contact (surface active) – these chemicals work by Preventative chemical control is preferred for direct contact with the target organism. diseases. The use of chemicals requires careful planning to ensure effectiveness and also requires a The main categories of chemicals used to control consideration of chemical withholding periods as pests and diseases are insecticides, fungicides, and this has an influence over when chemicals can be herbicides. used.

82 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

Insecticides tend to be classified as being either (11): 2.3.2 Resistance

• broad spectrum (harms many species) - the use of The careless use of chemicals for pest and disease broad-spectrum insecticide sprays should be control can lead to the development of resistance. If avoided as these also eradicate a wide range of resistance develops there will be an increased need beneficial insects; or to use chemicals in the vineyard. Resistance management strategies have been developed to • selective (harms a narrow range of species) – reduce or delay the development of resistance to these are the preferred types. chemicals. The following are some general tips to assist in the prevention of resistance (26, 4, 5, 6): Fungicides tend to be classified as being either (11): • Adopt a preventative control program wherever • protectants – applied to prevent diseases by possible. providing a barrier to infection; or • Use an integrated approach – cultural and • eradicants – applied after infection to kill the biological controls should be used where possible disease. before chemical controls are implemented.

Herbicides tend to be classified as being either: • Avoid the use of chemicals that present a high risk of causing resistance – refer to the Avcare resistance • pre-emergent - applied to the soil to kill seeds as management strategies for information about high they germinate. Like insecticides, herbicides can risk chemicals (4,5,6). be either broad spectrum or selective. (11): or • Strictly follow manufacturers recommendations – • post-emergent - applied directly to the foliage and always use the recommended label rates to ensure can be either systemic or contact. maximum effectiveness.

• Spray timing – it is important that chemicals are For further information about chemical types applied when the pest or disease is most refer to: susceptible.

• IPM Viticulture: Research to Practice Training • Use a range of different chemical groups – Workshop Manual(11). resistance can build up over time if chemicals • Spray application in Viticulture: Research to with the same mode of action are continually Practice Training Workshop Manual(24). used.

• Refer to the latest strategy – resistance management strategies are continually changing as new products are registered.

Also see Pest & disease and Vineyard floor management Sections in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations regarding legal requirements relating to resistance.

For further information about chemical resistance refer to:

• The Avcare resistance management strategies(4,5,6).

83 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

2.3.3 Toxicity • Chemical mixing. • Calibration. When selecting chemicals for pest and disease control it is important to consider the potential • Weather conditions. impact on the environment and on beneficial organisms. The chemical selected needs to effectively • Reducing off-target/off-site impacts. control the pest/disease but needs to: • Evaluating spray effectiveness. • have minimal impact on the environment (eg minimal impact on native flora and fauna); • Spray equipment cleaning and maintenance.

• have minimal toxicity to beneficial organisms; and 3.1 Spray equipment • maximise operator safety. There are many types of equipment available for The product label and material safety data sheet applying chemicals, all of which have advantages (MSDS) should provide some information on the and disadvantages and are suited to different toxicity of the chemical. situations. When purchasing spray equipment it is important to ensure that it suits your situation and The persistence of the chemical in the environment that it has some degree of versatility (24, 19). should also be considered. Chemicals that break down quickly are preferred (as the likelihood of The key points to consider when selecting spray environmental impact is reduced); however greater equipment are: precision with the timing of their application is • Versatility, as the sprayer will need to be adjusted required. Care should also be taken to avoid using to suit different canopy types and sizes to reduce highly toxic chemicals in situations where high waste and drift (eg fewer nozzles are required rainfall occurs and on free draining sandy soils. early in the season). Check the Pest & disease section in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations with regard to environmental impacts of • The canopy size and density and degree of chemicals. wetting required to achieve effective pest/disease control.

3.0 Spray application • Energy requirements and efficiency.

• Vineyard size and topography. Chemical spray application is an important component of pest and disease control. Chemicals The main types of vineyard sprayers are (24, 19): need to be applied with care to ensure the off-target impacts are avoided/minimised and to ensure that • hydraulic boom sprayers (no air assistance); the pest/disease is controlled effectively. • air assisted sprayers -with droplets produced Spray application involves a consideration of: from hydraulic nozzles;

• Spray equipment. • air assisted sprayers – with droplets produced by air shear; • Spray droplets. • recirculating sprayers; and

• Spray nozzles and pump pressure. • covered spinning disc sprayers (or controlled droplet applicators (CDA’s)). • Spray equipment set-up.

84 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

For further information on the 3.3 Spray nozzles and pump pressure advantages/disadvantages of vineyard spray equipment refer to Appendix 1. Also check the Pest • Spray nozzles are a key component in droplet & Disease section in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations formation. regarding spray equipment. • Nozzle type has a direct effect on spray droplet 3.2 Spray droplets size. • Nozzle wear can also effect the type of spray The spray droplets produced vary in size and can droplets produced (24). range from 50 to 500 micrometers. The optimum droplet size is generally between 70 and 250 • Pump pressure can affect droplet size with higher micrometers as this provides a good balance between pressures producing smaller spray droplets (24). reducing drift and achieving effective canopy penetration. Droplets of different sizes have different characteristics as detailed in Table 1(24).

Table 1 – The characteristics of coarse and fine spray droplets

Coarse droplets Fine droplets (greater than 300 µm) (less than 100 µm)

• Have more momentum than fine droplets and • Have little momentum. tend to travel in a straight line until they • Require air assistance to travel. hit an object. • Are carried around by air until the air movement in the canopy • Shatter or bounce off on impact. decreases. • Less inclined to drift. • Give coverage deep into the canopy. • Less coverage than fine droplets. • Evaporate quickly in hot weather. • Tend to collect on leaves closest to the sprayer. • Useful for minimising drift when applying herbicides.

Air assisted sprayers such as this one can achieve good spray penetration whilst reducing spray drift

85 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

3.4 Spray equipment set-up 3.5 Chemical mixing

Correct sprayer set-up is crucial for reducing spray Before mixing the chemical solution it is necessary to drift and achieving an effective and efficient determine how much chemical needs to go into the chemical application. The spray equipment needs to spray tank to ensure the correct amount (or dose) of be set-up to suit the pre-determined application chemical reaches the target to effectively control the target, and should be re-adjusted whenever there is a pest/disease. When determining this you need to major change in the application target (eg canopy decide whether dilute or concentrate spraying will size and density). be undertaken.

Sprayer set-up involves three components (24, 19): For a spray to be effective the chemical needs to be distributed evenly through the spray solution. The • the target – it is important to know and spray needs to be agitated during mixing and when understand what the target is. The targets for stopping for breaks. spray applications are expressed as the biological target (eg. the pest) and the application target (eg. Measures also need to be in place when mixing to bunches); ensure environmental contamination does not occur (Refer to section 6.2) • the air – air controls penetration into the canopy and distribution over target surfaces. Too much 3.6 Calibration air or poorly directed air can lead to increased spray drift, and a need to use more chemical to compensate for the poor delivery of the spray to Once the spray equipment has been set-up it then the target; and needs to be calibrated. This is needed to avoid under dosing (meaning the spray is not effective) and over • the liquid volume – in order to control the target dosing (which causes increased run-off). Calibration (24, 19) pest, the correct dose of chemical must reach the involves consideration of two components : application target. To achieve this the volume of water needs to be altered to suit the size of the • tractor speed – time how long it takes the tractor application target (3). The type of application also to travel 100m, whilst achieving the optimum needs to be considered. There are two types of spray penetration.; and applications (24): • liquid volume applied – collect nozzle output - dilute application (high volume) – where the over time, or operate the sprayer for a set period application target is sprayed with a liquid of time and measure the water volume required to volume to a point just before run-off occurs; refill the tank. and Spray equipment should be calibrated whenever - concentrate application (low volume) – where there is a major change in the application target (eg the same amount of chemical is applied as for canopy size and density) to ensure the correct dose is dilute application but with much less water. being applied. With concentrate application the point of run- off is not reached.

86 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

3.7 Weather conditions 3.8 Reducing off-target/off site impacts The weather conditions must always be considered before applying any chemicals, as they can have an When applying chemicals, measures need to be effect on not only the performance of the spray, but taken to prevent/reduce the potential impact on the also on the potential for environmental environment and on beneficial organisms. The contamination. The weather factors that need to be following are some useful tips for reducing off- considered are (24, 19, 10, 23): target/off-site impacts (24):

• atmospheric stability – spraying should not be • Make sure that the correct rate of chemical is undertaken if temperature inversions exist (this being applied, to optimise the efficiency of each typically occurs in very calm conditions); spray and to minimise the need for repeat sprays.

• wind velocity – ideally spraying should occur • If the chemical is being applied directly to the soil when the wind speed is between 5 and 15 km/h; (eg for weed control) particular consideration and needs to be given to the rate being applied and the timing of the application, as these chemicals • temperature and humidity – as temperature can be more susceptible to leaching. increases and humidity decreases sprays evaporate more quickly which can reduce the • Avoid using volatile chemicals in hot weather. effectiveness of the spray. • Take measures to prevent soil erosion and surface run-off (eg cover cropping).

• Where possible spray with a light crosswind working upwind towards the unsprayed area of the vineyard (23).

See Pest & Disease section in Volume 2 - Legal Obligations for requirements concerning off- target/off-site impacts.

3.9 Evaluating spray effectiveness

It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of pest and disease control after spraying so that improvements can be made to subsequent applications. Increasing the efficiency of spray delivery to the target will also reduce spay drift and run-off. Spray effectiveness can be measured by (24, 19):

assessing whether the chemical has covered the application target sufficiently (15, 14); and

monitoring the effectiveness of the spray application in the vineyard by visually assessing how well pests and diseases have been controlled.

87 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

3.10 Spray equipment cleaning and The main component of the maintenance program is maintenance checking the condition of the nozzles. At recommended pressures the nozzle output should Spray equipment needs to be cleaned and not vary from the manufacturers rating by more than maintained regularly to ensure maximum 10%. Nozzles that exceed this variation should be performance. All spray equipment should be replaced. The accuracy of the pressure gauge should (24) thoroughly decontaminated after each spray also be checked regularly . operation to prevent the build up of residual chemicals and the problems this can cause (24, 19). Other maintenance considerations include checking (10): The cleaning of spray equipment can be hazardous to the environment and to people. • and cleaning filters and replacing if damaged; • hoses and pumps for leaks; The following points should be considered to assist in preventing any contamination (also refer to • that hoses are free from kinks, twists, cracks or section 6.0): splits; • Select the wash down area carefully. • the stabilisers on boom sprayers for proper Consideration needs to be given to the location of operation at start of season; and water supplies, the presence of native vegetation, the potential exposure to wildlife, and the • that the agitator is operational. potential exposure to people, in particular children.

• Anyone involved in the cleaning process must wear the appropriate protective clothing (refer to material safety data sheet (MSDS) and product label for guidance).

For further information about chemical spray application refer to:

• Spray application in Viticulture: Research to Practice Training Workshop Manual(24). • Pesticide application in vineyards(19). • Code of practice for farm chemical spray application(10).

88 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

4.0 Timing of actions 5.0 Record keeping

The timing of control measures is important and Record keeping is an essential component of pest involves consideration of pest and disease life cycles, and disease management. Recorded information can the growth stage of the vine, the mode of action of be used to make informed decisions about how, the control measure, the weather, and the effect of when and where to control pests and diseases. other vineyard practices on the control. Records are invaluable when evaluating control Inappropriate timing can decrease the effectiveness measures and determining a long-term pest and of control measures and lead to a greater reliance on disease management plan and should be used to chemical applications and potential for look for opportunities to reduce chemical use. environmental impact. Records to be kept include (11): The following points should be considered: • Control foliar diseases early in the season before • a vineyard site map; they become established. • stage of vine development; • Target insects at the growth stage when they are most vulnerable. • the known status of pests and diseases; • Avoid applying chemicals at times of high disease • summary monitoring sheets; and/or pest pressure as this can increase the chances of resistance developing. • weather station data; • Be cautious if applying some chemicals just prior to irrigation or if rain is likely as: • records of control measures taken (including spray records); - if the chemical is not rain fast it may be washed from the foliage. This is of particular • harvesting dates and yield; and relevance if using overhead irrigation; or - the chemical may leach through the soil. This is • harvest assessment of pests and diseases. of particular relevance if a herbicide has been applied. Extra care needs to be taken when Also refer to the Pest and Disease section in Volume dealing with pre-emergent herbicides. 2 – Legal Obligations for information about mandatory record keeping. • Do not apply chemicals in conditions which could cause environmental contamination via spray drift (eg in strong winds). For further information about record keeping for pest and disease management refer to: • Some chemicals should not be applied above certain temperatures as they have decreased effectiveness. The chemical label should be • IPM Viticulture: Research to Practice Training checked prior to spraying. Workshop Manual(11). • Contact herbicides should be sprayed when evaporation is low and when weeds are actively growing. • Avoid cultivating after a herbicide has been applied. • Biological sprays are most successful when pests are targeted at the correct time, usually in the earlier stages of their life cycles.

89 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

6.0 Chemical storage, 6.3 Chemical disposal handling, and disposal 6.3.1 Unused chemical When storing, mixing, and disposing of chemicals it is essential that environmental contamination does not occur. Small quantities can be applied to the vines (care Check the Pest & Disease section in the Legal requirements should be taken to avoid washing of chemicals chapter. The following need to be considered: already applied).

6.1 Storage area Do not allow unused chemical to drain into ground water, storm water drains, sewers, or water supplies. • The storage areas should be a minimum of 90 m from any surface water or wells, wetlands, Never dispose of concentrated chemical on farm. (10) woodlands, or watercourses. • The floor must be impermeable, bunded and 6.3.2 Chemical containers sealed. It must not have any floor drains. • Should not be on an area which slopes towards All chemical containers should be emptied and watercourses (20,23). rinsed properly before disposal. The Agsafe standard for effective rinsing of farm chemical • Be sited on soils with a lower risk of leaching and containers provides information on the correct contamination. Sandy soils have a higher rinsing techniques (1). potential for leaching and groundwater contamination, while clay soils have a higher Chemical containers should be disposed of through potential for run-off. the drumMUSTER program if possible. Contact • Have provision to contain any spill, eg bunding, your local council for information on the nearest chemical spill kit. Bunding guidelines are collection point. available from the EPA (12). 6.3.3 Unwanted chemicals 6.2 Mixing area

• The mixing area must not drain to a waterway (10). Any concentrated chemical should be disposed of through a registered chemical waste disposal • The mixing area must be located away from company. Contact your local council for further streams, drains and bores (20, 23). information. • The mixing area should be located as near as possible to the storage area. To prevent environmental contamination it is important that chemicals are stored correctly prior to • Consider constructing a permanent mixing area their correct disposal. with impermeable concrete to contain spills. • Take measures to prevent back flow into a water For further information about the storage, source. handling and disposal of chemicals refer to:

• The Agsafe standard for effective rinsing of farm chemical containers(1). • Code of practice for farm chemical spray (19) Chemical storage application . areas should have • EPA Information Bulletin – Bunding concrete floors and guidelines(12). spill containment provisions

90 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

7.0 Measuring performance 7.2 Pesticide use (litres)

The environmental performance of the pest and The amount of pesticide used provides an indication disease management program can be measured. of the effectiveness of the pest and disease Performance measures include: management strategy and how much the strategy relies on chemical use. Pesticide use can be • Populations of beneficial species in the vineyard. expressed a number of ways including:

• Pesticide use (litres). • Pesticide use (litres) per hectare.

7.1 Populations of beneficial species • Total pesticide use (litres) per vineyard. in the vineyard • Pesticide use (litres) per 100m or row.

An assessment of the populations of beneficial • Number of chemical applications per season. species in the vineyard can provide an indication of the impact and potential impact that chemical • Gross return per litre of pesticide used controls are having on off-target organisms. If high populations of beneficial species are present in the When calculating pesticide use indicators the litres of vineyard it is a good indicator that chemicals are concentrated chemical (eg before dilution) should be having a minimal effect on off-target organisms and used. the environment. Growers should be aiming to both minimise the Populations of beneficial species can be estimated by litres of chemicals used and the number of chemical using a range of monitoring techniques. Many of the applications per season. techniques used to estimate pest populations in the vineyard can be adapted to estimate populations of beneficials (11, 21).

91 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

References

1 Agsafe (2000). ‘The Agsafe standard for effective rinsing of farm chemical containers’. (Agsafe, Canberra, ACT). 2 Allan W (2000) Agrochemicals for managing bunch rots. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 440 : 46 – 54. 3 Antonov A, Stewart A, Walter M (1997) Inhibition of conidium germination and mycelial growth of Botyrtis cinera by natural products. In ‘Proceedings of the 50th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference’. pp 159 – 164. (The New Zealand Plant Protection Society Incorporated). 4 Avcare (2000) ‘Fungicide resistance management strategies’. (Avcare Limited). 5 Avcare (2000) ‘Herbicide resistance’. (Avcare Limited). 6 Avcare (2000) ‘Insecticide resistance management strategies’. (Avcare Limited). 7 Biocontrol (2000) ‘Isomate LBAM plus Technical Notes’. (Biocontrol Ltd, Queensland, Australia). 8 Broadley R, Thomas M (1995) ‘The good bug book’. (Australasian Biological Control Inc, Richmond, NSW). 9 Brown A, Smith M, Price T (1997) Covercrops and weeds as potential hosts for over-wintering lightbrown apple moth. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 402a : 72 – 75. 10 Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Chemical Standards Branch (1998) ‘Code of Practice for Farm chemical spray application’. (2ndedn). (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Vic). 11 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1998) ‘IPM Viticulture: Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture). 12 EPA Victoria (1992) ‘EPA Information Bulletin (Publication 347) – Bunding guidelines’. (EPA Victoria). 13 Fisher D (2002) ‘Cover crops for vineyards’. (Department of Agriculture Western Australia). (http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/programs/hort/viticulture/cover.htm). 14 Furness G (2000) Droplet rating chart: a simple way to measure spray coverage and dose of pesticides on grapevine. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 439 : 31 – 36. 15 Furness GO (2000) ‘Fact sheet No. 1 – 2000 SARDI Fluorescent pigment’. (SARDI/PIRSA). 16 Hibbert D, Horne P (2001) IPM: the influence of pest and disease sprays on vineyard pests. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 451 : 28 – 29. 17 Hibbert D, Horne P (2001) IPM: How inter-row cover crops can encourage insect populations in vineyards. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 452 : 76. 18 James DG, Rayner M (1995). Toxicity of viticultural practices to the predatory mites Amblyseius victoriensis and Typhlodromus. Plant Protection Quarterly. 10 (3) : 99 – 102. 19 Kent J, Early R (1997) ‘Pesticide Application in Vineyards’. (Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW). 20 Lane A (1998) ‘Best Management Practices – Pesticide storage, handling, and application’. (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs). 21 Magarey PA, MacGregor AM, Wachtel MF, Kelly MC (1999) ‘The Australian and New Zealand Field Guide for disease, pests and disorders of grapes’. (Winetitles, Adelaide, SA). 22 Nicholas P, Magarey P, Wachtel M (1994) ‘Diseases and Pests’. Grape Production Series No. 1. (Winetitles, Adelaide, SA). 23 Rutherford P (2001) ‘Code of practice for the use of agricultural and veterinary chemicals in Western Australia’. (Department of Agriculture Western Australia, Perth, WA).

92 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

24 Shanks A, Glenn D, Murphy K, Braybrook D (2000) ‘Spray Application in Viticulture Research to Practice™ Training Workshop Manual’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture). 25 Sislov A (2000’s) ‘Native vegetation and stone and pome fruit orchards – Draft Discussion Paper’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria). 26 Steel C, Somers T, Castillo-Pando M (1999) Management of fungicide resistance in grapevines. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 429 : 61 – 64. 27 Tempy I (2002) ‘Problems caused by birds in grape crops’ Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Flora and Fauna Notes Series No. FF0013, Victoria.

