PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF DISTRICT NOWSHERA KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA, PAKISTAN

SAJJAD ALI Ph.D. (Scholar)

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016 PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF DISTRICT NOWSHERA KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA, PAKISTAN

Thesis submitted to the Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN BOTANY

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016

267 Plagiarism Undertaking

I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled “Phytosociological and Ethnobotanical Studies of District Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” is solely my research work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me.

I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University Islamia College Peshawar towards plagiarism. Therefore I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is properly referred/cited.

I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled thesis even after award of PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right to publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.

Student /Author Signature: ______Name: Sajjad Ali

Author’s Declaration

I Mr. Sajjad Ali hereby state that my PhD thesis titled “Phytosociological and Ethnobotanical Studies of District Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for taking any degree from this University Islamia College Peshawar Or anywhere else in the country/world.

At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate the university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree.

Sajjad Ali : ______

Dated:12/02/2018

267 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents ...... i List of tables ...... iv List of figures ...... vi List of appendices ...... vii Acknowledgements ...... viii Abstract ...... x Chapter-1 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1 Introduction to the study area ...... 1 1.1.1 Area and topography ...... 1 1.1.2 Nature of land ...... 1 1.1.3 Climate, rainfall and temperature ...... 2 1.1.4 Languages ...... 3 1.2 Phytosociology ...... 5 1.2.1 History of phytosociology ...... 5 1.2.2 Introduction to the phytosociology ...... 6 1.3 Ethnobotany ...... 13 1.3.1 History of ethnobotany ...... 13 1.3.2 Introduction to the ethnobotany ...... 13 Chapter-2 ...... 23 MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 23 2.1 Floristic structure and ecological characteristics ...... 23 2.2 Biological spectra ...... 23 2.3 Leaf size spectra ...... 24 2.4 Phenological behavior...... 25 2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation structure ...... 25 2.5.1 Density ...... 26 2.5.2 Frequency ...... 26 2.5.3 Relative frequency ...... 26 2.5.4 Cover ...... 26 2.5.5 Importance Value ...... 27 2.5.6 Family Importance Value (FIV) ...... 27

i 2.5.7 Edaphology ...... 27 2.5.8 Soil texture ...... 28 2.5.9 Water holding capacity ...... 28 2.5.10 Calcium carbonate ...... 28 2.5.11 Nitrogen ...... 28 2.5.12 Phosphorus ...... 28 2.5.13 Potassium ...... 28 2.5.14 pH ...... 28 2.5.15 Electrical conductivity ...... 29 2.5.16 Total soluble salts ...... 29 2.5.17 Carbonates and bicarbonates ...... 29 2.5.18 Chloride ...... 29 ++ ++ 2.5.19 Calcium Magnesium ...... 29 2.5.20 Sodium ...... 30 2.5.21 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) ...... 30 2.5.22 Sulphates ...... 30 2.6 Ethnobotany ...... 30 2.6.1 Ethnobotanical profile ...... 30 2.6.2 Observations ...... 31 2.6.3 Interviews ...... 31 2.6.4 Preservation of vascular plants ...... 31 2.6.5 Fuel and timber wood species ...... 31 2.6.6 Fodder plants ...... 32 2.6.7 Local medicinal use of plants ...... 32 2.6.8 Analysis and documentation of research data ...... 32 2.7 Phytochemical screening ...... 33 2.7.1 Test for alkaloids ...... 33 2.7.2 Test for tannins ...... 33 2.7.3 Test for reducing sugars (Fehling’s test) ...... 33 2.7.4 Test for saponins ...... 34 2.7.5 Test for flavonoids ...... 34 2.7.6 Test for terpenoids ...... 34 2.7.7 Test for cardiac glycosides (Keller-Killiyani test) ...... 34 2.7.8 Total phenolic contents ...... 34