93 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease Adjust airflow to canopy air and spray to canopy Direct Adjust forward speed to get good spray penetration Adjust forward array of air ducts Use converging Adjust boom height to suit nozzle angle when using rows Angle ducts back in narrow Turn off nozzles not spraying canopy off Turn fan ducts to canopy Direct Use two heads per side in convergent array Use two heads per side in convergent Calibrate sprayer Use nozzles to give fine spray Adjust the operating pressure to suit the nozzles Adjust the operating pressure Use fine nozzles at high pressure number of nozzles to get higher volumes Increase Keep spray flow rates low Angle nozzles back and upwards in an arc Angle nozzles back and upwards Do not spray in wind air and spray to canopy Direct Direct spray into canopy Direct Select correct nozzles Select correct Have enough nozzles Direct spray into canopy or onto weed foliage Direct • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (11) application only an option in ’ dilute No flexibility in air volume or velocity canopies Air volume too low for large ‘ small canopies or in target zones small canopies or in target No flexibility on nozzle postion Divergent air can create drift air can create Divergent

High power requirement Volume of air may not be sufficient of air may not be sufficient Volume Air must be correctly adjusted Air must be correctly at high volumes Runoff Needs accurate adjustment Can create high drift Can create Limited availability High drift potential Calibration more difficult Calibration more

Low spray efficiency Relatively high cost High power requirements Potential for run-off Low work rate Poor spray coverage • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

’ concentrate ‘ or ’ dilute fan on applied misters coverage applications ‘ Can be used to apply or air direction Able to minimise drift Can calibrate without the Suited to early season for weed control Ease of calibration Flexible spray rates Low power requirement canopies in large Low volumes of spray Suited to weed control Good work rate both air and Can direct Moderate cost Less drift than airshear Can give good spray Reliable High work rate Ease of calibration Low capital cost Convergent air Convergent Good spray characteristics Easy adjustment Mechanical reliability Simple design • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • sprayers spray Ducted airblast airblast sprayers Conventional Appendix 1 - Types of spray equipment and features Type Boom sprayers Best features features Worst Maximising performance blowers Tangential Airshear misters

94 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease Adjust forward speed to give good air penetration Adjust forward Aim heads at canopy Use convergence with some rearwards incline with some rearwards Use convergence Adjust sprayers correctly Have sufficient atomisers to give good coverage Have sufficient Use convergence with some rearwards incline with some rearwards Use convergence Ensure correct rotational speeds rotational correct Ensure spray and air into canopy Direct nozzle number and size for good correct Ensure Use good quality sprayers Ensure correctly adjusted correctly Ensure Keep clean Ensure correctly calibrated correctly Ensure • • • • • • • • • • • • • are not independent are Air production and droplet formation and droplet Air production High cost May not give good coverage Low mechanical reliability Low mechanical reliability High capital cost Some may not be suitable on steep coverage High labour requirement High skill level required Must be used correctly Cumbersome equipment Easily damaged Expensive Potential for spreading disease Potential for spreading The range of herbicides which can be Some difficulties when using on Some difficulties • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • independent of air risk of spray drift less power to run than less power to run situation hydraulically driven motors streams of droplet sizes of droplet Electric motors on fans take Spray formation slopes High work rate Can tailor droplet size to Can tailor droplet Converging air streams air streams Converging Converging turbulent air Converging Wasted spray reduced Wasted Simple to operate Spray volumes can be Good for small areas Good for small areas Used for weed control Produces a narrow range a narrow Produces Inexpensive Reduced drift Good coverage at very successfully applied is restricted Can be used in moderately or hilly terrain rough • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Type Type Fan assisted rotary tomisers minimisedmodels) Best features Multi-head airblast (earlier features Worst Handsprayers Maximising performance Recirculating Recirculating sprayers Covered spinning Covered disc sprayers (or controlled (or controlled low volumes droplet applicator droplet (CDA)) windy conditions without

95 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease , ® Bacillus Bacillus Bacillus Bacillus . (BT), Scala (BT) sprays. (BT) sprays. (BT) sprays. ® affect bunch appearance. affect thuringiensis thuringiensis for table Can be problem in grapes as prohibited export shipments. Can also Commercially available. Commercially thuringiensis thuringiensis or Bayfidan . (11, 22, 8, 18) . of wasp release Discourages it? and pollen. if sprayed at the time Control ants. Control ants. Control and pollen. Control ants. Control Frosted scale. . Frosted Discouraged by ants. Mealybugs. cover Maintenance of ground Grapevine scale. Discouraged by ants which scale.Frosted Maintain cover plants in the Insecticides. of rows. centre European red mite, red European Grapevine scale, of rows the centre ants. Control and fungicides lime sulphur. moth (LBAM). moth (LBAM). nectar plants that provide parasitism Sulphur disrupts Not harmed by apple Lightbrown Killed by insecticides. Not harmed by ). nectar plants that provide honeydew. feed on secreted Chrysopa spp. Predacious lacewing Predacious apple Lightbrown Killed by insecticides. Tetracnemoidea brevicornis. Not harmed by nectar and plants that provide honeydew feed on secreted pollen. General spotted mite, Two Maintain cover plants in Harmed by insecticides Trichogramma. Trichogramma. apple Lightbrown cover Maintenance of ground insecticides Broad-spectrum larvae. moth (LBAM) . tasmanica. fusciventris. Anagyrus moth (LBAM) . Ophelosia spp.. Metaphycus lounsburyi. Dolichogenidea apple Lightbrown Killed by insecticides. Not harmed by Green lacewings Green ( Mealybugs. cover Maintenance of ground Discouraged by ants which NameLacewings What does it control? How do you encourage it? What destroys/ Other issues Wasps Wasps Spiders Appendix 2 – Characteristics of natural enemies (predators and parasites)

96 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease Bacillus Bacillus (BT) sprays. (BT) sprays. susceptible to ’ Victoria ‘ thuringiensis thuringiensis be safe. harmless. fungicides are budburst and also feed on flowers and fruit. Organophosphate, carbamate, Organophosphate, Discourages it? citrus orchards and evergreen and evergreen orchards citrus sulphur lime bushes will assist in maintaining populations. synthetic fungicides and insecticides. A and insecticides. Group and B fungicides appear to break) fruit. Control ants. Control insecticides. pyrethroid plants that provide nectar plants that provide ants. and pollen. Control honeydew. feed on secreted Grapevine moth. Bunch, blister and an evergreen Requires Killed by mancozeb, Bunch, blister and mite. red European caterpillars). leafroller Killed by lime sulphur and wettable sulphur Copper, fungicides and lime sulphur. Two-spotted mite.Two-spotted snails,Can control weeds, and pests. Harmed by insecticides and suitable vegetation Provide (eg as a wind on property Noise, chemicals a can also present Birds if they feed on problem Insects (including shelter. which provides defoliate vines after (attacks caterpillars (attacks caterpillars in spring). moth (LBAM) in spring). mite rust Adjacent host to overwinter. triadimefon, wettable , sulphur sprays and ’ Victoria ‘ mite. rust most insecticides. and most synthetic ’ Doreen Amblyseius victoriensis pollen. ‘ Rhizobius ruficollisCryptolaemus Mealybugs. and montrouzieri cover Maintenance of ground Discouraged by ants which nectar plants that provide honeydew feed on secreted Voriella uniseta Voriella apple Lightbrown Diadiplosis koebelei Mealybugs. cover Maintenance of ground Discouraged by ants which Killed by insecticides. Not harmed by Stethorous spp. Stethorous European earwig European Mites cover Mulching and ground Insecticides. Also a pest and can Typhlodromus doreenae Typhlodromus schellenbergii schellenbergii apple moth (LBAM) Oechalia Lightbrown Killed by insecticides. Not harmed by Predatory mites NameFlys What does it control? How do you encourage it? Shield bug What destroys/ Other issues Lady birds Birds Earwig

97 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Pest and Disease

Page 98 is a blank back up.

98 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

Vineyard Floor Management Vineyard Floor Management

VINEYARD FLOOR MANAGEMENT

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 100 Performance Measures 100 Potential Environmental Impacts 100 Relevant Legislation 100 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 101 Best Practice Information 102 1.0 Floor management strategy 102 2.0 Soil management 102 2.1 Soil condition 102 2.2 Soil structure 103 2.3 Soil organic content 103 2.4 Soil acidity 103 2.5 Soil sodicity 103 2.6 Soil erosion 103 3.0 Weed management 104 3.1 Weed prevention 104 3.2 Weed control 104 4.0 Cultivation 105 4.1 Timing and conditions 106 4.2 Type of machinery 106 4.3 Methods 107 5.0 Deep ripping 107 6.0 Herbicide use 107 6.1 Types of herbicides 107 6.2 Adjuvants 108 6.3 Herbicide resistance 108 6.4 Chemical toxicity and environmental impact 108 6.5 Chemical application 108 6.6 Timing and weather conditions 109 6.7 Chemical storage, handling, and disposal 109 7.0 Cover crops 110 7.1 Advantages/disadvantages of cover crops 110 7.2 Cover crop selection 110 7.3 Cover crop management 111 8.0 Measuring performance 112 8.1 Earthworm populations 112 8.2 Soil compaction 112 8.3 Herbicide use per hectare 112 8.4 Number of cultivations per year 112 References 113 99 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

Use a floor (soil) management and effective • Soil degradation including: weed control strategy that: - soil compaction associated with the use of cultivation and heavy machinery; - avoids/minimises chemical use; - soil erosion by wind and water; and - maintains or improves soil structure, nutrition - a reduction of soil organisms as a result and soil biota; of chemical persistence in soil. - prevents the contamination of water systems; and • Water contamination (including groundwater, - avoids the development of weedicide rivers, channels and other water bodies) with resistance. agricultural chemicals, nutrients, and sediments. Performance Measures • Biodiversity decline including: - a reduction in flora and fauna populations • Earthworm populations. as a result of ingestion of or contact with agricultural chemicals; and • Level of soil compaction. - harm to native vegetation and wildlife • Herbicide use per hectare. habitats. • Number of cultivations per year. • Community concern and harm associated with chemical spray drift into neighbouring properties/roadways.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (Control of Use) Act 1992 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Health Act 1958 • Water Act 1989 • Wildlife Act 1975 • Wildlife Regulations 2002 • Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling) Regulations 2000

New South Wales • Pesticides Act 1999 • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Protection of the Environment Operations (General) Regulation 1998 • Noxious Weeds Act 1993 • Soil Conservation Act 1938 • Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 • Dangerous Goods (General) Regulation 1999

Commonwealth • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Act 1994 • Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Code Act 1994 • National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999

100 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

Summary of Environmental Best Practice Soil Management Cultivation • Knowledge of soil type, available rooting • Limit the number of cultivations per year. depth, soil organic content, soil structure, • Avoid cultivation when soil is too wet/too dry water holding capacity, pH and fertility. (plastic limit). Weed Management Mulching • All potential problem weeds identified • Use mulch to increase soil organic content, to (including noxious and environmental weeds). suppress weeds, to prevent erosion and • Control measures developed for the problem surface run-off, and to maintain soil moisture. weeds identified. Vineyard Floor Herbicide Use Management Strategy • Select herbicides for minimum environmental impact by considering: • Develop a vineyard floor management - weed type; strategy which considers: - chemical type (eg pre-emergent, - environmental impacts related to site post-emergent, systemic, contact); and conditions; and - potential environmental impacts - integrates weed, irrigation, nutrition, cover (eg toxicity, persistence in soil, leaching crops and soil management. from soil). Chemical storage and • Time herbicide applications by considering: - weather conditions; handling - the life cycle of the weed; and • Prevent the contamination of the environment - the label directions. by having storage and mixing areas: - with an impermeable floor and spill • Prevent herbicide resistance by: containment provisions; and - having a developed herbicide resistance - located away from water ways. strategy; - rotating herbicides by chemical mode of action group; and - referring to label directions.

Covered sprayers enable herbicides to be applied precisely to the vine bank and also reduce spray drift

101 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

Best Practice Information 2.1 Soil condition 1.0 Floor management Before deciding on a soil management strategy it is crucial to know the characteristics and condition of strategy the soil in the vineyard and determine if any problems exist and/or what improvements can be Vineyard floor management encompasses soil and made. weed management. There are several weed and soil management techniques that can be used to manage A soil survey should be undertaken to determine: the vineyard floor; each of these has positives and negatives. Careful consideration and planning is • Soil type – the soil type can impact on organic required when determining the floor management content, soil pH, soil sodicity, soil structure and strategy to adopt. water holding capacity.

When determining the strategy it is important to: • Soil organic content - different types of soil have varying levels of organic content. Organic content • determine the activities required for floor is required to provide nutrients for the vines, to management (eg soil preparation for furrow provide a food source for soil organisms, and for irrigation, reduction of inter-row erosion for drip the general health of the soil. There may be a irrigation); need to improve the organic content of the soil.

• identify the weeds that are a problem or could • Soil pH – grapevines prefer soil with a pH become a problem in the vineyard; between 5.5 and 8.5. If the soil is too acidic it may need to be adjusted. • consider the strategies which best target the identified weeds; • Soil sodicity – this refers to the concentration of sodium relative to calcium and magnesium. A • consider the effect of the irrigation system on the high sodium content in the soil can cause soil preferred weed control method/s; structure problems and may need to be amended. In Mallee soils high sodium levels are often • know the status of the soil in the vineyard (eg associated with high salt (sodium chloride) levels. type, organic content, structure, sodicity, pH) and consider what improvements need to be made; • Soil structure – check if the vineyard has a soil compaction problem by measuring the strength of • consider the regional climate (eg degree of frost the soil with a penetrometer or by digging soil risk, rainfall); and pits (2). The soil types most affected by compaction are sands, sandy loams, silt loams, loams and clay • consider vineyard site topography (eg hilly, flat). loams (11).

The water holding capacity of the soil should also be 2.0 Soil management determined, as this information will assist with Soil management techniques can be used to prevent irrigation management (refer to the Irrigation or reduce potential environmental impacts (erosion Management section for further information). and soil compaction) and to improve the fertility, structure and general health of the soil in the vineyard. Soil management techniques can also improve the absorption and retention of water.

102 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

2.2 Soil structure 2.4 Soil acidity

The following are some points for The inappropriate selection and use of inorganic improving/preventing soil structure problems: fertilisers can cause soil acidification problems. For information on preventing soil acidification refer to • Build up organic matter in the soil to promote the Nutrition section. Lime can be used to amend increases in soil organisms. soil acidity if necessary.

• Use a cover crop to create pores in the soil and root channels for water infiltration. 2.5 Soil sodicity

• Avoid cultivation where possible; however if Soil sodicity is caused by using saline water for necessary ensure that cultivation is not irrigation and is a problem that can build up over undertaken at the same depth as this can create time. Good irrigation practices should be adopted to hard pans. assist in the prevention of soil sodicity. Sodic soils can be amended over time through the use of • Avoid the use of vehicles/machinery in the gypsum if necessary. vineyard when the soil is wet as this can cause compaction problems. 2.6 Soil erosion • If hard pans or compaction layers are present consider deep ripping. Tillage can re-create pores The following are some points for preventing soil in the soil; however the resultant structure will erosion: collapse after a rainstorm or irrigation if the soil is not protected by stubble or mulch (6). • Avoid having bare ground in the vineyard (especially during vineyard establishment). • Ensure the vineyard has good drainage to assist in the prevention of soil waterlogging. • Minimise the use of cultivation and deep ripping.

2.3 Soil organic content • Use a cover crop to protect and hold the soil together.

The organic content of the soil can be improved by • Use mulch to protect the soil. using a cover crop and/or organic fertilisers (such as manures, mulch, and composts). For further information about soil Problems with organic content decline in the soil can management refer to: be prevented: • Soil management for New South Wales • by limiting the amount of cultivation that is Orchards and Vineyards(23). undertaken; and

• by carefully selecting herbicides that are not toxic to soil organisms.

103 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

3.0 Weed Management 3.2 Weed control

To prevent/reduce environmental impacts it is If it is decided that weeds need to be controlled in important to determine a long-term strategy for the vineyard it is important to firstly identify the controlling weeds in the vineyard. An integrated weed/s and gain an understanding of the best way approach is needed with an emphasis on prevention to control them with the least potential for to reduce the reliance on chemical applications. environmental impact. When deciding on a strategy it is important to identify the types of weeds present in the vineyard The following are techniques for controlling weeds: and then decide which weeds need to be controlled. Some weeds may not present a problem, so there is a reduced need to control them. 3.2.1 Cultivation

3.1 Weed Prevention This is the traditional method of weed control; however it should be avoided if possible as it causes problems with soil structure decline and soil erosion. The following are some tips for preventing weed It can also cause the spread of weeds and have other problems in the vineyard: adverse effects on the health of the vineyard soil.

• Have a plan in place to minimise the spread of weeds within the vineyard and from other 3.2.2 Cover cropping vineyards (eg make sure contractors wash down their machinery before and after working on your A strong cover crop can compete with weeds and property). help suppress their development in the inter-row area. A cover crop should be considered for the • Prevent weed seeds from entering your property long-term control of inter-row weeds. Cover crops via irrigation water by filtering or screening the are also beneficial for the health of the vineyard soil water before use. and can lower the vineyard temperature during summer. • Use certified seed for cover crops.

• Control/restrict the movement of vehicles/people 3.2.3 Mulching into and within the vineyard where possible. The use of mulch can provide for the effective • Destroy problem weeds along vineyard borders suppression of many weeds. Mulch applied to the and those which have the potential to enter the under vine area can complement an inter-row cover irrigation water source. This will reduce the crop to provide effective weed control. There are potential for their introduction into the vineyard. some potential problems associated with the use of mulch including pest and disease problems (eg • Check for new infestations of weeds and control snails), the introduction of weed seeds, and the them before they spread. balling up of mulch in front of machinery. For further information on mulching refer to the Nutrition Section.

104 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

3.2.4 Thermal weed control 3.2.6 Weed control records

The effectiveness of thermal techniques for To assist with the long-term control of weeds, controlling under vine weeds is currently under records should be kept of the types, severity and investigation. The two techniques under location of weed problems in the vineyard; along development are the use of a gas-fuelled flame and with records of control measures undertaken. In steam. Thermal weed control techniques are seen as Victoria there are certain prescribed records that an opportunity to complement herbicide use in must be kept when using restricted chemicals (for vineyards to reduce environmental impacts. further information refer to the Vineyard Floor Management section in Volume 2 – Legal 3.2.5 Herbicide use Obligations). This will allow the effectiveness of the weed control program to be monitored, will provide information to assist with the modification of the The application of chemicals provides for the program if necessary, and provide an opportunity to effective short-term control of weeds; however it is look for ways to avoid/reduce cultivation and also the weed control practice that has the greatest chemical use. potential to cause immediate impacts on the environment. 4.0 Cultivation Other weed control management options (eg those options with a lower environmental impact such as mulching and cover cropping) should be As mentioned previously cultivation is the considered/adopted before using herbicides. traditional method of weed control. Whilst it is an effective method for controlling weeds it is also If herbicides are being used: detrimental to soil structure and can cause problems in the vineyard. Cultivation should be avoided if • Take measures to reduce spray drift. possible.

• Give preference to selective herbicides. The problems caused by cultivation are:

• Avoid the use of residual and broad spectrum • a decline in organic matter content leading to herbicides if possible. reduced soil structure, reduced water infiltration, reduced water holding capacity and lower If applying residual herbicides it is important that earthworm populations; the chemical applied is appropriate to the soil type in the vineyard to prevent/reduce the likelihood of • the shattering of soil aggregates. This means that leaching. the fine soil particles break off and block soil pores resulting in soil surface crusting or sealing, which prevents water entering (13). This in turn can increase water runoff and associated soil erosion;

• the spreading of perennial weeds; and

• a reduction in micro-organism populations in the soil (4) .

The use of mulch in the vineyard can improve the soil organic content, suppress weeds and conserve soil moisture.

105 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

To reduce the impacts associated with the use of • Tine cultivator – used to control seedling weed cultivation the following need to be considered: growth. It causes less disturbance and damage to the soil than other types of equipment, however it • timing and conditions; may need to be used more frequently as it is not suited to heavy vegetation. • the type of machinery; and • Subsoil cultivators – used to break up compaction • the method of cultivation. layers below the normal working depth.

• Blade plough – this skims just under the soil 4.1 Timing and conditions surface cutting weed roots.

The following factors related to the timing of • Undervine tillage implements – used for killing cultivation and the conditions in which it is weeds on the undervine bank. undertaken need to be considered: To reduce problems with soil compaction the • Do not cultivate wet soil. (11) following should be considered:

• Use rotary hoes and disc ploughs sparingly as • Avoid cultivating soil that is too dry (1). these cause the most damage (1). • Do not use heavy machinery on newly cultivated • Use light machinery with balloon tyres (2). soil (1). • Limit axle loads to less than 5 tonnes/axle (11). • Cultivate when weeds are young or most vulnerable to ensure a good weed kill and to stop • Try to create a long, narrow “footprint” with the annuals from seeding. tyre arrangement to restrict compaction (e.g. radials, large tyres, tracks) (11). 4.2 Type of machinery • Use over the row machinery where possible (2). The type of machinery used for cultivation is also an • Do not operate machinery on wet soils. important consideration.