ii 2.7.9 Test for anthraquinones ...... 35 Chapter-3 ...... 36 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 36 3.1 Floristic composition ...... 36 3.1.1 Life form and seasonal variation ...... 37 3.1.2 Leaf size spectra and seasonal variation ...... 39 3.2 Phenological behavior...... 66 3.3 Vegetation structure ...... 88 3.3.1 Autumn aspect ...... 89 3.3.2 Winter aspect ...... 93 3.3.3 Spring aspect ...... 96 3.3.4 Summer aspect ...... 101 3.4 Ethnobotany ...... 109 3.5 Ethnomedicine ...... 130 3.6 Phytochemical screening ...... 153 3.6.1 Alkaloids ...... 153 3.6.2 Tannins ...... 154 3.6.3 Sugars ...... 154 3.6.4 Saponins ...... 155 3.6.5 Flavoniods ...... 155 3.6.6 Terpenoids ...... 156 3.6.7 Cardiac glycosides ...... 156 3.6.8 Phenolics ...... 157 3.6.9 Anthraquinones ...... 157 3.7 Chemical evaluation of some selected plants ...... 161 3.7.1 Proximate analysis ...... 161 3.8 Elemental nutrient analysis of selected plants ...... 169 Conclusions ...... 184 Recommendations and Suggestions ...... 187 Appendices ...... 189 References ...... 214 Questionnaire for Ethnobotanical Survey ...... 249 Questionnaire for Ethnomedicinal Survey ...... 250

iii LIST OF TABLES

Table-1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera ...... 2

Table-1.2: Meterological data of district Nowshera 2014 ...... 3

Table-2.1: Six Cover Classes for establishing plant cover ...... 27

Table 3.1: Floristic Diversity and Ecological Characteristics...... 41

Table-3.2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants ...... 65

Table-3.3: Phenological behavior of plants during 2013...... 69

Table-3.4: Summary of phenological stages ...... 86

Table-3.5: Number of species and Total Importance Value (TIV) ...... 105

Table-3.6: Physico-chemical features of soil during 2013 ...... 107

Table-3.7: List of ethnobotanically important plants...... 111

Table-3.8: Plants used as fodder ...... 119

Table-3.9: Plants used as fuel ...... 122

Table-3.10: Plants used in furniture industries ...... 124

Table-3.11: Plants used in thatching...... 124

Table-3.12: Plants used as vegetables ...... 125

Table-3.13: Plants used in hedge ...... 125

Table-3.14: Percentage of ethnobotanical usage of plants...... 126

Table-3.15: List of ethnomedicinal plants...... 133

Table-3.16: Plants used against asthma ...... 147

Table-3.17: Plants used in dysentery ...... 147

Table-3.18: Plants used as anthelmintic ...... 148

Table-3.19: Plants used as stimulant ...... 148

Table-3.20: Plants used in diarrhea...... 149

Table-3.21: Plants used as emollient...... 149

Table-3.22: Plants used in snake bite ...... 149

iv Table-3.23: Plants used in fever ...... 150

Table-3.24: Percentage of ethnomedicinal uses of plants ...... 151

Table-3.25: Different phytochemical tests at vegetative stages...... 159

Table-3.26: Different phytochemical tests at fruiting stages...... 160

Table-3.27: Proximate composition of the selected plant species...... 165

Table-3.28: Macronutrients of the selected plant species...... 172

Table-3.29: Micronutrients of the selected plant species ...... 180

v LIST OF FIGURES

Figure: 1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera ...... 2

Figure-1.2: Land cover map of district Nowshera ...... 4

Figure-3.1: Floristic list of district Nowshera ...... 64

Figure-3.2: Phenological behaviour of plants at district Nowshera ..... 87

Figure-3.3: Some views of the research area ...... 108

Figure-3.4: Percentage of ethnobotinical usage of plants ...... 127

Figure-3.5: Sheep and Goat grazing ...... 128

Figure-3.6: Ziziphus etc as fuel wood ...... 128

Figure-3.7: Stem branches of Ziziphus used as fences ...... 129

Figure-3.8: Gum of Acacia used in market ...... 129

Figure-3.9: Percentage of Ethnomedicinal usage of plants ...... 152

Figure-3.10: Proximate composition at vegetative stage ...... 167

Figure-3.11: Proximate composition at fruiting stage ...... 168

Figure-3.12: Macronutrients at vegetative stage ...... 174

Figure-3.13: Macronutrients at fruiting stage ...... 175

Figure-3.14: Micronutrients at vegetative stage ...... 182

Figure-3.15: Micronutrients at fruiting stage ...... 183

vi LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix-1: Autumn Community 2013...... 189

Appendix-2: Autumn Community2013...... 190

Appendix-3: Autumn Community 2013...... 191

Appendix-4: Autumn Community 2013...... 192

Appendix-5: Autumn Community 2013………...... 193

Appendix-6: Winter Community 2013……...... 194

Appendix-7: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..195

Appendix-8: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..196

Appendix-9: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..197

Appendix-10:Winter Community 2013…………………...... 198

Appendix-11: Spring Community 2013..…………………………………...199

Appendix-12:Spring Community 2013...... 200

Appendix-13:Spring Community 2013...... 202

Appendix-14:Spring Community 2013. ……...... 204

Appendix-15: Spring Community 2013...... 206

Appendix-16: Summer Community2013...... 208

Appendix-17: Summer Community 2013… ...... 209

Appendix-18: Summer Community 2013...... 210

Appendix-19: Summer Community 2013 ...... 211

Appendix-20:Summer Community 2013...... 212

vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Nothing can happen nor could anything be done without the will of Allah Almighty. Indeed, I am extremely grateful to Allah Who gave me strength to begin this task, Who bestowed upon me special help to pursue my project, and Who gave me a team of selfless friends, supporting teachers and capable guides. Due to these Divine favours, finally, I managed to steer my project towards completion.

I cannot find suitable words to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Syed Zahir Shah (Former Dean, Faculty of Life and Chemical Sciences). His professional and technical support, valuable counseling, personal interest and supervision made it possible for me to attain my goal. Despite his numerous engagements and responsibilities, he helped me out to complete this manuscript.

I am also extremely thankful to my teacher Prof. Dr. Farrukh Hussain (Former Dean, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Pesh.) for his strong support and reliable guidance at every stage of my research work.

It would be great injustice if I do not pay homage and acknowledge the sincere support, and incessant co-operation of my teachers – Dr. Samin Jan, Dr. Muhammad Saleem Khan, Dr. Naveed Akhtar, Dr. Izhar Ahmad, Dr. Wisal Muhammad Khan, Dr. Arshad Iqbal, Mr. Khushnood Ur Rehman, Dr Fida Hussain, Prof. Dr. Fazle Malik Sarim, Dr. Sami Ullah, Dr. Tabassum Yaseen, Mr. Imtiaz Ahmad, Mr. Syed Adil Hayat, Mr. Fazle Rahim, Miss Sumaira Shah and Mr. Ishaq Khan.

I am extremely grateful to Prof. Mahboob-ur-Rehman, Govt. Degree College, Matta, Swat, for his valuable help in plants identification. I am also thankful to Dr. Dawood Jan, Senior Research Scientist, Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA), Tarnab, Peshawar, for his in-depth knowledge of elemental analysis of plant and soil samples. I also want to say thanks to all

viii my respectable teachers, friends and colleagues, particularly Abdur Rehman, Izhar Khan, Shah Khalid and Muhammad Ismail for their good wishes, moral support and help in thesis setup. I am also grateful to all staff members of Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar and Bacha Khan University, Charsadda for their selfless support and cooperation during my research hours. I extend special thanks to Mr. Syed Sajid (alias Doctor), for composing this manuscript in short time but carefully and painstakingly.

This thesis is an artifact of several field visits, a number of surveys and various group discussions. Many people have contributed towards the realization of this work in one way or the other. However, I apologize if I missed to mention the name of any individual or organization who contributed in this project.

In the end, I want to express my deep gratitude to my sisters, brother and in-laws for their prayers and good wishes.

Last, but definitely not the least, are my ever-loving parents. For me, they are incomparable and above everyone on the surface of the earth. Their pure and undiluted love, their sincere and genuine prayers and their unyielding support gave me strength and confidence to accomplish the highest goal of my life.