The types of equipment used for cultivation are:

• Disc cultivator – used to incorporate herbage and prunings, leaving a rough soil surface. Should be used sparingly as it can cause significant soil structure damage.

• Rotary hoe – consists of a series of rigid blades attached to a revolving horizontal shaft. Useful for handling dense cover crops and bulky prunings. Should be used more sparingly as it causes significant soil structure damage.

106 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

4.3 Methods • do not rip soils with shallow sodic subsoils, as this can bring sodic soil to the surface and create problems with surface crusting. Cultivation methods which can assist in reducing impacts, include: 6.0 Herbicide use • alternating tillage depth. When cultivation is undertaken at the same depth each time tillage Herbicides are chemical compounds that kill weeds, pans can be created. By alternating this depth or prevent their successful germination. The use of tillage pans can be avoided (10) ; herbicides can provide effective short-term and immediate control of weeds in the vineyard; however • reducing the speed and depth of tillage to prevent they also impact directly on the environment and tillage erosion (11); and should be used sparingly and carefully. Information about chemical use and spray application is also • using reduced tillage systems on hilly land to included in the Pest and Disease section. prevent tillage erosion (11). 6.1 Types of herbicides There are also some types of equipment, which remove weeds without, or with minimal, disturbance There are three major types of herbicides each of to the soil. Some pieces of equipment have blades which have different modes of action: attached which cut weeds off at their roots. Other equipment comprises of a number of curved blades, • Residual herbicides (also known as sterilants or which can be moved along the vine rows and work pre-emergents). These are applied to the soil and between vines. are intended to kill weeds soon after germination occurs. As their name suggests, residual herbicides may remain active in the soil for some 5.0 Deep Ripping time. The duration of persistence in the soil depends on the chemistry of the specific herbicide and on the nature of the soil. Residual herbicides Deep ripping is used to break up hard pans or have a higher potential to leach from the soil than compaction layers, which are causing problems in other herbicides; the vineyard. It is an energy intensive process and should be avoided. Before undertaking any deep • Knockdown herbicides (also known as contact ripping it is important to determine the extent of the herbicides). These herbicides kill the green tissue hard pans and/or compaction problem and decide of plants they come into contact with. They are whether deep ripping is necessary. most effective on young weeds (7). Knockdown herbicides are not designed to persist in the soil and need to be targeted at the green part of weeds When deep ripping (18): to be effective.

• do not rip where the soil water content is higher • Translocated or systemic herbicides are also than the plastic limit, as this will only increase the sometimes referred to as knockdown herbicides. problem. At the time of ripping the clay subsoil With these herbicides the chemical is absorbed by should be drier than field capacity but above the green parts of the plant, and then transported wilting point; by the sap to the roots. This type of herbicide is generally used for the control of perennial weeds • rip early enough (ie in winter) to allow the natural (7). “mellowing” or breakdown of the soil clods. If deep ripping is left too late (ie summer) then Herbicides can also be broad spectrum or selective. continuous cultivation may be required to break To minimise impacts on the environment preference up the soil clods; and should be given to the use of selective herbicides.

107 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

6.2 Adjuvants 6.4 Chemical toxicity and environmental impact Adjuvants are compounds that are added to spray mixes to improve their performance and reduce the When selecting chemicals for weed control it is need for further chemical applications. Adjuvants important to consider the potential impact on the can take the form of: environment, which includes the effect on native flora and fauna and any beneficial organisms present • wetters (or surfactants) – these improve the in the vineyard. Because herbicides are being applied wetting and coverage of the chemical and are to targets on the vineyard floor they are likely to be already included in many product formulations; harmful to soil organisms and be subject to leaching from the soil profile. • stickers – these enhance the retention of the chemical on the target surface; or The toxicity of the chemical to off-target plants and organisms needs to be considered. The product label • buffers/acidifiers – these adjust the pH of should provide some information on the toxicity of chemical solutions making them more stable. the chemical. Preference should be given to “soft” chemicals and to those, which are selective rather 6.3 Herbicide Resistance than broad spectrum.

If a population of weeds is repeatedly sprayed with 6.5 Chemical application the same herbicide, individual plants which have a natural ability to resist that chemical will be more When applying the selected chemical the key points likely to survive and produce a generation of to consider are: resistant weeds. Eventually the chemical may no longer be effective on the weed population. It is • equipment; important to prevent resistance from developing as it leads to an increased need for chemical applications. • timing; and To prevent the development of resistant weeds consider: • weather conditions. • reducing the need to use herbicides by adopting cultural practices to control weeds (eg cover 6.5.1 Equipment cropping, mulching, and other prevention measures); The main types of sprayers used for weed control • using herbicides from different classes and with are: different modes of action; • hydraulic boom sprayers – these types of sprayers • reducing reliance on high-risk herbicides; give low spray efficiency and are subject to spray • ensure herbicides are applied when weeds are drift. Low spray drift nozzles can significantly most vulnerable (eg when they are young); and reduce the potential for drift;

• minimising the number of required applications • covered spinning disc sprayers (or controlled by carefully considering the timing, choice of droplet applicators (CDA’s)) – these use a chemical, and method of application. spinning disc or cage to produce a narrow range of droplet sizes. They are covered to prevent For further information about herbicide spray drift; and resistance refer to: • AVCARE herbicide resistance strategies(6).

108 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

• hand sprayers – these are useful for small areas 6.6 Timing and weather conditions and where a specific task is being carried out. The timing of herbicide applications is critical to Once the equipment type has been selected the achieving effective weed control and to minimise following points need to be considered (refer to Pest any potential environmental impacts. and Disease Chapter for further information): The following weather conditions need to be • Droplet spectrum – it is important that the considered when timing applications: equipment produces spray droplets in a size range that will minimise drift and achieve the • rainfall - can wash chemicals from the surface of desired coverage. Both the spray nozzle and weeds and/or cause the chemical to leach from pump pressure affects the droplet spectrum. the soil profile;

• Spray equipment set-up – the equipment needs to • wind speed - can cause spray drift; and be set-up correctly before applying any chemicals to ensure that the chemical is directed at the • temperature and humidity - can cause herbicides application target and that the correct amount of to evaporate quickly. Herbicides should not be o chemical reaches the target. applied when the temperature is over 30 C or when the humidity is low. • Equipment calibration – the equipment needs to be calibrated to determine the volume of liquid The timing of residual herbicide application is being applied. This includes determining the especially important. A balance needs to be found tractor speed and application rate. between the amount of water applied to the soil (so that the herbicide is incorporated sufficiently) and • Mixing of chemical – the amount of chemical to ensuring that leaching from the soil profile and add to the spray tank needs to be determined leaching into the vine roots does not occur. correctly (based on the calibration of the spray equipment). • Residual herbicides applied on rainy days or before a heavy rain may leach excessively from the soil profile. (24)

• Some residual herbicides need to be applied about 48 hours before rain or irrigation so that they are translocated into the soil.

• Some residual herbicides are susceptible to volatilisation if they are not washed far enough into the soil after application.

6.7 Chemical storage, handling and disposal

When storing, mixing, and disposing of chemicals it Covered sprayers enable herbicides to be applied precisely to is essential that environmental contamination does the vine bank and also reduce spray drift not occur. Check the Pest & Disease section in the Legal requirements chapter. The following need to be considered: • Ensure chemical storage and mixing areas are located away from water bodies (eg channels, river).

109 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

• Ensure chemical storage and mixing areas have 7.2 Cover crop selection spill containment provisions. This should include concrete flooring and bunding. When selecting the type of cover crop to use it is important to first determine what the objective for • Ensure that chemical storage and mixing areas are growing the cover crop is. Once the objective has located on a site with a low risk of leaching and been determined the following factors need to be environmental contamination. considered: • Do not allow unused chemical to drain into groundwater, storm water drains, sewers, or • rainfall; water supplies. • irrigation system/mid row irrigation; • Dispose of empty chemical containers through the drumMuster program (contact local council). • soil type and vineyard topography; For further information about chemical storage, handling, and disposal refer to Section 6.0 in the Pest • pest problems in the vineyard; and Disease Management chapter. • frost risk;

7.0 Cover crops • weed pressure; and

Cover crops are grown on the vineyard floor • vineyard resources. between the vine rows to control weeds and to improve the soil in the vineyard and can assist in reducing the need for chemicals and fertilisers. There are a number of different types of cover crops and mixtures available to suit different situations.

7.1 Advantages/disadvantages of cover crops Cover crops have a number of potential benefits; however there are also a number of potential disadvantages that must be kept in mind. The advantages/disadvantages of cover crops are detailed in Table 1. (20, 10, 12, 14, 1, 19):

Table 1 – Advantages and disadvantages of cover crops

Advantages Disadvantages

• Improve and/or preserve soil structure. • May attract and provide shelter for vineyard pests, potentially • Increase soil organic matter. increasing the pest and/or disease populations in the vineyard • Reduce soil compaction. • Can compete with vines for water and nutrients. • Enhance water penetration and retention. • Seed bed preparation may create an erosion risk. • Control erosion and water run-off. • There may be a build-up of undesirable weeds • Improve weed management. (eg. 3 cornered jack). • Provide alternative food & shelter sources for • Can cause an increased frost risk if not managed correctly. beneficial organisms in the vineyard. • Can be difficult to establish and maintain if using drip • Reduce reflected heat resulting in lower irrigation and/or in low rainfall areas. vineyard temperatures. • Contribute to nitrogen levels (legume cover crops).

110 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

Ideally a cover crop should be easy to manage with 7.3 Cover crop Management existing vineyard infrastructure and resources, and should not increase the exposure of the vineyard to potential losses through pests and diseases, frost Cover crops need to be managed properly for them damage, soil erosion, or through soil structure to be effective. This may itself involve the use of degradation. cultivation, herbicides and fertilisers. It is important that each of these operations is also managed The three main types of cover crop systems are: carefully to avoid potential environmental impacts and to ensure a strong cover crop is produced. • green manure - A green manure is an annual cover crop grown for maximum biomass The following are some key points to consider when production for soil organic matter (20). The crop is managing cover crops: sown each autumn and then desiccated or mowed and/or incorporated, usually before bud burst (22); • Prepare the seed bed properly. Aim to create a soil surface which is weed free, clear of excessive vine • annual regenerating sward - This type of cover and plant debris, flat, uniform and firm, and of a crop sets seed in spring and regenerates the tilth to optimise seed-soil contact (15). It is also following autumn; and important to keep tillage to a minimum, prevent erosion, and maintain good soil structure (15). This • perennial/permanent sward - These ground means that cover crop species must be selected covers can provide year round green growth. based on the limitations of the soil system (15). They may be perennial grasses and/or legumes (22). • Consider direct seed drilling, as this minimises Volunteer vegetation is also sometimes used as a disruption to the soil. cover crop; however carefully selected cover crops will be easier to control and can suit a specific • Use seeding rates that will ensure sufficient cover purpose. Cover crops produce more biomass than crop density (15). volunteer vegetation and, therefore, transpire more water, allow more rainfall to infiltrate into the soil, • Fertilise your cover crop if necessary to ensure and decrease runoff and potential erosion to a sufficient vigour (15). greater extent (8). • Monitor the cover crop for insect pests especially in the first few weeks (17), and control if necessary. For further information on cover crop selection refer to: • Slash cover crops close to the ground in early spring to reduce the risk of frost damage and the • Cover crops – A guide to species selection and likelihood of pest populations developing. sward management(22).

111 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

8.0 Measuring performance 8.2 Soil compaction

The environmental performance of the vineyard The level of soil compaction in the vineyard provides floor management program can be measured. These an indicator of soil health. performance measures include: To determine the degree of soil compaction (21): • Earthworm populations. • Select a range of sites throughout the vineyard • Level of compaction. (sites should be representative of the vineyard).

• Herbicide use per hectare. • When the soil is at field capacity take measurement using a penetrometer at each of the • Number of cultivations per year. sites selected. The lower the pressure reading is, the less the degree of soil compaction. 8.1 Earthworm populations • Alternatively push a 2.4mm diameter manganese brazing rod (cut to a length of 300mm with both The population of earthworms in the soil provides ends filed flat) into the soil with the palm of the an indirect indication of soil health. hand

To determine earthworm populations (5,123): - If the rod enters the soil without undue pain to the palm then penetration is less than 1 Mpa 1. Choose a number of sites throughout the vineyard and soil compaction isn’t a problem. (sites should be representative of the vineyard and include both undervine and mid row areas). - If the rod flexes and does not move into the soil then penetration is greater than 3 Mpa 2. At each site dig a hole 0.1m2 and 10cm deep. (shield the palm to prevent damage).

3. Count the number of worms in the soil at each site. 8.3 Herbicide use per hectare

4. Determine the average no. of earthworms across The amount of herbicide used per hectare provides a all the sites (eg. total number of earthworms direct indication of the effectiveness of the weed calculated divided by the number of sites tested). management strategy and how much the strategy relies on chemical use. Herbicide use per hectare can Earthworm populations are best counted in late be determined by calculating the number of litres of autumn and during winter/spring, avoid looking for herbicide (before dilution) used for the year and then earthworms when the soil is too dry. Growers should dividing this by the total vineyard area. Growers be aiming to increase the average number of should be aiming to reduce herbicide use per earthworms per site. hectare.

8.4 Number of cultivations per year

Growers should be aiming to reduce the number of cultivations per year. This can be achieved by adopting alternative floor management techniques such as cover cropping.

112 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

References

1 ADFA (1999) ‘ADFA Dried Vine Fruit Manual – A production guide for quality dried vine fruit’. (Australian Dried Fruits Association). 2 Anon (1999) Soil compaction. ADFA Dried Fruits News. December : 9. 3 Avcare (2000) ‘Herbicide resistance’. (Avcare Limited). 4 Besamusca G (2000) Vine nutrition and soil biological activity. The Australian Grape Grower and Winemaker. 442 : 38 – 41. 5 Buckerfield JC, Webster KA (1996) Earthworms, Mulching, Soil Moisture and Grape Yields. The Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Journal. 11(1): 47-53. 6 Cass A, Crockfort B, Tisdall J (1993) New approaches to vineyard and orchard soil preparation and management. In ‘Vineyard development and redevelopment’ (Ed P Hayes) pp 18 – 24. (Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology). 7 Crossen T (1997). ‘Venture into Viticulture’. (Agmedia, Victoria). 8 Dabney SM, Delgado JA, Reeves DW (2001) Using winter cover crops to improve soil and water quality. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 32 (7&8) : 1221 – 1250. 9 Jacobs A (2000) Maximising viticultural operations through accurate weed control. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 438 : 33 – 34. 10 Jettner B (2001) Cover crop range provides management solutions in vineyards across Australia. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 445 : 34 – 35. 11 Lane A (1997) ‘Best management practices - Soil management’. (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs). 12 McCarthy MG (1991) Vineyard soil management – who cares a sod? Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Journal. 6 (1) : 28 – 31. 13 McMullen B (1995) ‘Soil management for New South Wales orchards and vineyards’. (NSW Agriculture, NSW). 14 Pettigrew S (1998) Cover crops in integrated pest management. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 410 : 26 – 27. 15 Porter R (1998) Establishing vineyard cover crops. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 410 :13 – 18. 16 Powles SB, Preston C, Bryan IB, Jutsum AR (1997). Herbicide resistance: impact and management. Advances in Agronomy. 58 : 57 – 93. 17 Prideaux B (2001) Cover crops in organic viticulture systems. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 445 : 33 – 34. 18 Queensland Fruit & Vegetable Growers (1998) ‘Farm Care – Code of Practice for sustainable fruit and vegetable production in Queensland’. (Queensland Fruit and Vegetable Growers, Brisbane, Queensland). 19 Sanderson G, Fitzgerald D (1999) Cover crop nitrogen – vineyard trials with sultana vines. The Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker. 422 : 13 – 15. 20 Sanderson G, Treeby M (1999) Inter-row management options. In ‘Vitec ’99 seminar proceedings’ (Eds H Armstrong) pp 2 –4. (Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, South Australia). 21 Schache M 24-6-03. Personal Communication. 22 Seedco (1990’s)‘Covers crops – A guide to species selection and sward management’. (South Australian Seedgrowers Co-operative Ltd, South Australia).

113 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Floor Management

23 Sharp J (1992) ‘Living soil – a closer look at soils and their management’ (Department of Agriculture, Victoria). 24 Ying G, Williams B (2000) Laboratory study on leachability of five herbicides in South Australian Soils. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 35 (2) : 121 – 141.

114 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Develpoment

Vineyard Development Vineyard Development

VINEYARD DEVELOPMENT

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 116 Performance Measures 116 Potential Environmental Impacts 116 Relevant Legislation 117 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 117 Best Practice Information 118 1.0 Site investigation, analysis and selection 118 1.1 The suitability of the land 118 1.2 The water supply 118 1.3 Drainage 118 1.4 Flora and fauna 119 1.5 Surrounding land uses 119 2.0 Site planning 119 2.1 Native vegetation 119 2.2 Soils 120 2.3 Irrigation system design 120 2.4 Vineyard blocks 120 2.5 Infrastructure 120 2.6 Row length and orientation 120 2.7 Buffer zones 120 2.8 Wind direction 120 3.0 Selection of vineyard materials 121 3.1 Efficiency 121 3.2 Plant material 121 4.0 Site preparation 121 4.1 Establishing roads 121 4.2 Clearing land 121 4.3 Preventing soil erosion 121 4.4 Irrigation system 121 5.0 Management of young vines 122 6.0 Measuring performance 122 References 123

115 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To successfully establish or redevelop a • Biodiversity decline including the loss and vineyard with minimal disruption to the degradation of vegetation and wildlife habitats existing natural environment. as a result of clearing the land. • To undertake measures to protect and enhance • Soil degradation including: the surrounding environment. -soil erosion as a result of the clearing of land; and • To establish a vineyard which will require -increases in salinity through rising minimal resource inputs (eg water, nutrients, groundwater as a result of the removal fuel) while encouraging optimum vine health. of deep rooted vegetation, and the use of irrigation. Performance Measures • Atmospheric pollution as a result of greenhouse gases produced through the • Compliance with vineyard development consumption of fossil fuels. approval process. • Impacts on regional amenity from noise, changes to the local landscape, and dust.

Careful site investigation, analysis and planning is required when developing or redeveloping a vineyard

116 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Planning and Environment Act 1987 • Health Act 1958 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Water Act 1989 • Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 • Archaeological and Aboriginal Relics Preservation Act 1972 • Wildlife Regulations 2002 New South Wales • Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Soil Conservation Act 1938 • Local Government Act 1993 • Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 • Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 • National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 Commonwealth • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Actively investigate and analyse potential • Design the vineyard to prevent/reduce vineyard sites prior to selection. potential impacts on the environment and to allow for the enhancement of native flora and • Select a vineyard site so that there is no direct fauna. effect on flora and fauna, water resources, the community, and surrounding land uses. • When selecting the materials for the development of the vineyard consider the life • Before developing/redeveloping the vineyard of the material and the potential prepare a detailed site plan and contact the environmental impacts associated with the relevant authorities (eg Department of manufacture, use and disposal of the item. Primary Industries, Victoria (DPI), Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria (DSE), Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources, NSW (DIPNR), Rural water authorities, Council).

117 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

Best Practice Information 1.1 Land suitability

The development of a vineyard requires careful site • Soils – a preliminary soil survey should be analysis, investigation and planning to ensure undertaken to determine soil types, characteristics environmental attributes, values and condition are and variation, and the suitability for growing identified and understood and to ensure long-term vines. environmental and economic sustainability. The redevelopment of an existing vineyard provides an • Topography – it is important to identify and avoid opportunity to redesign the vineyard to improve the any areas of potential erosion, frost pockets and efficiency of operations and to reduce the potential flood zones. for environmental impacts. • Groundwater – need to consider the current level The key steps involved in developing a vineyard are: of the regional water table and the potential impact that irrigation activity may have on the • site investigation, analysis and selection; water table.