Sajjad Ali

ix ABSTRACT

A survey was carried out to evaluate the phytosociological and ethnobotanical features of district Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study was performed in different seasons of 2013-2015. The plant diversity comprised of 221 species belonging to 75 families. Among the total reported plant species, Poaceae (28 spp.) was the dominant family, followed by Brassicaceae (15 spp.) and Papilionaceae (13 spp.) while other families had less than 09 species each. Hydrophytes had 44 species (19.8%); xerophytes had the share of 157 species (70.72%), while 21 species (9.45%) were amphibious in nature. Plant species possessing simple leaves were 170 (76.57%) species having compound leaves were 23 (10.36%). There were 24 species (10.81%) with dissected leaves and 04 species (2.25%) were aphyllous. Seasonal variation of species diversity indicated 172 species (77.92%) in spring, followed by summer with 119 species (54.5%), winter with 89 species (40.54%) and autumn with 83 species (37.83%). Biological spectrum showed that therophytes were dominant life form and were represented by 109 species (50.1%), followed by microphanerophytes with 25 species (10.58%). Nanophylls were the leading leaf size spectra with 94 species (42.23%), followed by microphylls with 75 species (33.78%), while leptophylls had 32 species (14.41%), mesophylls had 16 species (7.20%) and aphyllous were 04 species (2.25%). The phenological studies revealed that in February the major bulk of flora (22.52%) was in vegetative phase. In March 23.87% species blossomed and their number decreased towards the fall season. April was the peak fruiting season. The dormant period lasted from November to January. Twenty plant communities were established in five sites. Among these Olea-Rydingia-Justicia, Prosopis- Justicia-Acacia, Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea, Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Microsisymbrium-Dodonaea-Olea, Lactuca-Salvia- Allium and Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera were the important communities of the area. Ethnobotanical data showed that 71 species belonging to 65 genera and 39 families were used for various purposes. Among these, family Asteraceae contributed the highest number of plant species (08) used by local community. Leaves (50 spp; 70.42%) were the

x commonly used plant part followed by stems (47 spp; 66.16%), whole plant (13 spp; 18.22%), fruits (09 spp; 14.27%) and roots (04 spp; 5.17%). Wild herbs were the dominant growth form (44 spp; 61.38%), followed by wild trees (16 spp; 23.54%) and wild shrubs (11 spp; 15.06%). Indigenes mostly used the wild plants for various purposes; 45 species of wild plants (63.38%) were used as fodder, 29 species (41.25%) as fuel, 10 species (14.69%) were used in furniture making, 08 species (11.95%) were used for thatching purpose, 07 species (9.58%) were used as vegetables, 04 species of wild plants (5.84%) were used as hedges, and 03 species (4.22%) were used as ornamental plants. There was only one species each used in production of hair oil, cloth colouring, ropes preparation, hand fan making, perfumes production and detergent industries. Ethnomedicinal data revealed that 90 plant species belonging to 84 genera and 37 families were used by the local community for treatment of various ailments. The dominant growth forms of indigenous medicinal plants were wild herbs which comprised of 66 species (73.33%), followed by wild trees with 14 species (14.58%) and wild shrubs 10 species (11.45%). The highest number of medicinal plant species (10 spp.) was contributed by family Asteraceae. Plants used by the local community for the treatment of various ailments were: 30 species used for fever, followed by diarrheaand stimulant (09 spp; each), dysentery (08 spp; each), as anthelmintic (07 spp.), for relief in asthma (06 spp.), in venomous snake bite (04 spp.) and as emollient (02 spp.). Regarding indigenous medicine, the leaves are the most preferred plant part (62.12%), followed by stems (33.17%), roots (21.66%), seeds (17.95%), fruits (16.37%), whole plant (14.40%) and flowers (2.08%). Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites of selected plant species revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, sugars, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and anthraquinones. These chemicals were mostly found at post reproductive stage. Methanolic fraction contained more secondary metabolites as compared to chloroform and n-hexane fractions. The results of proximate composition showed variation at two phenological stages. The moisture contents ranged from 2.31% to 59.23% at vegetative stage and 1.46% to 62.51% at post reproductive stage. Ash contents ranged from 0.9% to 18.50% at vegetative stage and 2.1% to 20.0% at post

xi reproductive stage. Crude fats ranged from 0.98% to 23.45% at vegetative stage and 1.20% to 28.93% at post reproductive stage. Crude fiber ranged from 0.2% to 15.11% at vegetative stage and 0.3% to 20.68% at post reproductive stage. Protein content ranged from 2.31% to 27.56% at vegetative stage and 4.71% to 28.56% post reproductive stage. Carbohydrates content ranged from 28.39% to 83.53% at vegetative stage and 29.35% to 78.83% at post reproductive stage. Investigation of elemental nutrition of the selected plant species at two phenological stages showed a decreased trend towards maturity. Soil textural analysis showed that soil was mostly sandy clay-loam with 7.3 to 8.1 pH and 0.3dSm-1 to 7.2dSm-1 Electrical Conductivity (EC). Organic matter ranged from 0.4% to 7.1%. Nitrogen ranged from 0.02 % to 0.27 %. Phosphorus, Zinc, Iron and Potassium were 7 ppm to 16 ppm, 2.1 ppm to 4.4ppm, 9.4ppm to 11.5ppm and 100ppm to 180ppm respectively. Calcium carbonate was found from 11.2% to 17.2% whileeach Ca++ and Mg++were in the range of 16.5 Mequ/l to 35 Mequ/l.

xii CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to the study area

The district Nowshera lies in KhyberPakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It is located between 33o42 to 34o 09 N latitude and 71o 97to 72o 15 E longitude. It is surrounded by Mardan and Charsadda districts on north, Peshawar district in west, Swabi district on north east and Kohat district in south. Attock district is located to the southeast (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011). This district was a part of Afghanistan and was known as Nowkhaar Province till it was annexed into British India via the Durand Line Agreement. Nowshera district is divided into 47 Union Councils.

1.1.1 Area and topography

The district covers an area of about 181610 hectares (Bukhari et al., 2012). The topography of the district is mostly piedmont plain or hilly areas consisting of Attock Cherat ranges (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011).

1.1.2 Nature of land

Bukhari et al. (2012) reported that 37560 hectares (20.6%) of the total land is covered by forests. A small fraction i-e 496 hectares (0.3%) of the total land is covered by scrub vegetation. The area under agricultural use is 79054 hectares (43.3%). Some of the areas are covered by rangelands which accounts for 46264 hectares (25.5%). Barren land covers a total area of 2710 hectares (1.5%) and only 4897 hectares (2.7%) are covered by water bodies. Almost 10629 hectares (5.9%) of the total area is occupied by settlements of the locals (Table-1.1).

1 Table-1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera S.No Nature of Land Quantity (hectares) Percentage

1 Forests 37560 20.6

2 Shrub and bushes 496 0.3

3 Range land 46264 25.5

4 Agriculture land 79054 43.3

5 Settlements 10629 5.9

6 Barren land 2710 1.5

7 Water bodies 4897 2.7

Total 181610 100

1.5% 2.7% 5.9% Forests 20.6% Shrub and bushes 0.3% Range land Agriculture land 43.3% 25.5% Settlements Barren land Water bodies

Figure: 1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera

1.1.3 Climate, rainfall and temperature

Climate of Nowshera is semi-arid, with hot summer and cold winter. June is considered the hottest month, with maximum temperature range of 40- 45oC, while maximum ever recorded temperature is 50oC in 1994. Lowest temperature that was recorded for the region is -3.1oC in 2000. The area receives 635 mm annual rainfall (Table 1.2) of which most rainfalls takes place from Feburary-August (Processing center, Pakistan meteorological department, Peshawar).

2 Table-1.2: Metrological data of distric Nowshera for the year 2014

Month Mean Minimum Mean Maximum Mean Precipitation Average Relative (Temperature oC) (Temperature oC) (mm) Humidity (%) January 2.9 20.7 5.2 66.5

February 6.1 20.1 40.6 71

March 10.2 22.6 119.7 86

April 15.5 30.0 54.8 55

May 20.1 34.8 16.6 50

June 24.6 41.2 27.8 45

July 26.4 37.6 48.4 71

August 25.9 37.0 61.0 63.5

September 23.7 35.5 15.0 63

October 18.1 29.9 43.2 74

November 9.0 25.5 1.2 66.5

December 3.8 20.8 0.0 68

Annual 186.3/12 = 15.52 355.7/12 = 29.64 433.5/12 = 36.12 779.5/12 = 64.95 Source: Processing center, Pakistan meteorological department, Peshawar.