• site planning; • Prior land uses – need to consider what the land was previously used for and how this could • selection of vineyard materials; impact on the vineyard. Important to test for the presence of nematodes, soil borne pathogens, • site preparation; chemical residues, heavy metals, hard pans and salinity. • planting; and

• the management of young vines. 1.2 Water supply

1.0 Site Investigation, The water supply should be tested for impurities and salinity to determine how suitable it is for the Analysis and Selection irrigation of grapevines. Also need to consider the level of contaminants as this may impact on irrigation system blockages and filtration Prior to selecting a site to establish a vineyard it is requirements later. important to investigate and analyse potential sites to consider how suitable they are for growing grapes and the potential environmental impacts that could 1.3 Drainage occur from the establishment and management of the vineyard. The key points to consider are land • How well the areas would drain after irrigation suitability, water supply, drainage, flora and fauna, and rainfall events and the need for artificial and surrounding land uses (3, 4). drainage.

• The disposal options for drainage water.

• The potential environmental impacts associated with the management of drainage water.

118 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

around any native vegetation to avoid having to remove it as it may be protected by law.

• The native fauna using the land and surrounding areas and the potential impact that vineyard activity may have on this fauna. Need to be particularly aware of identifying any rare and/or threatened species.

• The potential impact the surrounding flora and fauna may have on the vineyard such as pest, disease, and bird problems. 1.5 Surrounding land uses

• The presence of residential areas, community When selecting the vineyard site it is important to minimise the recreational areas, schools, and any other public impact on native vegetation in surrounding areas areas which could be affected by vineyard activities. 1.4 Flora and fauna • Location and proximity of sites of environmental value (eg rivers, wetlands, conservation reserves Consider native flora and fauna (biodiversity) on the and parks). site and in surrounding areas. • Surrounding farming activities and how these • Native vegetation and requirements to protect activities could impact on the vineyard (eg they and manage this (refer to the Volume 2 – Legal may lead to a significant pest problem). Also how Obligations for information on requirements). new vineyard activities could impact on existing Developers need to be particularly aware of farming activities. surveying, identifying, mapping, and assessing the condition and extent of remnant vegetation. If the site investigation and analysis confirms that a Outside assistance (eg Department of Primary vineyard will not be detrimental to the environment Industries (DPI), Department of Sustainability and then the site may be considered suitable for a new Environment (DSE)) must be sought to assist with vineyard development. this. All attempts should be made to work

2.0 Site Planning 2.1 Native vegetation

Once the potential site has been determined to be When developing a new vineyard it is a requirement suitable for a vineyard it is important to then as part of the approval process (in Victoria) to develop a site plan. If redeveloping, the existing site achieve a net gain in native vegetation. This means plan should be revised. When developing a plan it is that provisions should be made to improve the important to firstly review each of the factors quality and quantity of native vegetation on the site. considered under site selection. The vineyard plan should take into consideration measures needed to protect and enhance areas of These factors will need to be considered when native vegetation. For further information refer to developing the site plan. Some other factors to the Native Vegetation chapter. incorporate into the plan are (3, 4):

119 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

2.2 Soils 2.6 Row length and orientation

It is important that a comprehensive soil survey is For efficient machinery operation, rows should be as undertaken. The results of the soil survey should be long as possible. used when making decisions about irrigation system design, drainage contingencies, and amendments Consider topography. It is important to consider the needed. need to prevent soil erosion as well as the efficiency and safety of operating machinery. 2.3 Irrigation system design 2.7 Buffer zones • To optimise water use efficiency the irrigation system design needs to match the soil Buffer zones should be used to protect sensitive characteristics and variation, and should meet set areas (eg areas of native vegetation, residential areas) specifications. and populations (eg people, wildlife) from degradation, noise, spray drift and other • Drainage water disposal should be planned for contaminants. and designed at this stage if required. Buffer zones can take the form of vegetative barriers • The irrigation system must be designed by a which can capture and/or filter drifting spray qualified Irrigation Association of Australia (IAA) droplets thereby protecting the sensitive area. A designer. buffer zone can also be an area of low value land between the vineyard and any sensitive area. 2.4 Vineyard patches 2.8 Wind direction • Vineyard patches need to be determined based on the soil survey and take into account the matching It is important to consider the direction/s of of irrigation shifts to soil types and rootstocks to prevailing winds when planning a vineyard. These optimise water use efficiency. winds will determine the extent of buffer zones for the development. • It is important to design the location of vineyard patches around areas of native vegetation. As many components as possible should be detailed on a site plan/map. This will enable any potential 2.5 Infrastructure issues to be identified. The site plan should be modified as necessary to ensure the best situation for growing grapes, and the greatest efficiency of • Sheds are best located in a central position and on vineyard activities is achieved, and at the same time soils which have low value (eg poor structure, ensuring that the potential for environmental low fertility, prone to frost). impacts is minimised, and that suitable physical • Wash down areas – when selecting the location of controls are in place to control potential impacts. wash down areas consider the location of water supplies, the presence of native vegetation, the potential exposure of wildlife, people and water supplies to contaminants. Pump sheds – these should be located so as to maximise pumping efficiency. Visual amenity is also important and efforts should be made to ensure any infrastructure blends in with the environment, this is especially important if siting infrastructure on the river front.

120 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

3.0 Selection of Vineyard 4.0 Site Preparation Materials Prior to planting it is important to prepare the site When selecting the materials to be used for the new well. This involves establishing roads, clearing land, vineyard it is important to consider: preventing soil erosion and updating or installing the irrigation system (2). • the potential/expected life of the material. Material with a longer life is better as it will result 4.1 Establishing roads in less generation of waste; • the environmental impacts associated with the It is important to determine and establish all-weather manufacturing of the material; stabilised roads early so as to avoid damage to soil structure. Such damage could result in the need for • the potential environmental impacts associated deep ripping at a later stage. with the use of the material; and • the potential environmental impacts associated 4.2 Clearing land with the disposal of the material when it reaches the end of its life. • The clearing of native vegetation is illegal without authorisation. The vineyard should be designed 3.1 Efficiency around any existing native vegetation and site investigation, analysis and planning needs to support the protection, enhancement and Efficiency is also another important consideration: restoration of native flora and fauna. • The trellis system should be designed for • If it is proposed to clear vegetation make sure the maximum efficiency of vineyard operations, this necessary approvals are first obtained and avoid is particularly important for the efficiency of any disturbance to known wildlife habitats and mechanical operations. corridors. Refer to the Vineyard Development • The irrigation system components should be section in the Volume 2 - Legal Obligations for selected to give maximum pumping efficiency, to information on the approvals required. reduce the potential for system blockages and to accurately apply water to the vines. 4.3 Preventing soil erosion

3.2 Plant material • It is important to take measures to prevent soil erosion prior to planting. This is especially The plant material should be carefully selected and important if the site contains steep slopes and if to achieve the best success rate it is important to: soils are sandy. • source plant material from an accredited supplier • It is desirable to establish some sort of vegetative such as a vine improvement association or an cover to protect the soil and the young vines. accredited vine nursery; 4.4 Irrigation system • match varieties and rootstocks to the conditions of the site (eg soil type/characteristics, likelihood of If redeveloping consider whether the irrigation and frost, sun exposure); and drainage system design should be upgraded to • select varieties and rootstocks which are resistant enable greater efficiencies to be achieved. It is easier to current and potential pest and disease to update irrigation and drainage systems prior to problems in the area. planting.

121 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

5.0 Management of young 6.0 Measuring performance vines In both Victoria and New South Wales there are approval processes in place for the development of Young vines are sensitive and have smaller new vineyards. These processes must be complied rootzones than mature vines. As a result irrigation with and they ensure that environmental factors are and fertiliser applications need to be more precise considered. For further information refer to the (1,2) . Young vines require smaller amounts of water Volume 2 – Legal Obligations. but more frequent irrigation applications than mature vines. Fertiliser applications need to be more precise due to the small root-zone to avoid any wastage.

122 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

References

1 Hayes R (1995) Planting and management of young vines. In ‘Optimising vineyard establishment – development practices’ (Ed R Hamilton) pp 11 – 12. (Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, Adelaide, South Australia). 2 Panagiotopoulos B, West SJ (Eds) (1993). ‘Vineyard Development – a guide to development and redevelopment of vineyards in warm irrigated areas’. (Primary Industries South Australia). 3 Sainty B (1995) Avoiding establishment problems. In ‘Optimising vineyard establishment – development practices’ (Ed R Hamiliton) pp 30 – 31. (Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, Adelaide, South Australia). 4 Shire of Yarra Ranges (1999) ‘Planning a vineyard – a guide to selecting and planning a vineyard in the Shire of Yarra Ranges’. (Shire of Yarra Ranges, Victoria).

123 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Vineyard Development

page 124 is a blank back up

124 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Native Vegetation Management Native Vegetation Management

NATIVE VEGETATION MANAGEMENT

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 126 Performance Measures 126 Potential Environmental Impacts 126 Relevant Legislation 126 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 127 Best Practice Information 128 1.0 Benefits and role of native vegetation 128 2.0 Protection 128 3.0 Enhancement and restoration 131 3.1 Natural regeneration 131 3.2 Revegetation 133 3.3 Disturbance 133 4.0 Measuring performance 133 References 134

125 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To retain areas of native vegetation. • The failure to protect areas of native vegetation from threatening processes can • To protect areas of native vegetation from cause biodiversity decline including: threatening processes. - the loss of and harm to vegetation; • To enhance and restore the quality, quantity and value of areas of native vegetation. - a decline in the quality and quantity of vegetation as a result of the fragmentation of areas of vegetation; Performance Measures - reduced regeneration of native vegetation which affects the long-term sustainability • Quality and quantity of vegetation. of the area; - reduced species diversity and composition; and - harm or destruction to wildlife habitats and wildlife populations

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Planning and Environment Act 1987 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Wildlife Regulations 2002 • Environment Protection Act 1970

New South Wales • Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 • Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 • National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 • Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 • Noxious Weeds Act 1993 • Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 • Rural Lands Protection Act 1998

Commonwealth • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • National Environment Protection Council Act 1994

126 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Areas of native vegetation on the property • Measures taken to enhance and restore areas protected by: of native vegetation on the property. - a fence; - having a developed pest animal and weed control program; - excluding vehicle traffic from the areas of native vegetation; and - ensuring buffer zones are in place to protect from spray drift.

Fencing is one effective method for protecting areas of native vegetation from threats

127 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Best practice information • enhancing the aesthetic appeal of the region by: - maintaining the natural regional landscape; Native vegetation plays a key role in the and environment and in natural ecosystems. It is therefore important to protect the quantity and - assisting to maintain populations of native quality of areas of native vegetation both on- farm fauna. and off-farm. It is as equally important to enhance and increase areas of native vegetation. This section To achieve the benefits mentioned above the provides information relating specifically to the structure of the vegetation is also important. An area management of areas of native vegetation and of vegetation with multiple layers of vegetation (eg wildlife habitats on the same site as and adjacent to trees, shrubs, and grasses) will provide many more the vineyard. However the protection of native flora benefits than an area with a single layer of and fauna is also an important consideration when vegetation (eg trees only). conducting other vineyard practices. Native vegetation in areas on and surrounding the vineyard property need to be given specific 1.0 Benefits and role of management consideration to ensure adequate native vegetation protection, enhancement and restoration.

Native vegetation can take the form of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and ground covers. Native vegetation 2.0 Protection plays an important role in (1,26,4): Areas of native vegetation need to be protected from • the protection and enhancement of significant vineyard developments and threatening processes regional flora and fauna species and communities which can cause disturbance, destruction or by providing: pollution. Threatening processes can impact directly on the quality of the area of native vegetation, which - habitats for flora and fauna species, including can then have a secondary effect on wildlife habitats threatened species; and and species diversity.

- corridors for native fauna to move through, Table 1 details the (6): often linking feeding areas to breeding sites.; • threats to native vegetation on or surrounding • reducing the degradation of land and water vineyard properties; resources by: • impacts of these threats; and - reducing wind and water erosion; • management practices that should be adopted to - maintaining and improving soil structure; protect the native vegetation against the threats.

- reducing rises in the regional water table therefore reducing the effects of salinity; and

- filtering nutrients before they enter waterways.;

• minimising the impacts of the greenhouse effect by absorbing and locking up carbon dioxide; and

128 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Table 1 – Threats and potential impacts to native vegetation and management practices to protect native vegetation from threats

Threat Potential impacts Management practices to protect native vegetation

Animal grazing (eg rabbits, • Damage to vegetation (defoliation, trampling). • Fence off the area of goats, other stock) • Soil compaction and erosion. native vegetation. • Introduced weed species. • Develop and implement • Reduced regeneration. control programs for pest • Increased levels of nutrients. animals. • Change in diversity and composition of native fauna species.

Introduction of weeds • Suppression of native species. • Prevent movement of (including agricultural • Reduced regeneration. pest animals into the area and environmental weeds) • Competition with native species for resources by fencing. (water, light, nutrients). • Avoid the use of • Change in diversity and composition of native machinery in the area. flora and fauna species. • Clean vehicles to remove soil and weed seed prior to moving into area. • Develop and implement a plan to control weeds.

Changed nutrient • Negatively impacts on the growth of native • Ensure drainage water or composition of water source vegetation. run-off does not flow into • Encourages weed growth. the area.

Dumping of rubbish/ • Damage and destruction to vegetation. • Fence the area to ensure storage of waste • Spread of weeds. that rubbish and waste is • Encourages pest animals. not dumped or stored • Harm to native fauna. there.

Siltation and deposition • Effects growth of vegetation. • Avoid cultivating soil near (as a result of soil erision) • Effects regeneration. native vegetation.

Land clearing • Loss of species. • Obtain the relevant • Fragmentation of remnant vegetation. permits and approvals • Reduced habitat values. from local government before clearing any land of vegetation. • Limit disruption to habitats and wildlife corridors.

Chemicals (as a result of • Harm/death of sensitive native flora and • Ensure there are sufficient spraying) fauna species. buffers between the vineyard and the native vegetation. • Take measures to reduce spray drift. • Avoid spraying in weather conditions that are likely to cause spray drift.

129 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Threat Potential impacts Management practices to protect native vegetation

Increases in salinity (as a • Death of species. • Adopt best practice result of inappropriate • Changes in vegetation composition and type. irrigation management. irrigation practices) • Change in diversity and composition of native flora and fauna species.

Vehicle traffic • Damage to vegetation and wildlife habitats. • Fence the area to ensure it • Soil compaction. is not used by vehicles. • Spread of weeds. • Limit vehicle traffic. • Fragmentation of remnant vegetation. • Clean vehicles prior to moving into area.

Limb damage • Harm to trees. • Obtain a permit before pruning/lopping trees. • If pruning is undertaken ensure a clean cut is made (be careful not to tear). • Avoid the use of vehicles in the area.

130 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

3.0 Enhancement and 3.1 Natural regeneration restoration Natural regeneration is the process in which plants It is important to protect and retain native vegetation naturally re-establish themselves. The regeneration however; it is equally as important to enhance areas of an area can be encouraged and can be an of native vegetation. inexpensive way of adding value to existing areas of vegetation. The factors that influence natural (5,7) The enhancement of native vegetation can lead to regeneration include : increased (5,6): • seed supply and viability; • species diversity; • soil condition; • wildlife habitats; • competition; • wildlife corridors; and • predation of young plants; and • populations of native fauna and flora. • natural hazards and controls. The quality and value of areas of native vegetation can be enhanced: Table 2 details the factors/problems, which can affect regeneration and the management options to (7) • by encouraging natural regeneration; overcome these factors .

• through revegetation; and

• by undertaking controlled disturbance activities.

131 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

Table 2 – The factors/problems which can affect regeneration

Factor Problem Management options

Seed Supply Absence of fertile plants with • Wait for seed to be carried into the area by water, viable seed. wind, or wildlife. • Consider direct seeding or planting.

Seed harvested by ants and • Lightly rake the soil during seed fall to hide seeds. predation by other insects, birds, and animals.

Lack of fire. • A very well controlled fire can be used to release seed and to encourage seed germination. • It is crucial to obtain advice from the Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) before using fire as it can cause more harm than good if not properly controlled.

Lack of pollinators. • Supplementary planting of natives. • Connect remnants to encourage pollinators.

Soil condition Soil structure. • Exclude larger animals by erecting a fence. • Consider mulching

Soil chemistry. • Do not apply fertiliser. • Use chemicals with care and in minimal quantities.

Competition Competition from weeds. • Hand weeding. • Mulching (not too heavy). • Use of chemicals.

Naturally produced chemical • Restrict area for regeneration to the base of the parent inhibitors. plant.

Fungal attack. • Avoid regenerating in soil contaminated with pathogens. Predation of • Erect fencing to exclude larger grazers. young plants • Control rabbits. • Encourage natural predators to control invertebrates attacking the young plants.

Natural hazards • Maintain regeneration efforts over several years. and controls

132 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

3.2 Revegetation 3.3 Disturbance

The quality and value of areas of native vegetation In natural ecosystems the disturbance of vegetation can be improved through revegetation. Many areas occurs naturally on a regular basis and generally of remnant vegetation have been neglected or altered results in the increased quality of the area of over time affecting species diversity and vegetation. The quality of areas of vegetation can be composition. Often the important understorey improved by undertaking controlled grazing or components of an area become degraded. controlled burning (5). Revegetation can be undertaken to assist with the restoration of this. Revegetation may be required if Any form of controlled disturbance needs to be very problems with regeneration are present (5). site specific and very precise as it can have many negative effects if not undertaken correctly. Revegetation can also be undertaken to link areas of Controlled disturbance must only be undertaken vegetation. This is important for increasing the size after obtaining advice from the Department of of wildlife corridors and for increasing the collective Sustainability and Environment (DSE). value of the area of vegetation.

The key points to consider with revegetation are (5,8):

• Select a variety of species and forms (eg trees, shrubs, ground layer).

• Select species which are indigenous to the region.

• Where possible link areas of existing vegetation to create wildlife corridors.

• Take measures to protect revegetation areas from threatening processes.

For further information about the management of native vegetation and flora and fauna refer to:

• Landcare Notes – Managing remnant vegetation(5). • Land for Wildlife Notes - Natural regeneration : principles and practice(4). Areas of vegetation can be enhanced through revegetation • Landcare Notes – Using indigenous plants(8). • Victoria’s biodiversity – our living wealth(1). • Victoria’s biodiversity – sustaining our living wealth(2). 4.0 Measuring performance • Victoria’s biodiversity – directions in management(3). It is possible to determine and measure how well • Contact the following: areas of native vegetation on the property are being - Department of Primary Industries (DPI). managed by taking some assessments of vegetation - Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE). quality and quantity. - Mallee Catchment Management Authority. - Greening Australia. Advice should be obtained from the Department of - Trust for Nature. Sustainability and Environment (DSE) to assist with - Landcare groups the measurement and benchmarking of vegetation - Field naturalists quality and quantity.

133 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Native Vegetation Management

References

1 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1997) ‘Victoria’s biodiversity – our living wealth’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Victoria). 2 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1997) ‘Victoria’s biodiversity – sustaining our living wealth’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Victoria). 3 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1997) ‘Victoria’s biodiversity – directions in management’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Victoria). 4 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (2002) ‘Victoria’s native vegetation management – A framework for action’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Vic). 5 Hajek C, Johnson H (2002) ‘Landcare Notes - Managing remnant vegetation’. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Vic. 6 Mallee Catchment Management Authority (2000) ‘Draft Mallee Native Vegetation Plan’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Vic). 7 Platt S (1992) ‘Land for Wildlife Notes - Natural Regeneration: principles and practice’. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Vic. 8 Purnell K (2001) ‘Landcare Notes - Using indigenous plants’. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Vic.

134 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

Waste Management Waste Management

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 136 Performance Measures 136 Potential Environmental Impacts 136 Relevant Legislation 137 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 137 Best Practice Information 138 1.0 Purchasing 139 2.0 Management of waste types 140 2.1 Consumables 140 2.2 Capital 146 3.0 Measuring performance 148 3.1 Total waste generated 148 3.2 Percentage of waste produced that is re-used/recycled 149 3.3 Amount of waste stockpiled 149 References 150

135 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To avoid/minimise the generation of waste. • The burning of treated timber posts, used tyres, vine covers, styrene fruit boxes, To re-use and recycle waste where possible. • vegetative and other waste releasing smoke, • To prevent/reduce impacts on the toxic fumes, and greenhouse gases causing environment associated with waste disposal atmospheric pollution (note: the burning of and storage. waste can be illegal). • Soil contamination as a result of: - the poor storage of waste sump oil ; Performance Measures - the use of sump oil as a dust suppressant (note: this is an illegal practice); • Total waste generated. - the poor storage and disposal of waste chemicals and containers; and • Percentage of waste produced that is re-used/recycled. - the leaching of heavy metals from treated timber posts. • Amount of waste stockpiled. • Increases in regional salinity and water contamination as a result of the poor management of drainage water. • Effects on regional amenity as a result of the storage of waste on site and the generation of odours. • The use of a natural land resource associated with the disposal of solid wastes to landfill.

Empty chemical containers can be returned for re-use through the drumMUSTER program

136 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Health Act 1958 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Water Act 1989 • Land Act 1958

New South Wales • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Protection of the Environment Operations (Control of Burning) Regulation 2000 • Ozone Protection Act 1989 • Ozone Protection Regulation 1997 • Local Government Act 1993 • Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 • Water Management Act 2000

Commonwealth • National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999 • National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure 1998

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Materials/items purchased on the basis of: • A waste management plan has been - the potential for re-use / recycling; developed and includes: - how waste will be managed and disposed - waste types and quantities identified; of; - waste issues prioritised; and - if a recycled product can be used; and - waste management solutions developed - ways in which the amounts of packaging based on the cleaner production hierarchy can be reduced. (avoid, reduce, re-use, recycle, treat, dispose).

137 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

Best Practice Information 2. Capital – items that last several seasons or even decades (eg trellis posts, machinery). These items The generation, storage, and disposal of waste will present waste management issues in the products can all lead to adverse environmental long-term. impacts. It is important to firstly minimise the amount of waste produced, and then minimise the The management of waste needs to take into account impacts associated with the disposal of that waste. both short-term and long-term issues and should follow the cleaner production hierarchy, listed below The waste produced from vineyards can be split into two general categories:

1. Consumables – items generally used or waste produced within a season (eg chemical containers, prunings). These will present waste issues that need to be dealt with in the short term.

Cleaner production hierarchy (2, 4)

Most preferred Avoid – take measures to avoid the waste option problem.

Reduce – try to reduce the amount of waste produced.

Re-use – try to re-use the waste for the same or a different purpose.

Recycle or reclaim – reprocessing the waste into a new product.

Least preferred Treat – treat the waste to reduce environmental option impact.

Dispose – use only as a last option.

138 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

A waste management plan should be developed to 1.0 Purchasing assist with identifying and dealing with waste issues. The key steps in the development of a waste Careful consideration when purchasing materials can management plan are to (2): greatly assist with waste minimisation and in some cases waste management problems can be avoided. • identify the types of waste produced and quantify the amounts of each type of waste produced; Before purchasing any materials/items consider the following: • identify all the costs associated with waste management including disposal, labour, • The resources used in the manufacturing of the machinery and the value of the materials in the material/item. waste; • The waste generated in the manufacturing of the • estimate the life of specific capital items and material/item. determine what waste issues may arise when they reach the end of their life; • The potential for the material/item to be re-used/recycled. • determine which wastes identified require special handling or have special requirements for • How the product will be managed when it disposal; reaches the end of its useful life and becomes a waste. • develop a priority list based on the waste types identified by considering the: • The packaging that the material/item comes in and how easily it can be managed. - potential environmental impact of the waste (disposal and storage); • If a recycled and/or re-used product can be used. - cost to purchase and dispose of the item; • The expected life span for the material/item. - amount produced; • The potential for the product to cause pollution at any stage. - hazardous nature of the waste;

- ease of diversion from landfill; and

- local environmental and community issues.; and

• determine waste solutions for each issue based on the cleaner production hierarchy of waste management (avoid, reduce, re-use, recycle, treat, dispose).

For further information about waste management plans and the cleaner production hierarchy refer to:

• Winery wastewater handbook(2). • EPA Information Bulletin – What solid wastes can I dispose of on my farm?(4).

139 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.0 Management of waste Avoid/Reduce types • Cardboard vine guards are the preferred option as they decompose reducing disposal problems. The different types of waste produced from the • If using plastic vine guards try to use types made operation of a vineyard need to be managed. from heavy plastic (eg polypropylene) as these will last longer and can be re-used several times. 2.1 Consumables Re-use/Recycle 2.1.1 Vine guards • If using cardboard vine guards, milk cartons are the preferred option as it provides for the re-use There are many different types of vine guards of a packaging company waste product. available which are made from the following materials: • If using plastic vine guards firstly attempt to source suitable second hand guards previously • Plastic used on the vineyard or from other growers.

- UV stabilised polyethylene – these are not re- • When plastic guards are no longer needed save useable and generally only last 1- 2 years; and them for future re-use on the vineyard or sell them to other growers. - UV stabilised polypropylene – these can be re- used and can last up to seven years if handled carefully. Treat/Dispose

• Cardboard • Plastic vine guards must not be burnt or buried on farm and if they are not re-used should be - foil coated cardboard – these have a 1-2 year disposed of at the landfill. life span, are not re-useable however they will decompose reasonably well; and • Plastic vine guards which are to be re-used should be stored carefully to prevent damage and - milk cartons – these can be obtained from contamination. packaging companies where they are a waste product due to discontinued lines or promotions. They last 1 –2 years, are not re-useable and will decompose reasonably well.

140 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.1.2 Chemical containers • Only containers with the drumMUSTER sticker can be returned through the drumMUSTER Agricultural chemicals can be purchased in the program. following types of containers: • Non drumMUSTER containers may be able to be • plastic drums – these are the most common; recycled, check with local council.

• steel drums; Treat/Dispose • paper and plastic bags; and • drumMUSTER containers can be taken to the • composite bags (combination of paper and nearest collection centre (contact local council). plastic). • Before containers can be returned for re-use through drumMUSTER they must be rinsed Avoid/Reduce properly into a spray tank to remove any residual chemical. Refer to the Agsafe standard for • When purchasing chemicals consider buying effective rinsing of farm chemical containers for them in bulk containers (eg instead of buying five information on how to rinse containers (1). 10L containers, buy one 50L container) this will reduce the number of empty chemical containers • Containers should be stored in a suitable location that need to be dealt with. prior to disposal. Particular care needs to be taken to ensure that residual chemical does not • Chemicals should be purchased in plastic contaminate the environment surrounding the containers where possible, as these are the easiest storage area. to manage with respect to waste. • Contact local council for disposal options for • When purchasing chemicals look for the Non-drumMuster containers. drumMUSTER logo. • Chemical containers must not be burnt or buried.

• Currently disposal to landfill is the only acceptable option for the disposal of chemical bags. • The adoption of integrated pest management practices can reduce the amount of chemicals For further information about the rinsing of required to control pests and disease, therefore chemical containers refer to: reducing the number of chemical containers that need to be dealt with. (Refer to Pest and Disease • The Agsafe standard for effective rinsing of section for further information on integrated pest farm chemical containers(1). management).

Re-use/Recycle

• Empty chemical containers can be re-used by returning them through the drumMUSTER program.

• drumMUSTER is a national program for collecting and re-using empty farm chemical containers.

141 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.1.3 Unwanted chemicals Left over chemical in spray tank

There are two types of unwanted chemicals to When spraying agricultural chemicals in the manage: vineyard there are often amounts of mixed chemical remaining in the spray tank after the application has • unwanted chemicals still in containers; and been completed.

• left over chemicals in the spray tank. Avoid/Reduce

Chemicals in container • Take care to only mix the amount of chemical required for the application. Agricultural chemicals that become unregistered or are no longer included in the spray program for the Re-use/Recycle vineyard can pose a waste management problem due to their toxic nature. • Small quantities of unwanted chemical can be diluted further (at least 10-fold) and can then be Avoid/Reduce applied to the vines. It is important however to make sure chemical already applied does not get • Where possible when purchasing agricultural washed off (3). chemicals buy amounts that will be used up within one year as this will reduce the potential Treat/Dispose need to dispose of unwanted chemicals. This needs to be balanced with chemical container • Do not allow unused chemical to drain into sizes (eg the number of containers that need to be ground water, storm water drains, sewers, or dealt with) and the cost of purchasing the water supplies. chemical. • Never dispose of concentrated chemical on farm. Re-use/Recycle • Concentrated chemical should be disposed of by a • Unregistered chemicals can not be used. registered chemical waste disposal company (3).

• For registered chemicals that are no longer being For further information about the disposal of used in the spray program for the vineyard, chemicals refer to: consider whether other growers can use them. • Code of Practice for Farm Chemical Spray Application(3). Treat/Dispose

• As with all chemicals ensure that containers are kept in a suitable storage area so as to avoid contamination of the surrounding environment.

• Do not empty unwanted chemicals onto the ground as this will cause environmental contamination.

• Unwanted agricultural chemicals can be disposed of through the ChemClear program (contact local council).

142 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.1.4 Fertiliser packaging 2.1.5 Sump oil

Fertiliser is commonly purchased in paper bags with The maintenance of tractors and vehicles results in a bonded plastic lining. It is difficult to separate the the production of waste sump oil. Due to the paper and the plastic components, so fertiliser bags hazardous nature of the oil it needs to be managed present a significant waste problem. carefully.

Avoid/Reduce Avoid/Reduce

• Consider purchasing fertiliser in bulk metal • Change oil according to the manufacturers containers. These can be delivered and then taken specifications/recommendations. back by the supplier for re-use when empty. Re-use/recycle • If purchasing fertiliser in packages buy large packages rather than smaller packages. This will reduce the amount of waste for disposal. • Waste oil must not be used as a dust suppressant as it can result in environmental contamination. (Note: this is an illegal practice). Re-use/Recycle • Waste oil can be reprocessed for use as low-grade • Bulk metal containers can be re-used. oil.

Treat/Dispose Treat/Dispose

• Currently disposal to landfill is the only • Waste oil collection contractors can collect waste acceptable option for the disposal of fertiliser oil for re-processing. Oil is collected in bulk bags. amounts, so if possible work with neighbours to collect waste oil. • Do not burn or bury fertiliser bags. • Waste oil can also be dropped off at the local council landfill.

• Waste oil should be stored carefully to ensure that the surrounding environment does not become contaminated. Waste oil drums should be stored in a manner that does not allow rainfall to enter the drum and cause oil to overflow, this should be undercover preferably. Also ensure that measures are in place to prevent and contain spills.

143 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.1.6 Waste water 2.1.7 Vegetative waste

The use of water for irrigation leads to the There are two types of vegetative wastes that can generation of drainage water. In some irrigation cause a management problem: districts there are community drainage schemes operated by water authorities who are responsible • prunings; and for drainage water disposal and management. • unwanted grapes. Irrigators in areas where there is no community drainage scheme are responsible for managing any Prunings drainage water they produce.

Avoid/reduce Avoid/Reduce

• Adopting best irrigation practices can reduce the • Prune vines to match the crop specifications (yield amount of drainage water produced. and quality) being aimed for.

Re-use/recycle Re-use/recycle

• Drainage water can be used to irrigate a woodlot • Prunings can be re-used by mulching them which or more salt tolerant crops. It may be able to be also provides benefits for soil health. re-used on grapevines depending on the salinity of the water. Treat/Dispose

Treat/Dispose • Mulching is the preferred method for dealing with prunings. • The options available for disposing of drainage • Burning should be avoided if possible. However, water are: if burning is undertaken (4): - in an evaporation basin; - only burn dry vegetative waste; - by irrigating a woodlot; and - check fire restrictions; - by irrigating salt tolerant crops. - consider the wind direction to ensure • Drainage water typically contains high nutrient neighbours are not affected; and salt levels so care needs to be taken to ensure - light the fire around midday or early that the drainage water does not contaminate afternoon; and sensitive areas such as natural water resources and areas of native vegetation. - do not burn any other wastes (eg tyres, trellis posts, plastic).

144 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

Unwanted grapes 2.1.8 Table grape boxes (packaging)

The trimming of table grapes can create a waste The boxes used for packing table grapes can present management problem particularly if trimming is a waste problem. There are two main types of boxes undertaken in the packing shed. A waste used: corrugated fibreboard (cardboard) and management problem can also be created if the fruit expanded polystyrene. Polystyrene boxes present is not sold, does not mature, or does not meet market the greatest waste problem as they have a high specifications. volume to weight ratio. Waste table grape boxes present a waste management problem for retailers. Avoid/Reduce Avoid/reduce • Table grapes should be trimmed as much as possible in the vineyard as this makes • If grapes are only going to be stored for a short management of the waste much easier. period consider whether cardboard boxes will be • It is important to make sure a market is always suitable. available for the grapes. This is particularly important if developing a new vineyard or Re-use/Recycle redeveloping an existing vineyard. • Take care when managing the vineyard to ensure • Cardboard boxes can be recycled. that the crop will meet customer specifications. • Polystyrene boxes can be deposited at expanded Re-use/Recycle polystyrene (EPS) recycle collection points located at Footscray, the Melbourne market, and in other • If possible send table grape bunch trimmings to a capital cities for re-use/recycling. winery for processing. Treat/Dispose Treat/Dispose • Do not burn or bury boxes. • Trim table grape bunches in the vineyard where • Store polystyrene boxes carefully prior to possible as the waste can be dropped directly onto depositing at a recycle collection point to prevent the vineyard floor. This can provide benefits to contamination and damage. the soil by adding organic matter. • Any unwanted fruit still on the vines should also be harvested onto the vineyard floor. • If table grape bunch trimming is undertaken in the packing shed then the trimmings could be collected and then distributed onto the vineyard floor later or spread out in another part of the block. • Large amounts of waste grapes can create strong odours and attract insects. If disposing of waste in the vineyard or anywhere else on the block, care should be taken to prevent odours or insects from causing a disturbance to the community. Before disposing of waste consider the proximity of the disposal site to residential areas, schools, recreational areas and any other public places.

145 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2 2.1.9 Sulphur dioxide (SO ) pads Avoid/Reduce

Sulphur dioxide pads used to preserve table grapes • There are two main alternatives to treated timber in storage, present a waste problem as they cannot posts being: be re-used or recycled. - steel posts – these generally do not hold weight Avoid/Reduce as well as timber posts. Where trellis strength is a concern it may be possible to use steel

• Purchase SO2 pads as required to avoid having a posts in conjunction with timber posts; and supply left over for the following season (as they are only effective when fresh) - plastic posts – these are made from recycled plastic and do not need to be treated. • Only use SO pads if they are required (if storing 2 Installation of these posts is more difficult. fruit for short periods they may not be required). • Take care in selecting the type of posts to use. It is Re-use/Recycle important to consider how long the posts will last and the ease of managing the waste when the • There are currently no options available. posts reach the end of their life. Treat/Dispose Re-use/recycle

• Do not burn or bury waste SO2 pads. • Can be re-used for vineyard trellising and garden • Disposal to landfill is currently the only edging. acceptable method. • Broken posts can be sold to home gardeners or 2.2 Capital gardening/landscaping businesses.

2.2.1 Treated timber posts Treat/dispose

Treated timber posts present one of the greatest long- • Currently disposal to a licensed landfill is the only term waste management problems due to the option available for the disposal of treated timber hazardous nature of the material and the volumes of posts (5). waste that could potentially be produced. Timber trellis posts are expected to last 30 years in • Treated posts must not be buried on farm due to the soil and are treated with either (5): the potential for contaminants to leach into the environment. • CCA (Copper Chromium Arsenate) – this is the most common. CCA is a waterborne preservative, • Treated posts must not be burnt as this releases is relatively resistant to leaching and its toxic fumes to the atmosphere. constituents are known to be toxic to humans, aquatic life and plants; or Treated posts should be stored carefully on site to reduce the fire risk and to reduce the potential for • creosote – posts treated with creosote last longer contaminants to cause environmental damage if than CCA posts. Creosote is oil based. The leached from the posts. leaching of mobile fractions of creosote from preserved timber is minimal and unlikely to produce significant environmental contamination. Contaminants from treated timber posts can also leach into the soil.

146 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.2.2 Plastic vine covers 2.2.3 Tyres

Plastic vine covers are used to protect table grape The tyres used on tractors and other vehicles can crops and are available in three types: present a waste management problem when they reach the end of their life. • polyethylene; • woven polyethylene; and Avoid/Reduce • woven polypropylene. To reduce the wear on tyres: Avoid/Reduce • make sure tyres are at the correct pressure to suit Handle and store the vine covers carefully to prevent the load and weight of the vehicle; and holes and tears; this will increase the life of the covers and reduce the generation of waste. • make sure tractor tyres have the correct ballast.

Re-use/Recycle Re-use/Recycle

Plastic vine covers can potentially be recycled; • Used tyres should not be used for erosion control contact the local regional waste management group or as tree guards. for information. • Used tyres can be recycled: Treat/dispose - by retreading; and • When removing vine covers shake them to remove any contaminants such as soil, plant - by producing rubber crumb which can then be material, and wire. Contaminated vine covers are used for a number of different purposes such difficult to recycle. as new tyres, athletic field surfaces, and rubber • Roll the vine covers up into tight balls and store products. in a clean, dry site prior to transport off-farm. • Plastic vine covers must not be burnt or buried on Treat/dispose farm. • Used tyres should be delivered to a location • Contact local council for information on the nominated by local council for disposal (4). disposal options for vine covers. • Tyres should be stored on a level site away from watercourses, flood zones and groundwater recharge points.

• Tyres must not be burnt or buried.

For further information on the disposal of tyres refer to:

• EPA Information Bulletin – What solid wastes can I dispose of on my farm?(4).

147 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

2.2.4 Superseded vehicles and 2.2.6 Irrigation pipe (polypipe) equipment Plastic polypipe is used in irrigation systems and can The various tractors, vehicles, implements and be subjected to wear and damage. pumps used for the management of the vineyard will eventually reach the end of their life. The Avoid/Reduce disposal of these items can present a problem. • Take measures to prevent damage to irrigation Avoid/reduce pipes.

The life of vehicles, implements, pumps and other Re-use/Recycle equipment can be maximised by ensuring they are maintained and serviced well throughout their life. • Plastic polypipe can be recycled.

Re-use/Recycle Treat/dispose

• Parts from superseded vehicles and equipment • Contact local council for disposal/recycling can be re-used for various purposes. options. • Some metal from superseded vehicles and equipment can be recycled. 3.0 Measuring performance

Treat/dispose The environmental performance of the waste management system and strategy can be measured. Superseded vehicles and equipment can be taken to The performance measures include: the re-use facility at the local landfill. Contact local council for further information. • Total waste generated.

2.2.5 Wire • Percentage of waste produced that is re- used/recycled. Wire is used for trellising and for drying racks and can become a waste product if damaged or if • Amount of waste stockpiled. trellising and drying racks are removed.

Avoid/Reduce 3.1 Total waste generated

• Take measures to prevent damage to wire. The total waste generated can be determined by estimating the total volume of all waste products Re-use/Recycle produced in a year. Waste products that are re-used or recycled should still be included in the total waste • Wire can be recycled through scrap metal figure. Growers should be aiming to reduce the total recyclers. waste generated. Treat/Dispose

• Contact local council for disposal options for wire. • If possible dispose of wire through a scrap metal recycling facility.

148 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

3.2 Percentage of waste produced 3.3 Amount of waste stockpiled that is reused/recycle This can be determined by considering how much of This can be determined by estimating how much of the total waste generated in a year is stockpiled on the total waste generated in a year was then either the property. Waste that is re-used/recycled as well re-used for another purpose or recycled into a new as waste sent to landfill within a year should not be product. Growers should be aiming to increase the included in the amount of waste stockpiled. Growers percentage of waste that is re-used/recycled. should be aiming to reduce the amount of waste stockpiled.

149 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Waste Management

References

1 Agsafe (2000) ‘The Agsafe standard for effective rinsing of farm chemical containers’. (Agsafe, Canberra, ACT). 2 Chapman J, Baker P, Wills S (2001) ‘Winery wastewater handbook’. (Winetitles, South Australia). 3 Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Chemical Standards Branch (1998) ‘Code of practice for farm chemical spray application’. (2nd edn). (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Vic). 4 EPA (1999) ‘EPA Information bulletin – What solid wastes can I dispose of on my farm?’ (EPA, Victoria). 5 Sinclair Knight Merz (1999) ‘Review of the landfill disposal risks and the potential for recovery and recycling of preservative treated timber’. (Environment Protection Agency, South Australia).