1.1.4 Languages

A large majority of people speak Pushto as their mother language. However, some people of Nowshera, particularly the residents of eastern side are bilingual, speaking Hindko and Pushto languages. After demographic changes due to arrival of Pushtuns, Pushto language became the local language of the district. Urdu, being the national language of Pakistan, is understood and even spoken with the people of other provinces.

3

Figure-1.2: Land cover map of district Nowshera

4 1.2 Phytosociology

1.2.1 History of phytosociology

On the basis of approaches with respect to development, history of phytosociology can be divided into two periods.

 Period of a physiognomic approach to vegetation (formation theory in the 19th century)

 Period of a floristic approach to vegetation (Braun-Blanquet, 1918, 1913).

The periods characterized by the physiognomic approach to vegetation started at the beginning of the 19th century with Humboldt (1805), the great master of plant geography. He focused his studies on plant distribution, formation of communities and plant growth forms. Purely physiognomic terms were created for the large-scale distribution of vegetation units or formations. These included deserts, steppes, savana, deciduous hard-wood forests, evergreen rain forests, etc, (Knapp, 1954; Filzer, 1956; Box, 1981). Schouw in (1822) was the first to divide the entire Earth’s surface into plant-related geographical provinces. He emphasized on the phenomena of plant distribution and community formation. These scientific pioneers named here can, however, be considered neither plant scientists nor phytosociologists in the modern sense of these terms. Nonetheless, as already pointed out, they were plant geographers who paid particular attention to the phenomenon of the formation of plant communities. For the most part, they applied the term formation as the basis for their study of vegetation. The term “formation” is still used today when referring to less refined division of large areas of vegetation on the earth. It no longer suffices to describe a more detailed study of vegetation on a smaller scale. This realization was already evident at the turn of the century, as the transition was made to attempt a more refined differentiation between vegetation units and classifying them as objectively as possible. In their place, plant species became more important for classification purposes. Answering the question, which types can be found and in what

5 quantity can they be found, leads to determination of quality and quantity of individual species in the vegetation unit. This led to the development of modern plant sociology based on the floristic approach (Balik & Cox, 1997).

Cajander (1909) was among the founders of modern plant sociology. He characterized the different conifer forest types, in Finland. According to floristic and sociological principles, he already used the term character types. On the basis of suggestions made by Flahault & Schroter (1910), the term phytosociology was coined for the study of plant communities (Paczoski, 1896; Miyawaki, 1980).

1.2.2 Introduction to the phytosociology

Phytosociology is defined as the study of the smallest area that provides sufficient space or combination of habitat factors for a particular stand of a community type to develop its essential combination of species or its characteristic composition and structure (Cain & Castro, 1959).

Vegetation may be defined as a unit which possesses characteristics in physiognomy and structure sufficiently large enough to permit their differentiation from other such units (Khan et al., 2010). The biological spectrum is defined as percentage ratio of life form of plant present in any area. It is an important physiognomic attribute that has been widely used in vegetation studies. Life form spectrum tells us about the climate of an area and can be predicted for particular climate, for any continent, region and altitude (Sarmiento & Monasterio, 1983). Similarly, leaf size knowledge may help in understanding the physiological processes of plant and plant communities (Oosting, 1956).

Phytosociology is a sub discipline of plant ecology that describes the co-occurrence of plant species in communities (Ewald, 2003). Vegetation and soil characteristics are so interconnected and inter-dependent that they become indicative of each other. A habitat under certain existing ecological conditions would permit plants being adjusted to these conditions, thus soil-plant relationship becomes so close that plants reveal the ecological situation of the

6 inhabited locality (Anonymous, 1991; Boggs, 2000). Vegetation diversity is primarily determined by a combination of interacting physical and chemical factors like water, temperature, solar radiation and air current flow velocity (Hinterlang, 1992). The level of essential elements in plants is dependent on geochemical characteristics of the soil and on the form of their bond with the components of the soil. Plants obtain these elements through roots (Bin et al., 2001).