150 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Biosecurity Biosecurity

BIOSECURITY

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 152 Performance Measures 152 Potential Environmental Impacts 152 Relevant Legislation 152 Summary of Environmental Best Practice 153 Best Practice Information 154 1.0 Vineyard biosecurity plan 154 1.1 Prevention 154 1.2 Early detection 158 1.3 Rapid response 159 2.0 Importation procedures 159 2.1 Importers’ responsibilities - overseas 159 2.2 Quarantine procedures 159 2.3 Importation responsibilities – intra/interstate 160 3.0 Export procedures 160 3.1 Intra/interstate 160 3.2 Overseas 160 References 162

151 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To maintain and enhance ecological processes Biodiversity decline including: in the vineyard and surrounding environment - disruption of ecological processes as a result by protecting against the introduction of exotic of the introduction of exotic pests, diseases, pests, diseases, plants and animals. plants and animals; and • To prevent/minimise environmental impacts - a decline in the condition and extent of associated with the introduction and control of native flora and fauna as a result of the exotic pests, diseases, plants and animals. introduction of exotic pests, diseases, plants and animals. Performance Measures

• Populations of exotic pests, diseases, plants and animals in the vineyard and surrounding environment.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Plant Health and Plant Products Act 1994 • Plant Health and Plant Products Regulation 1996 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994

New South Wales • Plant Diseases Act 1924 • Plant Diseases Regulation 1996 • Proclamations

Commonwealth • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • Quarantine Act 1908 • Export Control Act 1982

152 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• A formal documented biosecurity plan • Risks associated with the introduction and prepared which identifies measures for: movement of exotic pests, diseases, weeds and animals for the following potential - preventing the introduction of exotic pests, contaminant sources have been assessed: diseases, plants, and animals (into the - soil and plant material; nation, state, and region); - wind and air; - preventing the movement of exotic pests, - water; diseases, plants and animals between - machinery and equipment; vineyards and from vineyards into sensitive - personnel and visitors; areas (such as areas of native vegetation); - animals; and - detecting the presence of exotic pests, - grape products. disease, plants and animals in the vineyard and surrounding environment; and • Measures in place to control the movement of: - responding to and controlling outbreaks of - soil and plant material; exotic pests, diseases, plants, and animals. - machinery and equipment; and - personnel and visitors.

It is crucial to prevent the introduction of exotic pests, plants, diseases and animals to ensure the protection of the environment and the sustainability of the viticultural industries

DON’T SPREAD PHYLLOXERA

153 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Best Practice Information • early detection – identify the potential biosecurity threats (to the environment, the vineyard, and the viticultural industry) and methods to detect these Introduction threats before major impacts are realised; and

Australia has remained relatively free from many of • rapid response - minimise the impact of a the pests and diseases associated with the Northern biosecurity threat by containing, treating and Hemisphere, due to our relative isolation and strict possibly eradicating the threat. quarantine measures. However, the increasing rate at which organisms may move between countries and 1.1 Prevention regions increases the risk of potentially threatening organisms emerging in Australia, or being spread Prevention is the most important part of a between regions within Australia (8). The introduction biosecurity plan. It is more environmentally and of new pests, diseases, plants or animals (exotics) economically sustainable (for both private and public could have a devastating impact on viticulture, landholders/managers) to prevent the introduction processors and support industries within the of exotics than it is to manage and eradicate such Sunraysia region (8,18). Introduced pests, diseases, introductions. For some pests and diseases, plants and animals can also pose a significant threat prevention is the only acceptable method of control. native to flora and fauna, and natural ecological By the time an introduction is detected, some may processes. The movement of pests, diseases, and not be treatable and biological processes may be too weeds from agricultural land into areas of native debilitated to allow recovery (4). Fire ants are an vegetation can also pose a similar risk. example of a pest where prevention is far more practical than trying to remedy an infestation. Fire The spread of pests, diseases, plants and animals can ants pose a serious threat to native flora and fauna be prevented/minimised by: and can affect small mammals, ground nesting birds, native invertebrates, and animals which consume • developing vineyard biosecurity plans; ants. Fire ants can also cause significant economic • following importation procedures; and losses to agriculture as they are capable of destroying a wide range of plants. • following export procedures. 1.0 Vineyard Biosecurity Plan

To increase protection against the introduction of exotics a biosecurity plan needs to be developed.

A vineyard biosecurity plan incorporates three components: • prevention – a plan can be developed to minimise the potential for the introduction of biosecurity threats (to viticulture and the environment) by considering: - biosecurity protocols; - biosecurity alerts; - the pathways for introduction and movement of exotics and assessing risk; and - the control of movement, cleaning procedures and hygiene.;

154 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

1.1.1 Biosecurity Protocols 1.1.2 Biosecurity Alerts

An awareness of the biosecurity protocols presently Alerts issued by the Federal Office of the Chief operating in Australia provides a solid basis on Plants Protection Officer, New South Wales which to build a vineyard biosecurity plan. Agriculture and the Victorian Department of Biosecurity protocols have been developed to help Primary Industries provide information on contain and minimise the impacts of exotic pest introduced plant diseases, pests, pathogens, plant, animal and disease introductions in vineyards invertebrates and weeds. The alerts include details and natural ecosystems throughout Australia. on the biology, detection, action and surveillance methods as well as programs for dealing with One example is The National Phylloxera Management introductions. These alerts can contribute to the Protocol which has provided the basis for biosecurity development of vineyard biosecurity plans (1,6,7,14). controls for vineyards contained within declared Vine Disease Districts, known as Phylloxera Infested 1.1.3 Identification of pathways and Zones (PIZs). The scope of the National Protocol assessing risk does not specifically address the requirements of the Sunraysia region which lies in a Vine Protection Area The pathways that can lead to the introduction of known as a Phylloxera Exclusion Zone (PEZ) (13). exotic pest plants, animals or diseases should be documented in the vineyard biosecurity plan. It is Protocols contain procedures that can be adapted to also important to identify the pathways that could vineyard biosecurity plans within the Sunraysia lead to the movement of pests, diseases, or weeds region. Protocols typically include (13): from the vineyard. The common pathways through which introductions and movement may occur are • arrangements for moving grapes and grapevine outlined in Table 1. These pathways will vary material; depending on the activities and practices associated with individual vineyards. • procedures and hygiene for vineyard personnel;

• handling diagnostic samples;

• control and cleaning of transport;

• cleaning and disinfestation of vineyard machinery; and

• travel by visitors.

155 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Table 1 - Pathways for introduction and movement of pests, diseases, plants, and animals which may cause disruption to biological processes in a vineyard and surrounding environment (2,12,13,17)

Pathways

❖ Soil and Plant Material • Organic fertilisers, animal manures, mulches, amenity enhancing materials (landscaping materials, roses, potted plants). • Propagating material, budding, grafting material, diagnostic samples, other nursery plants. • Cover crop seeds.

❖ Wind and Air • Airborne organisms.

❖ Water • Irrigation water.

❖ Machinery • On tyres, unwashed machinery, vehicles, equipment (spray-carts, cultivators, harvesters) moving between vineyards.

❖ Personnel & Visitors • On footwear, unwashed clothing, when moving between vineyards.

❖ Animals • By domestic animals, wild animals, vermin (foxes, rabbits), birds

❖ Miscellaneous Equipment • Wine bins, buckets, other pruning equipment, trellis posts.

❖ Grape Products • Grapes or must that contain grape solids.

A risk assessment can help to determine the most potential consequences of the activity. threatening pathways and activities. A risk The results of a risk assessment can provide assessment matrix (Table 2) may be used to guidance on required management changes to determine the extent of a risk that may impact upon minimise possible introductions (eg into the nation, the biological processes of the vineyard and state, region, vineyard) and movement (eg out of the surrounding environment. The risk assessment vineyard) of exotics. Management modifications matrix can assign a rating to an activity (high, may include stringent control over the movement of medium or low risk) by considering the likelihood of machinery or equipment, cleaning procedures and the activity (how likely it is to occur) and the hygiene regimes for equipment and personnel.

156 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Table 2 - Risk assessment matrix

Consequence of activity Likelihood of activity

Almost certain Likely Moderate Unlikely Rare

Catastrophic HIGH MEDIUM

Major MEDIUM

Moderate MEDIUM

Minor MEDIUM

Insignificant LOW

Table 3 - Definitions of Consequence and Likelihood

Consequence Definition Likelihood Definition

Catastrophic Long term environmental harm. Almost certain The event is expected to occur in most circumstances, say many times a month. Major Significant environmental harm. Likely The event will probably occur in most circumstances, say once a year. Moderate Moderate environmental harm. Moderate The event should occur at some time, say once in 3 years. Minor Transient environmental harm. Unlikely The event may occur at some time, say once in 10 years. Insignificant Brief pollution. Rare Event may occur only in exceptional circumstances.

157 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Control of movement, cleaning - Wash-down areas should be able to contain the procedures, hygiene wash-down residues and enable collection for disposal in a hygienic manner. The wash Based on the results of a risk assessment, controls on down areas should be located away from areas the movement of various equipment and material of native vegetation and away from may be desirable and for some activities there are waterways. also some legislative requirements (see Biosecurity section in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations). - Pruning and miscellaneous equipment should be sanitized before use in another vineyard.; Control of movement and cleaning procedures may and extend to: • Personnel & visitors • Soil and plant materials - The movement of people into areas of native - Soil and plant materials should be introduced vegetation should be avoided (especially if into the vineyard only if they are from an area moving from the vineyard). If necessary care free from infestation of potential vineyard or should be taken to remove weed seeds from environmental biosecurity threats. clothing. Footwear should also be cleaned.

- Material from other areas (eg states, regions) - Visitors and/or contractors’ presence in a such as organic fertilisers, animal manures, vineyard may be restricted by appointments mulches, potted plants and landscaping and recorded in a visitors book. materials, can be introduced if accompanied with a Plant Health Certificate or Plant Health - Personnel should be made aware of the Assurance Declaration – see Biosecurity section potential risks associated with movement in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations. between vineyards.

- The introduction of vine planting material and - Visitor access may be restricted to certain areas agricultural equipment is strictly controlled of the vineyard to prevent potential into the Sunraysia region – see Biosecurity contamination. Car-parking areas for visitors section in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations. may be designated.

- The sourcing of treated vine planting material Vineyards may be sign-posted to discourage from an accredited Australian Vine unauthorised access. (2,6,9,10,13,17). Improvement Association member can reduce the possible transmission of pests and diseases. 1.2 Early detection • Machinery & equipment Monitoring is an integral part of a vineyard - All soil and plant material should be removed biosecurity plan. This can be combined with from machinery and vineyard equipment monitoring undertaken for pest and disease before moving from one vineyard to another. management (See Pest & Disease Section 1.0). This also applies if moving machinery into an area of native vegetation (such movement Information is available for a range of identified however should be avoided). All surfaces of biosecurity threats. This information includes a the machinery should be washed with a description of potential threats and symptoms or pressure hose or steam cleaning equipment to readily observable signs of pests or diseases to be rid the machinery of all soil and plant material. aware of. Alert information is available from the Disassembling part of the machinery may be Victorian Department of Primary Industries, NSW required to access all surfaces. Agriculture and AFFA websites. (1,6,7,14)

158 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

1.3 Rapid Response 2.1 Importers’ responsibilities - overseas In the case of an exotic pest, plant, animal or disease introduction; a rapid response is required so that the When considering importing grapevine material, introduction can be contained quickly, to prevent potential importers should be aware of their further spread, and to eliminate the threat if possible. responsibilities. Importers must: This also applies to the movement of pests, diseases, and weeds from the vineyard and into areas of • Have an importation permit. native vegetation. • Ensure material is free from soil, disease The Victorian Department of Primary Industries or symptoms, and other extraneous contamination. NSW Agriculture should be alerted immediately if you suspect the introduction of an exotic pest plant, • Ensure that material is in new containers. animal or disease. • Label material with its scientific name.

(9) Rapid response measures include : • Make material subject to inspection on arrival. • alerting either the Victorian Department of • Make arrangements with AQIS with regard to Primary Industires or NSW Agriculture; post-entry quarantine facilities prior to goods • controlling all movement on and off the vineyard arrival. including people, equipment and machinery; Further details are available through the ICON (11) • signs prohibiting entry; database . • a record of all visitors to the vineyard; and 2.2 Quarantine procedures • documented hygiene, sanitation and decontamination procedures for personnel, Quarantine procedures on arrival may include: visitors, equipment and machinery. • hot-water treatment; 2.0 Importation procedures • fumigation with Methyl bromide; or • growth in closed quarantine for a minimum of a National quarantine controls provide for the year with virus indexing followed by a year in the screening of imported grapevine propagation field with bacterial disease screening (11). material and grape products. Importation restrictions are required to help prevent the introduction of Procedures may vary depending on the source of potentially devastating biosecurity threats like imported grapevine material. AQIS should be Pierce’s disease and its vector, the Glassy Winged contacted for further details (see contacts). Sharpshooter. The Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service (AQIS) runs an on-line database, ICON, that details requirements for importing grapes and grapevine material (11). Importation of Vitis species for nursery stock, imported either as tissue culture or in a form other than tissue culture, are subject to conditions and treatments stipulated by AQIS under Commonwealth quarantine legislation. The conditions include importers’ responsibilities and quarantine procedures.

159 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Table 4 - Quarantinable Diseases of Imported Grapevines (11)

Quarantinable Grapevine Diseases

Bacteria • Xylella fastidiosa (Pierce’s Disease) • Xanthomonas ampellina (Bacterial necrosis)

Fungi • Pseudopezicula tracheiphila (Rotbrenner) • Pseudopezicula tetraspora (Angular Leaf Schorch) • Physopella ampelopsidis (Rust) • Mycosphaerella angulata (Angular leafspot) • Guignardia bidwelli (Black rot)

Viruses • Ajinashika’s disease • Corky Bark • Nepoviruses (Fanleaf, Tomato Ringspot, Arabis Mosaic, Bulgarian mosaic, Joannes Sevye virus, grapevine chrome mosaic, etc)

Phytoplasmas • Flavescence Doree & others

2.3 Importation responsibilities – For information on documentation required for the transport of grapes within Victoria or New South intra/interstate Wales or to another state consult your local Plant Standards Officer at the Victorian Department of When importing grapevine propagation material or Primary Industries (see contacts) (15). other materials to be used on the vineyard from intra and interstate, growers should comply with legislative requirements. For grapevine propagation 3.2 Overseas material this may include hot-water treatment before transport or on arrival, obtaining permits and Plant Health Certificates for import into Sunraysia – see In order to comply with international trade agreements and to minimise the possibility of the Biosecurity section in Volume 2 – Legal Obligations. introducing exotic pests plants, animals and diseases into the environments of our trading partners, 3.0 Export procedures exporters must meet requirements set by receiving countries.

3.1 Intra/Interstate The PHYTO database maintained by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) provides There are stringent controls over the movement of information on documentation required for the grape products out of the Sunraysia region to help exportation of table grapes. AQIS provides a regional prevent the spread of pests and diseases. The Plant inspection service based on the documentation Standards Office at the Victorian Department of supplied in PHYTO to ensure that grapes destined Primary Industries provides inspection services and for overseas markets comply with the importing may supervise the treatment of grapes or grapevine countries’ requirements. Export documentation and material; and issue Plant Health Certificates (for both requirements are contained within an AQIS Victoria and NSW) for products destined for use or publication designed to facilitate exports (see sale outside the region. Consultation with a Plant contacts) (3,16). Standards Officer is necessary to ensure compliance with relevant legislative requirements (see the For more information on overseas market Biosecurity section in the Volume 1 – Legal requirements please contact the local AQIS office or Obligations). the AQIS Export Facilitator.

160 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

Contacts

Organisation Phone

AQIS – Export Facilitation (03) 9246 6702 AQIS – Import Requirements (03) 9330 4127 AQIS – Sunraysia Office (03) 5023 8877 Department of Primary Industries – Plant Standards Irymple (03) 5051 4500 Agriculture NSW – Dareton (03) 5027 4409

161 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Biosecurity

References

1 Agriculture NSW - Alerts http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/?MIval=cw_usr_view_Folder&ID=6568. 2 Agriculture Victoria & Victorian Wine Industry Association (1995) ‘Phylloxera Draft Code of Practice’. (Agriculture Victoria). 3 AQIS (2001) ‘Export Documentation: EXDOC Grain and Horticulture Exporter Manual’ (Agriculture Fisheries Forestry Australia). 4 Buchanan G, Whiting J (1991) Phylloxera management: prevention is better than cure. Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Journal. 6 (3) : 223-227, 230. 5 Department of Natural Resources and Environment (1990’s) ‘A guide to the identification, prevention and control of grape phylloxera’ (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria). 6 Department of Natural Resources and Environment. ‘Under Control: Pest Plant and Animal Management News’. (Keith Turnbull Research Institute, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Frankston). 7 Department of Primary Industries - Alerts http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/web/root/domino/cm_da/nrenfa.nsf/frameset/NRE+Farming+and+Agriculture? OpenDocument. 8 Everett RA (2000) Patterns and pathways of biological invasions. TREE, 15(5) : 177-178. 9 Ford WB (1995) Disinfection procedures for personnel and vehicles entering and leaving contaminated premises. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics). 14(2) : 393-401. 10 Gardner R, Moran J, Ridland P (1999) ‘The Establishment of a Plant Protection District around Toolangi’. (Horticultural Research and Development Corporation, Department of Natural Resources and Environment). 11 ICON database – website - http://www.aqis.gov.au/icon/asp/ex_querycontent.asp. 12 Moran J, 22-03-2002 Personal communication. 13 National Vine Health Steering Committee (2000) ‘National Phylloxera Management Protocol’. (National Vine Health Steering Committee, Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation.) website - http://www.gwrdc.com.au/phylloxera/. 14 Office of the Chief Plants Protection Officer – Alerts http://netenergy.dpie.gov.au/content/output.cfm?ObjectID=7F20214D-FBD9-4FA1- A38D8B4D8FCE6B22&contType=outputs. 15 Plant Standards Branch (2001) ‘Procedures for issuing permits for grapevine material, related products and agricultural equipment’. (Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria). 16 PHYTO Database - http://www.aqis.gov.au/phyto/asp/ex_home.asp. 17 Reynolds R (2000) Keeping phylloxera at bay: enhancing protective behaviours and industry practices in a phylloxera free region. In ‘Proceedings of the international symposium on grapevine phylloxera management’, Melbourne, Victoria, January 21st 2000’. (Eds KS Powell, J Whiting) pp 31 – 37. (Agriculture Victoria, Rutherglen). 18 Williams JA, West CJ (2000) The ecology and management of environmental weeds: foreword. Austral Ecology. 25 : 423.

162 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

Machinery Operation Machinery Operation

MACHINERY OPERATION

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 164 Performance Measures 164 Potential Environmental Impacts 164 Relevant Legislation 165 Summary of Environmental Impacts 165 Best Practice Information 166 1.0 Types of machinery 166 1.1 Two-wheel drive (2WD) tractors 166 1.2 Front-wheel assist (FWA) and four-wheel drive (4WD) tractors 166 1.3 Track tractors 166 1.4 Gantry 166 1.5 All terrain vehicles (ATV) or four wheeled motor bike 166 2.0 Purchasing and selecting machinery 166 2.1 Power requirements of machinery 167 2.2 Wheel and tyre specifications 167 2.3 Transmission 167 2.4 Multi-functional machinery 167 3.0 Machinery operation 168 3.1 Efficiency 168 3.2 Soil compaction 169 3.3 Noise control 170 3.4 Hygiene 170 4.0 Fuel storage 170 5.0 Measuring performance 170 5.1 Fuel usage (litres/ha) 170 5.2 Gross return per litre of fuel ($/litre fuel) 171 5.3 Soil compaction 171 References 172

163 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To avoid and minimise: • Non-renewable energy consumption resulting in the production of greenhouse gases. - the generation of greenhouse gas emissions; - damage to native vegetation; • Soil compaction. - the generation of noise; and • Community disturbances caused by the - the impact on soil structure by using generation of noise. machinery efficiently and sensibly. • Biodiversity decline including the destruction or damage of native vegetation by machinery. Performance Measures

• Fuel usage (litres/ha). • Gross return per litre of fuel ($/litre fuel). • Level of soil compaction.

Tractors should be used efficiently to minimise fuel usage and the release of greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere

164 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Environment Protection (Vehicles Emissions) Regulations 2003 • Health Act 1958 • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 • Wildlife Regulations 2002

New South Wales • Clean Air (Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Fuels) Regulation 1997 • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Protection of the Environment Operations (Noise Control) Regulation 2000 • Soil Conservation Act 1938 • Local Government Act 1993 • Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 • National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 • Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995

Commonwealth • Road Transport Reform (Heavy Vehicle Standards) Regulations 1995 • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 • National Environment Protection Council Act 1994 • Road Transport Reform (Vehicles and Traffic) Act 1993

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Match the tractor size and power to the • Do not use machinery in a manner that will implements and tasks being carried out. damage native vegetation. • Conduct regular maintenance on all tractors • Take measures to distribute the load evenly and machinery. over the largest area possible. • Do not use machinery on wet soil. • Take measures to prevent/reduce disturbances caused by noise.

165 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

Best Practice Information 1.4 Gantry

Vehicles and machinery are frequently used during This refers to machinery, which straddles the vine the operation of the vineyard. It is important to rows. The most common type of gantry machinery is reduce fuel use, prevent soil compaction, prevent the grape harvester. Some gantry machinery is damage and harm to native flora and fauna, and available that can perform a number of functions. prevent/reduce disturbances caused by noise The main advantage of gantry machinery is reduced associated with the use of vehicles and machinery. soil compaction. The impact on soil also only occurs on vineyard row centres.

1.0 Types of machinery 1.5 All terrain vehicles (ATV) or four wheeled motor bike Machinery is used to perform many tasks crucial to the vineyard operation. The types of machinery These are small and are useful for performing small suitable for vineyard use are: tasks such as spot spraying. Because of their small size they contribute less to soil compaction. They are 1.1 Two-wheel drive (2WD) tractors ideally suited to small vineyards where they can be used to perform a range of tasks.

These have power to rear wheels only and are suitable for standard conditions where the ground is firm and there is an absence of steep slopes.

1.2 Front-wheel assist (FWA) and four-wheel drive (4WD) tractors

Both of these have power to all wheels and perform the best when improved traction is required such as in wet conditions and on steep slopes. FWA tractors have smaller front wheels than the rear wheels, while with 4WD tractors all wheels are the same size. The traction benefits of FWA and 4WD over 2WD tractors are marginal in firm conditions. 2.0 Purchasing and selecting machinery 1.3 Track tractors It is important to select the correct machinery to be These types of tractors have rubber or metal tracks used in your vineyard to ensure maximum efficiency instead of wheels. These tracks spread the weight of and to achieve an adequate life span for the the machinery over a larger area, which reduces soil machinery and components. The following key compaction. They are suited to situations where a points should be considered: high level of traction is needed such as with wet boggy ground and very steep slopes. • power requirements;

• wheel and tyre specifications;

• transmission; and

• multi-functional machinery.

166 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

2.1 Power requirements of machinery 2.3 Transmission

The amount of power that the tractor requires The type of transmission used can affect operating depends on the tasks that are being carried out and efficiency. It is important to consider the type of the conditions in the vineyard. When determining work to be carried out when selecting a tractor power requirements consider the power transmission. The types of transmissions available requirements of each operation, how often they are are: performed and how critical they are. Also consider the conditions in the vineyard (eg slopes). Drawbar • synchromesh – allows gear shifting when tractor power is the most important parameter to consider, is moving, but not under load; as power is lost through the transmission, wheel slip and resistance. Drawbar power can also be • power shift – allows gear changes when under considerably less than engine power (8). full operation;

Select the machinery power requirement, which will • full hydrostatic – creates increased power losses give the best overall efficiency. This is important as and is best suited for specialist operations; and an undersized tractor will wear out quicker due to the increased stress and may take too long to do the • reverse shuttle – adds to the versatility of the job, while an oversized tractor may never be used to tractors, in particular front-end loader work. its full capacity and will be operating inefficiently. In some cases it may be more appropriate to get a 2.4 Multi-functional machinery contractor to perform some tasks if a suitable balance can not be found (3). When selecting a tractor consideration should be given to its ability to perform numerous tasks. 2.2 Wheel and tyre specifications Multi-functional machinery can provide for improved efficiency. Tyres are an important factor as they support the vehicle and provide traction on soils for movement. For further information about the selection of There are two types of tyres to consider: radial tyres machinery refer to: and bias ply tyres. Radial tyres tend to give a larger contact area and have a longer life than bias-ply • DPI note – slection and matching of tractors (3) tyres. Bias-ply tyres have a stiffer tyre carcass and and implements . (7) are more likely to cause compaction. The tyres • Agfact E6.1 – Selecting a tractor . should be selected to provide maximum flotation so that soil compaction is reduced.

167 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

3.0 Machinery Operation If wheelslip is too low If wheelslip is too high it means that: it means that: When operating machinery in the vineyard the aim • The tractor is not using • The tractor is overloaded, should be to perform the task as efficiently as a high percentage of its and that tractor is too possible and to minimise any negative impacts. available power, and small for the job. the tractor is too large 3.1 Efficiency for job. • The tractor is under- ballasted. • The tractor is over- The efficiency of machinery operation refers to ballasted and power tractive and fuel efficiency. is being wasted moving the tractor around. 3.1.1 Tractive efficiency Tyres are the most important factor to consider for Traction and power transfer is crucial for energy decreasing wheelslip and improving tractive efficiency. Energy is used in order to create traction. efficiency. The tyres should provide support to the Some of this energy is lost when converting the vehicle and provide minimum resistance to energy into traction. It is important to minimise these movement over the surface in the intended direction losses. The tractive efficiency of machinery refers to of travel (7). The following tyre parameters affect the ability for machinery to convert energy into tractive efficiency: movement. • tyre type – radial tyres give a larger contact area The amount of wheelslip is an indicator of tractive compared with bias-ply tyres therefore increasing efficiency. The greater the amount of wheelslip the tractive efficiency (5); lower the tractive efficiency is. It is not possible for a tractor to pull a load without some wheelslip. The • tyre pressure – should be set according to the load acceptable levels of wheelslip are shown below (2). inflation pressure recommendations provided by tyre manufacturers. Inflation pressures should by Tractor Type Firm soil (%) Cultivated soil set at the minimum pressure recommended (5); (%) • tyre tread - the tread bar pattern should arrow 2WD 7 – 11 10 - 15 upwards when looked at from behind to give maximum tractive efficiency for forward 4WD 6 – 10 8 - 12 movement; and

Tracklayers 1 – 3 2 - 4 • tyre weight – the tyres need to have the correct ballast to ensure maximum tractive efficiency.

The main factors influencing wheelslip are: Best tractive efficiency is also obtained when tractor and implements are well matched. The fixed • towing load on (or pull of) the tractor – increased drawbar’s height and length also affects the tractor’s drawbar pull increases wheelslip; weight transfer under load, thereby altering the dynamic ballast and how efficiently the tractor • tyre weight – an increased weight of the tyre on transmits power to the ground. (8) the wheel decreases wheelslip; and

• soil type and conditions – the strength of the soil affects wheelslip. Wheelslip is higher on weaker soils (eg sands).

168 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

3.1.2 Fuel efficiency 3.2 Soil compaction

Good fuel efficiency is important for reducing The use of machinery in the vineyard can be greenhouse gas emissions. Fuel consumption can be damaging to soil structure and cause soil compaction reduced by operating at a reduced speed or by problems if care is not taken. reducing the speed of the engine. To assist in the prevention of soil compaction The following are some tips to improve fuel problems: efficiency (4): • avoid the use of machinery on wet soil; and • do not overload the engine; • decrease the weight of the machinery where • stay within the working revolutions per minute possible. (rpm) range; and To minimise compaction the load also needs to be • if possible do the job in a higher gear to reduce equally distributed over the largest possible area. engine speed. The following factors affect load distribution:

Multispeed PTOs can also assist in improving fuel • Tyre pressure – a lower tyre pressure creates a efficiency. If a small amount of power is required it larger surface area of tread in contact with the is possible to operate an implement in a higher PTO soil, therefore distributing the load. The tyre ratio with a low engine speed. This will give the should be set at the minimum pressure according correct PTO speed, while reducing fuel consumption (8). to the load inflation pressure recommendations provided by the tyre manufacturer (5). Ensuring the machinery is well maintained and serviced will also improve the efficiency of • Tyre type – bias-ply tyres cause greater stresses on converting fuel energy into axle power. the soil. Low-profile radial tyres decrease compaction if used at the lowest recommended pressure for the load (1). For further information about machinery • Tyres and axles – it is important to match tyres efficiency refer to: with the correct axle weight. • Agfact E6.2 – Tractor wheelslip(2). • Agfact E6.10 – Tractors how to save up to 30% on fuel(4). • Agfact E6.1 – Selecting a tractor(7).

169 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

3.3 Noise control 4.0 Fuel storage

The use of machinery in the vineyard generates The fuel (diesel and petrol) used to operate noise, which can affect community amenity. To machinery should be stored carefully and measures prevent/reduce disturbances caused by noise taken to prevent environmental contamination. The consider the following: following points should be taken into consideration:

• Ensure that the tractor size and power is well • Fuel should be stored in sound tanks or matched to the implements being used and the containers. tasks being carried out. • Fuel should be stored in an area with an • Use smaller vehicles (eg ATV’s) to perform jobs impermeable concrete floor and with bunding. where possible. • The fuel storage area should be located a suitable • Try to lower the engine speed when performing distance from any waterways (eg channel, river) tasks as this will generate less noise. or sensitive areas (eg areas of native vegetation).

• Be wary of the time of day that tasks are being • The fuel storage area should have suitable spill conducted. Try to avoid extended periods of containment provisions. machinery use late at night and early in the morning. 5.0 Measuring performance • Ensure that there are sufficient buffer zones between the area of machinery use and residential The environmental performance of machinery and community areas. operation practices can be measured. The performance measures include: 3.4 Hygiene • Fuel usage (litres/ha). It is important to adopt good hygiene practices to: • Gross return per litre of fuel ($/litre fuel). • prevent the spread of pests and diseases into and • Depth of compaction layer. within the vineyard; and

• prevent the spread of pests and diseases out of the 5.1 Fuel usage (litres/ha) vineyard and into sensitive areas such as areas of native vegetation. Records of fuel purchases (diesel and petrol) should be kept and used to determine the total fuel used Machinery should be washed down to remove soil (litres) per year to operate machinery and vehicles. before entering the vineyard. The movement of This value can then be divided by the total property machinery into areas of native vegetation should be area (ha) to calculate the fuel usage (litres) per avoided but if necessary all soil should be removed hectare. Growers should be aiming to reduce fuel from machinery before entering. usage per hectare. Care should also be taken when operating machinery to prevent damage or harm to native flora and fauna.

170 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

5.2 Gross return per litre of fuel 5.3 Soil compaction ($/litre fuel) The degree of soil compaction in the vineyard The gross return per litre of fuel ($/litre fuel) provides an indicator of soil health. provides an indication of how well the fuel used to run machinery is being used to produce quality fruit. To determine the degree of soil compaction (6): Gross return per litre of fuel can be calculated by dividing the gross return ($) by the total fuel used • Select a range of sites throughout the vineyard (litres) to operate machinery and vehicles required to (sites should be representative of the vineyard). produce the fruit. Some adjustments may be needed to take into account changes in fruit prices. Growers • When the soil is at field capacity take should be aiming to increase the gross return per measurement using a penetrometer at each of the litre of fuel. sites selected. The lower the pressure reading is, the less the degree of soil compaction .

• Alternatively push a 2.4mm diameter manganese brazing rod (cut to a length of 300mm with both ends filed flat) into the soil with the palm of the hand:

- If the rod enters the soil without undue pain to the palm then penetration is less than 1 Mpa and soil compaction isn’t a problem.

- If the rod flexes and does not move into the soil then penetration is greater than 3 Mpa (shield the palm to prevent damage).

171 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Machinery Operation

References

1 Arvidsson J, Ristic R (1996) Soil stress and compaction effects for four tractor tyres. Journal of Terramechanics. 33 (5) : 223 – 232. 2 Brown GA (1983) ‘Agfact E6.2 – Tractor wheelslip’. (3rd edn). NSW Agriculture & Fisheries. 3 Powell G (2001) ‘DPI note - Selection and matching of tractors and implements’. Queensland Government, Department of Primary Industries. 4 Quick GR, Brown GA (1986) ‘Agfact E6.10 – Tractors how to save up to 30% on fuel’. NSW Agriculture and Fisheries. 5 Raper RL, Bailey AC, Burt EC, Way TR, Liberati P (1995) The effects of reduced inflation pressure on soil-tire interface stresses and soil strength. Journal of Terramechanics. 32 (1) : 43 – 51. 6 Schache M. 24-6-03. Personal Communication. 7 Sharma AK, Pandey KP (2001) Matching tyre size to weight, speed and power available for maximising pulling ability of agricultural tractors. Journal of Terramechanics. 38 (2) : 89 – 97. 8 Wedd S (1983) ‘Agfact E6.1 - Selecting a tractor’. (2nd edn). NSW Agriculture & Fisheries.

172 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting Wine Grapes

Harvesting - Wine Grapes Harvesting - Wine Grapes

HARVESTING – WINE GRAPES

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 174

Performance Measures 174

Potential Environmental Impacts 174

Relevant Legislation 174

Summary of Environmental Best Practice 174

Best Practice Information 175

Noise control 175

Machinery washdown 175

Soil compaction 175

173 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Wine Grapes

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To minimise the generation of noise and • Nuisance caused by: odours. - the generation of noise associated with the • To prevent the contamination of waterways. operation of harvesters and the dropping of wine bins; • To minimise the effect of soil compaction. - lights associated with harvesting activity during the night; and Performance Measures - the generation of odours as a result of waste grapes that have been washed from • Fuel usage (litres/ha). harvesters. Gross return per litre of fuel ($/litre fuel). • • Also refer to machinery operation. • Level of soil compaction.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Health Act 1958 • Environment Protection Act 1970 • National Environment Protection Council (Victoria) Act 1994

New South Wales • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Local Government Act 1993 • Ozone Protection Regulations 1997 • National Environment Protection Council (New South Wales) Act 1995

Commonwealth • National Environment Protection Council Act 1994

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Take measures to prevent/reduce disturbances • Locate machinery wash down areas a caused be noise during harvesting: suitable distance from water bodies, residential and community areas to prevent - by locating bin loading areas away from contamination. residential areas and public areas (eg road reserves) if possible; - by establishing buffer zones between the vineyard and any residential or community areas; and - by maintaining a good relationship with neighbours.

174 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Wine Grapes

Best Practice Information 2.0 Machinery wash down

1.0 Noise control Care needs to be taken when washing down harvesting equipment to ensure that waterways, and residential and community areas are not affected. The use of machinery for harvesting and the dropping of wine bins in the vineyard both generate The wash down area should be located: noise. This can cause disturbances in the surrounding community. To prevent/reduce • so there is a suitable buffer zone from any water disturbances caused by noise during harvesting bodies (eg rivers, streams, wetlands, channels, consider the following: open drains), native vegetation, fauna habitat or • If possible locate bin loading areas away from other area of nature conservation to avoid residential areas and public areas (eg road contamination; reserves). • so that potentially contaminated water can not • Establish buffer zones between the vineyard and flow into areas of significant value (eg native any residential or community areas. vegetation) where it could cause harm; and • Try to maintain a good relationship with neighbours and if possible make them aware of • with a buffer zone from residential and community when harvesting activity is likely to occur. areas to avoid disturbances caused by odours and insects.

The wash down area should also have provision to contain oil spills/leakages if they occur.

3.0 Soil compaction The use of harvesting machinery in the vineyard can cause soil compaction problems if care is not taken. To assist in the prevention of soil compaction problems:

• avoid the use of machinery on wet soil; and

• ensure the machinery being used (especially the tyres) are suitable for the loads being carried.

Measures should be taken to reduce disturbances caused by harvesting

175 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Wine Grapes

176 is a blank back up

176 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting Dried Grapes

Harvesting - Dried Grapes Harvesting - Dried Grapes

HARVESTING – DRIED GRAPES

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 178

Performance Measures 178

Potential Environmental Impacts 178

Relevant Legislation 178

Summary of Environmental Best Practice 178

Best Practice Information 179

1.0 Harvesting 179

1.1 Noise control 179

1.2 Soil compaction 179

2.0 Dehydration 179

2.1 Trellis drying 179

2.2 Rack drying 179

2.3 Finish drying 180

3.0 Measuring performance 180

References 181

177 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Dried Grapes

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To minimise the generation of noise and • Non-renewable energy consumption and the odours. production of greenhouse gases associated with the use of dehydrators. • To minimise fossil fuel usage required to dehydrate grapes. • Nuisance caused by the generation of noise from harvesting machinery and from dehydrators. Performance Measures • Soil compaction associated with the use of machinery. • Dehydration: - energy usage per tonne required to remove • Also refer to machinery operation. % moisture content. • Fuel usage (litres/ha). • Gross return per litre of fuel ($/litre fuel). • Level of soil compaction.

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 • Health Act 1958 • Environment Protection Act 1970

New South Wales • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 • Local Government Act 1993 • Soil Conservation Act 1938

Commonwealth • National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure 1998

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Take measures to prevent/reduce • Ensure drying oil is applied evenly to disturbances caused by noise during ensure efficient dehydration. harvesting. • Dehydrate grapes using trellis drying - by locating bin loading areas and methods. dehydrators away from residential areas and public areas (eg road reserves) if • Minimise the use of dehydrators that possible; require fuel (eg gas, diesel). - by establishing buffer zones between the vineyard and any residential or community areas; and - by maintaining a good relationship with neighbours.

178 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Dried Grapes

Best Practice Information 2.0 Dehydration 1.0 Harvesting 2.1 Trellis drying

1.1 Noise control The trellis drying of grapes is the most efficient method of dehydration and requires lower inputs than the rack drying process. The Shaw swingarm The use of machinery for harvesting and system is an efficient and effective method of trellis dehydration generates noise. This can cause drying. community disturbances. To prevent/reduce disturbances caused by noise during harvesting Care should be taken to ensure that when applying consider the following: drying oil the wetting machine is set up correctly for even coverage and to minimise wastage of oil. • If possible locate bin loading areas and dehydrators away from residential areas and public areas (eg road reserves).

• Establish buffer zones between the vineyard and any residential or community areas.

• Try to maintain a good relationship with neighbours and if possible make them aware when harvesting activity is likely to occur.

1.2 Soil compaction 2.2 Rack drying

The use of harvesting machinery in the vineyard can Rack drying is the traditional method of drying cause soil compaction problems if care is not taken. grapes. This method requires greater handling of To assist in the prevention of soil compaction fruit than with trellis drying and is not as efficient. problems: As with trellis drying it is important that drying oil is applied evenly and that wastage is minimised by • avoid the use of machinery on wet soil; and setting up equipment correctly.

• ensure the machinery being used (especially the Solar rack curtains can enhance the drying process tyres) are suitable for the loads being carried. and can enable boxing directly from the rack, eliminating the need for finish drying/dehydration.

179 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Dried Grapes

2.3 Finish drying 3.0 Measuring performance

Finish drying is normally carried out using some Energy use per tonne required to remove a form of fuel driven dehydrator. The finish drying percentage of moisture content is a measure of the process can take place when the fruit is still on the efficiency of artificial dehydration processes. To racks or when it is in bins. Consider the following to calculate this: improve drying efficiency (1): • determine the total electricity used (kW) and/or • Make sure bins are not over filled and that fruit is LPG used (litres) for dehydration; evenly spread out on racks. • then divide this by the total tonnes of dried fruit • Dehydrators are more efficient if they are run off produced to determine the energy use per tonne LPG rather than kerosene. of dried fruit; and

• The fuel efficiency of bin dehydrators can be • then divide the energy use per tonne by the total improved by recirculating a proportion of the % moisture reduction achieved as a result of the heated air. artificial dehydration process.

Finish drying can also be carried out by spreading Growers should be aiming to reduce the energy use fruit onto ground sheets and drying in the sun. per tonne required to remove a percentage of moisture content.

For further information about dehydration refer to:

• ADFA Dried Vine Fruit Manual – a production guide for quality dried vine fruit(1). • Shaw Swingarm Trellis: maximum mechanisation in trellis dried grape production(2).

180 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Dried Grapes

References

1 ADFA (1998) ‘ADFA Dried Vine Fruit Manual – a production guide for quality dried vine fruit’. (Australian Dried Fruits Association). 2 Mollah M, Shaw I, Hancock F, Braybrook D (2000) ‘Shaw Swingarm Trellis: maximum mechanisation in trellis dried grape production’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment).

181 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Dried Grapes

182 is a blank back up

182 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting Table Grapes

Harvesting - Table Grapes Harvesting - Table Grapes

HARVESTING – TABLE GRAPES

Section Page

Environmental Best Practice Objectives 184

Performance Measures 184

Potential Environmental Impacts 184

Relevant Legislation 184

Summary of Environmental Best Practice 184

Best Practice Information 185

1.0 Packaging 185

1.1 Boxes 185

1.2 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) pads 185

2.0 Bunch trimming 185

3.0 Fumigation 185

4.0 Cool room design 186

5.0 Cooling efficiency 186

5.1 Heat load on cool room 186

5.2 Air movement 187

5.3 Design and operation 187

5.4 Maintenance 187

6.0 Measuring performance 188

References 189

183 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

Environmental Best Potential Environmental Practice Objectives Impacts

• To avoid/minimise energy use required to • Non-renewable energy consumption associated cool grapes. with the operation of cool rooms and the use • To avoid/minimise the generation of non- of machinery. recyclable packaging waste. • Waste generation caused by the use of • To avoid/minimise the loss of refrigerant gas. polystyrene boxes and sulphur dioxide (SO2) pads. • To avoid/minimise the impact on the community by disposing of bunch trimmings • Nuisance caused by the production of odours in an appropriate manner. associated with the disposal of waste table grape trimmings. • To avoid/minimise pollution from gases used in storage. • Atmospheric pollution resulting from:

- the venting of sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas into the atmosphere; and Performance Measures - refrigerants used for the operation of cool rooms which cause ozone depletion. • Cool room energy use (kw) per volume of fruit (tonne, number of boxes, or number of pallets).

Relevant legislation

Victoria • Environment Protection Act 1970 • Health Act 1958

New South Wales • Local Government Act 1993 • Ozone Protection Act 1989 • Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997

Commonwealth • National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure 1998 • Ozone Protection Act 1989

Summary of Environmental Best Practice

• Maximise cooling efficiency by: • If using sulphur dioxide (SO2) fumigation use - taking measures to prevent the movement "total use" SO2 fumigation systems. of air into and out of the cool room (eg by • Dispose of bunch trimmings in a way that using plastic strips, seals); avoids community disturbances caused by - ensuring there is good air circulation odours and insects. around fruit; - designing the cool room to match cooling requirements; and - undertaking regular maintenance.

184 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

Best Practice Information 2.0 Bunch trimming

The trimming of bunches prior to packing results in 1.0 Packaging the production of a waste product. The following are some options for managing this waste: • Trim bunches in the vineyard where possible as the waste can be dropped directly onto the 1.1 Boxes vineyard floor. This can provide benefits to the vineyard floor by adding organic matter. There are two main types of boxes used as packaging • Send bunch trimmings to a winery if possible. for table grapes: • If bunch trimming is undertaken in the packing • corrugated fibreboard (cardboard); and shed then they could be collected and then distributed onto the vineyard floor later or spread • expanded polystyrene. out in another part of the vineyard. • Large amounts of waste bunch trimmings can 1.1.1 Corrugated fibreboard create strong odours and attract insects. If (Cardboard) disposing of waste in the vineyard or anywhere else on the vineyard, care should be taken to ensure odours don’t cause a disturbance to the These are the preferred type of box as they can be community. Before disposing of waste consider recycled. They are generally unsuitable for long- the proximity of the disposal site to residential term storage. Cardboard boxes should be used areas, schools, recreational areas and any other wherever possible. public places.

1.1.2 Expanded polystyrene 3.0 Fumigation Table grapes can be fumigated with sulphur dioxide These are the best for maintaining quality for the (SO ) for storage preservation and for the control of long-term storage of table grapes. However they can 2 spiders. not be recycled as easily as cardboard and present a disposal problem for retailers and consumers. If fumigating, care should be taken to ensure that the correct dose is applied to minimise the amount of

waste SO2 gas that needs to be disposed of. 1.2 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) pads

Preferably all the SO2 gas should be used however this is not always possible. SO2 pads present a waste problem as they cannot be re-used or recycled. It is important that they are Fumigating for spiders requires much higher used carefully in order to minimise waste concentrations of SO2 in comparison to fumigating production. To work effectively SO2 pads need to be for preservation. As a result total utilisation of SO2 fresh and should be purchased as required to avoid can generally not be achieved. having a supply left over for the follow season. The residual SO2 gas can be disposed of via venting. This involves releasing the excess gas to the outside atmosphere after treatment. This gas must be vented at least six metres above ground level into the second inversion layer as it is an atmospheric pollutant. Venting must occur for a minimum of 5 minutes (1).

185 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

4.0 Cool room design 5.1 Heat load on cool room

The temperature of the fruit entering the cool room Cool room requirements will vary depending on and the amount of heat the cool room absorbs from cooling needs (eg how quick the fruit needs to be the outside environment affects the heat load on the cooled down, what volumes of fruit need to be cool room. cooled). For efficiency it is important that the design of the cool room matches the cooling needs. For It is important that fruit remains as cool as possible accurate cool room design a professional before it is moved into cool storage. To achieve this: refrigeration engineer should be consulted. The following are some key points to consider: • try to plan picking for the coolest part of the day and cease picking if the pulp temperature exceeds • Total storage required. 32oC, this will reduce heat load and cool room energy use (4); and • Method and rate of loading. • keep harvested fruit in the shade at all times • Incoming fruit temperatures. before transporting to cool storage. (4)

• The temperature the fruit needs to be cooled to. The heat load on cool rooms can also be reduced by (5): • How quickly does the fruit need to be cooled down. • using heat reflective (eg. white) paint on outside walls to reduce heat gain; • Type of refrigerant gas. • insulating cool room walls. The location of the cool room should be used to determine the 5.0 Cooling efficiency thickness of insulation to use (eg if cool room is exposed to direct sunlight the insulation will need The amount of heat that needs to be removed and to be thicker); how efficiently this can be achieved affects energy use associated with the cooling of fruit. To minimise • minimising the use of lighting in the cool room as energy use the following need to be considered: this generates heat;

• The heat load on cool room. • undertaking rapid cooling activities when ambient temperature is low (eg at night) if • Air movement. possible; and

• The design and operation of cool room. • avoiding the placement of warm fruit next to cold fruit in the cool room. • Maintenance.

186 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

5.2 Air movement 5.3 Design and operation

It is important to prevent cool air escaping from the For energy efficiency it is important that the cool cool room and warm air entering the cool room. room is designed to match cooling needs. Some Preventative measures include (5): additional design factors to consider are:

• using automatic door closers and plastic strip • The cool room should be situated inside or under curtains; cover to protect it from weather conditions which may affect the efficiency of the cool room • sealing around openings for pipes and electrical operation. conduits. If there is a floor drain ensure there is a water sump on the exterior draw pipe to seal off • Insulate chilled water lines. cold air; and • It may be more energy efficient to have more than • not entering the cool room unnecessarily. one cool room. For example one cool room could be designated for rapid pre-cooling whilst another Air circulation within the cool room is important for for cool storage. This will keep cold and hot fruit maximising cooling efficiency and reducing energy separated. use. Consider the following: • When operating the cool room energy efficiency • Ensure that there is sufficient space for airflow can be maximised by (5): when placing fruit in cool room. This is particularly important for rapid cooling. (3) - ensuring that the chilled water temperature (if system uses) is as low as possible; and • A forced-air cooler will assist with air circulation. (3) - operating the cool room at higher suction • Once rapid cooling has been completed air temperatures and lower discharge movement should be balanced so that only temperatures. respiratory heat generated by the grapes is removed. 5.4 Maintenance • Ensure the size and number of banks of fans are suitable for the cool room design and cooling The cool room should be regularly maintained to requirements. ensure it is operating as efficiently as possible. Maintenance should include:

• ensuring that refrigeration condensers are kept clean;

• checking and maintaining door seals; and

• checking and topping up the refrigerant gas at the beginning of each season.

187 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

6.0 Measuring performance

A measure of the energy efficiency of cooling operations is the cool room energy use (kW) per volume of fruit. This can be calculated by estimating the total energy use (kW) used to run cool rooms over a year, and then dividing this by the volume of fruit that was cooled in those cool rooms during the same time period. The volume of fruit can be expressed as tonnes, number of boxes or number of pallets; however comparisons can be made across the same parameter only. Growers should be aiming to decrease the cool room energy use.

For further information about the table grape cool chain refer to:

• Table grapes – cool chain and sulphur dioxide (SO2) usage guide – from harvest to retail(3).

188 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

References

1 Agriculture Victoria (1997) ‘Certification Assurance Arrangement for Fumigation of Tablegrapes for Control of Red Back Spider’. (Agriculture Victoria). 2 Jobling J (2000) Practical solutions for temperature management. Good Fruit and Vegetables magazine. 10 (12). 3 Jobling J (2000). The mechanics of refrigeration. Good Fruit and Vegetables magazine. 10 (11).

4 McConnell S (2000) ‘Table Grapes – cool chain and sulphur dioxide (SO2) usage guide – from harvest to retail’. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria). 5 Thompson J (2001) Energy conservation in cold storage and cooling operations. Perishables Handling Quarterly. 105 : 7 – 9.

189 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Harvesting - Table Grapes

190 is a blank back up

190 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region

Glossary Glossary Full Page tab Glossary

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

Acid soils - Soils with a pH less than 7.0. Biodiversity (or biological diversity) - Is the variety of all living life-forms including plants, animals, and Action threshold - The size of pest populations or micro-organisms, the genes they all contain and the the severity of a disease infection that the crop/vines ecosystem of which they form a part. can tolerate before economic loss, is incurred or could be potentially incurred. Biological control agent – A commercially available product which contains beneficial organisms. Adjuvant - A compound added to a spray mix to improve its performance. Biological target - The pest, disease or weed being controlled. Alkaline soils - Soils with a pH greater than 7.0. Broadcasting – The process of applying fertiliser Allelopathy - A chemical process that a plant uses to across the soil surface. keep other plants from growing too close to it (e.g. pine needles causing soil acidity). Buffer (or acidifier) – An adjuvant that adjusts the pH of chemical solutions to make them more stable. Amenity – Useful or pleasant facility or service. Buffer zone – A physical barrier used to protect Annual Weeds - Reproduce primarily by seed on an sensitive areas, such as native vegetation, waterways annual basis. or residential properties, from chemical spray drift. A buffer zone can take the form of a cleared area of Annual regenerating sward - A type of cover crop land or a vegetative barrier. that sets seed in spring and then regenerates the following autumn. Calcium carbonate saturation index (CaCO3 SI) – The relationship between pH, salinity, alkalinity and Application rate - The amount of chemical applied hardness. It gives an indication of whether water is to an area (g or ml per m or Ha). likely to cause corrosion, scaling or block metal pipes and pumps. Application target - The place where the chemical application needs to be deposited (eg leaves, Catchcropping - Relies on substantial root uptake of bunches) in order to control the biological target (eg nitrate, which is consequently returned to topsoil as pest, disease, or weed). organic N through mulching of shoots.

Available water-holding capacity (or the water Chemical rate - The amount of chemical per 100L of available for plant growth) - The difference between water in the tank (g or ml per 100L) producing a field capacity and permanent wilting point. particular concentration of chemical in the droplet.

Ballast – A material, which provides steadiness and Chlorophyll – A green colouring matter in plants. stability (eg water can be added to tractor tyres to increase stability). Compaction layer – A layer of soil within the soil profile which has compacted soil aggregates and Banding – The process of applying fertiliser in bands pores as a result of continual cultivation and/or the along the soil surface. use of machinery.

Beneficial – An organism which provides benefits to Compost – Material produced as a result of the the vineyard through pest control or soil breakdown of organic matter by micro-organisms. improvement.

191 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Glossary

Concentrate application - Where the same amount Enzyme – Any group of complex proteins produced of chemical is applied as for dilute application except by living cells and assisting biochemical reactions. with less water. With concentrate application the point of run-off is not reached. Eutrophication – the process where water bodies become enriched with nutrients. Conservation Cropping System - Growing crops in combination with needed cultural and management Fertigation – The process of applying fertiliser measures to improve the soil and protect it during through an irrigation system. periods when erosion occurs. Includes cover cropping and crop rotation. Such practices provide Fertiliser – An inorganic or organic substance vegetative cover between crop seasons. applied to provide nutrients.

Cover - The percentage of target area covered by Field capacity - Soil eventually reaches a point chemical spray deposits. where it can’t hold any more water, and any excess drains away freely. The soil moisture content after Cover crop – A cover crop is a plant which is grown the excess water has drained is the field capacity. (or allowed to grow) between the vine rows to provide cover for the vineyard floor. A cover crop is Friable – Easily crumbled. generally used to control weeds and to improve the soil in the vineyard. Fungicides - Chemicals that kill or impair the growth of fungi Dilute application - Where the application target is sprayed with a liquid volume to a point just before Grape marc -The solid waste left after pressing in the run-off occurs. winery (e.g. seeds, skins etc, and sometimes stalks).

Dispersion – The breakdown of soil aggregates in Green manure - A green manure is an annual cover water to individual sand, silt and clay particles. crop grown for maximum biomass production for Highly dispersive soils normally erode easily and soil organic matter. have problems of crusting and hard setting. Hard pan – A hard compacted soil layer that Dose – The amount of chemical deposited on the develops between tilled and untilled layers when target surface, measured as micrograms per square soil is continually cultivated at the same depth or cm of target surface. when the soil is too wet.

Droplet spectrum – Term used to describe the Head – A term used to describe pressure in metres of droplets produced from spray equipment. The a height of water. One metre head = 10 kPa. droplet spectrum includes droplet size and range as well as the volume of liquid contained in the Herbicides - Chemicals that kill or prevent the droplets. growth of weeds.

Ecosystem – A dynamic complex of plant, animal, Humic substance - An important organic component fungal, and micro-organism communities and the of the soil produced by the decay of organic matter. associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit. Inorganic fertiliser – A synthetic fertiliser that is generally manufactured on a large scale. Environmental performance – Environmental performance relates to the degree of impact on the Insecticides - Biological or chemical compounds environment. For example: high performance = low designed to kill, injure, reduce the fertility of, or negative impact on the environment, low modify the behaviour of insects. performance = high negative impact on the environment.

192 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Glossary

Knockdown herbicide (or contact herbicides) – A Plastic limit – The point at which soil is at the limit herbicide that kills the green tissue of plants on of being able to be moulded. Soil which exceeds the contact. plastic limit cannot be moulded.

Laterals – Pipes with outlets attached, which run Point of runoff – The point before which spray runs along vine rows. off the leaf being sprayed.

Leaching fraction – The additional irrigation water PRD (Partial rootzone drying) – The process of needed to leach salts out of the soil in the rootzone. withholding water from one side of the root-system, while the other side of the root-system is irrigated. Mainlines – The pipe lines that supply water from the pump or other water source to sub-mains. Probiotic – A substance containing beneficial microbes. Mulch - Any layer of material, which is used to cover and protect the soil surface. A mulch can be PTO – Power take off shaft. The part of a tractor organic (eg straw, plant material) or synthetic (eg used to transmit power to a wide variety of plastic). implements.

Natural enemy (or predator) – A beneficial organism RAW (Readily Available Water) - The amount of which attacks and destroys pests in the vineyard. water required to take the soil from refill point to field capacity or the depth of water that is easily Net gain – The outcome for native vegetation and available in a one metre depth of soil. habitat where overall gains are greater than overall losses and where overall losses are avoided where RDI (Regulated deficit irrigation) - The process of possible. applying less than the full irrigation requirement of the crop in a controlled repeatable manner at critical Neutral soils - Soils with a pH of 7.0. growth stages of the crop.

Organic fertiliser - A fertiliser made from the Refill point – Point in the drying cycle of the soil remains or by-product of something that was once when irrigation should be applied. living. Residual herbicide (also known as sterilant or pre- Organic matter – This consists of the residues of emergent) – A herbicide applied to the soil and plants and animals and their secretions and intended to kill weeds soon after germination occurs. excretions. Residual herbicides may remain active in the soil for some time. Perennial/permanent sward – A type of ground cover that can provide year round green growth. Salinity – This is a measure of the concentration of They may be perennial grasses and/or legumes. soluble salts in water.

Perennial Weeds - Weeds with a life cycle greater Silviculture – Branch of forestry concerned with than two years. Perennial weeds reproduce by seed cultivation of trees. and vegetative organs, such as rhizomes or tubers. Slaking - The breakdown of aggregates into micro- Permanent wilting point - The soil moisture content aggregates resulting from rapid wetting of soil by at which plants will not recover from wilting. rainfall or irrigation water. Soils that slake form hardset layers at the surface and may also have Petiole – Leaf stalk. surface crusts.

193 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Glossary

Sodicity – Sodic soils are those where the amount of Water hardness – This refers to the level of calcium sodium held onto the clay particles is 5% or more of and/or magnesium in water. Water with high levels the total cation exchange capacity (this is called the of calcium and/or magnesium can cause scaling in Exchangeable Sodium Percentage or ESP and micro-irrigation systems. represents the proportion of sodium ions held by clay particles compared to other positive ions). Watershed - The area of land that contributes to surface runoff to a given point in a drainage system. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) - The relationship between sodium, calcium and magnesium in soil. Weed – Any plant that is growing where it is The SAR has an effect on the water infiltration rate unwanted or undesired. into the soil. Wetter (or surfactant) – An adjuvant which improves Soil erosion – The detaching of soil particles from the wetting and coverage of a chemical on a target areas not well protected by vegetation and the surface. movement of these particles to another location. Soil erosion can take the form of water or wind erosion. Withholding period (WHP) - The time from chemical application until fruit can be harvested to Soil pH – This is a measure of the soils acidity or ensure that when the fruit reaches the consumer it alkalinity. contains an acceptable level of chemical residues.

Soil structure – The arrangement of aggregates of sand, silt and clay and the arrangement of spaces (pores) between these aggregates within the soil.

Stickers – An adjuvant that enhances the retention of chemicals on target surfaces.

Sub-mains – The pipe lines that distribute water to the laterals.

Subsurface drainage – The removal of excess water and salts from the soil via groundwater flow to drainage systems, so that the water tables and root zone salinity are controlled.

Surface drainage – The diversion or orderly removal of excess water from the surface of the land by means of improved natural or constructed channels, supplemented when necessary by the shaping and grading of land surfaces to such channels.

Translocated (or systemic) herbicide - A herbicide that kills weed by being absorbed by the green parts of the plant, and then being transported by the sap to the roots.

Vermicompost (or worm castings) - Materials, which have been processed through the gut of a worm.

194 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Glossary

List of Abbreviations

AFFA - Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry - Australia LEP – Local Environment Plan

Austlii - Australian Legal Information Institute MDB – Murray-Darling Basin

CAMBA - China-Australia Migratory Birds MDBMC – Murray Darling Basin Ministerial Agreement Council

CCA - Copper Chromium Arsenate MDBC – Murray Darling Basin Commission

CITES - Convention on International Trade in MRCC – Mildura Rural City Council Endangered Species NEPC – National Environment Protection Council CMA – Catchment Management Authority NEPM – National Environment Protection Measure DHS – Department of Human Services NPWS – National Parks and Wildlife Service (NSW) DLWC – Department of Land and Water Conservation (NSW) NRA – National Registration Authority

DIPNR – Department of Infrastructure, Planning NRE – Department of Natural Resources and and Natural Resources Environment (Vic)

DPI – Department of Primary Industries (Vic) NSW EPA – New South Wales Environment Protection Authority DOI – Department of Infrastructure (Vic) PEZ – Phylloxera Exclusion Zone DSE – Department of Sustainability and Environment PIZ – Phylloxera Infested Zone

EA – Environment Australia PRZ – Phylloxera Risk Zone

EDO – Environment Defenders Office PCP – Pentachlorophenol

FMIT – First Mildura Irrigation Trust REP – Regional Environment Plan IAA – Irrigation Association of Australia SEPP – State Environment Protection Policy (Vic) IDO – Interim Development Orders SMP – Salinity Management Plan

IWMP – Industrial Waste Management Policy SRWA – Sunraysia Rural Water Authority

JAMBA – Japan – Australia Migratory Birds Vic EPA – Victorian Environment Protection Agreement Authority

195 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region Glossary

196 Code of Environmental Best Practice for Viticulture - Sunraysia Region