Floristic composition and phytosociology of different forests and areas of the world have been investigated by several workers. Dhole et al. (2013) collected 30 weeds species from the wheat field in the Marathwada region Indiathat belongs to 26 genera and 15 families. Most of the species (07) were members of family Euphorbiaceae, followed by family Asteraceae (04 species), Amaranthaceae and Cyperaceae (03 species each). 02 species were found to be in Poaceae, Solanaceae and Molluginaceae. The rest of the families have 01 species each. Lumbres et al. (2014) conducted the study to assess the floral composition of the forest in Philippine. A total of 78 species belonging to 43 families were identified in this communal forest. The most dominant species in this area was Pinus kesiya with an importance value of 64.19. Pandey & Pitman, (2003) analysed the plant diversity in preserved Sal forest of Gorakhpur, India. A total of 208 plant species representing 165 genera and 72 families were recorded. The Sal forest was rich in family Papilionaceae (23 species). Manhas et al. (2010) reported a total of 206 species belonging to 159 genera and 59 families from Pathankot, India. The contribution of dicotyledons, monocotyledons and pteridophytes was 77.7%, 20.4% and 1.9%, respectively. Ipomoea was the most dominant genus. Biological spectrum of the study site showed that therophytes (52%) were the most dominant followed by phanerophytes (27%).

Francisco et al. (2009) made a cheaklist of Commelinaceae of Guinea, containing 46 species. Palisota was known to be best representive genus, having 11 species. Eleven species of Commelinaceae were recorded for the first time in the country. Eilu et al. (2004) recorded a total of 5747 trees belonging to 53 families and 159 genera. Number of species was highest in the

7 family Euphorbiaceae (25 species) followed by Meliaceae and Rubiaceae with 16 species each. Based on Rabinowitz's forms of rarity, 93% of the species were geographically widespread, 47% were restricted to a single forest type, while 41% occurred at densities of <1 individual ha-1. Gimenez et al. (2004) worked on the flora and biodiversity of Iberian Peninsula which has 516 vascular endemic species or subspecies with an endemicity rate of 13%. This study dealt with species richness, originality, life forms and dispersal modes of these plants, in relation to altitudinal and rainfall gradients. Chamaephytes (46.08%) and hemicryptophytes (31.37%) were found in abundance, whereas therophytes (11.96%) and phanerophytes (0.98%) were relatively rare.

In the forests of Valparai plateau 103 families with 312 species were reported. The forests comprised of 1968 trees (144 species), 2250 lianas (60 species), and 6123 understory plants (108 species) (Muthuramet al., 2006). Segawa and Nkuutu (2006) recorded 179 species from Lake Victotia Central Uganda. Of these, Rubiaceae was the richest with fourteen species followed by Euphorbiaceae (13 species), Apocynaceae (10 species) and Moraceae (9 species). Majority of the families (35) were represented by 01 species each. Fifty eight herbaceous species, 39 lianas, 10 shrubs and 72 species of trees were recorded. Costa et al. (2007) listed 133 species belonging to 47 families from Caatinga in Northeast. The herbaceous/woody ratio was 1: 4. The Raunkiaerean life-form spectrum observed was: therophytes (42.9%), phanerophytes (26.3%), chamaephytes (15.8%), hemicryptophytes (12.8%), and cryptophytes (2.3%).

Review on floristic listing, composition, phytosociology and ecological characteristic of vegetation in Pakistan is given as under:

Khan & Musharaf, (2014) recognized the plant diversity in tehsil Katlang; district Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The flora comprised of 165 plant species belonging to 124 genera and 54 families. Asteraceae and Poaceae were the dominant families. The biological spectrum explains that therophytes (78 species, 47.27%) were the dominants followed by chamaephytes (29 species, 17.58%). Microphylls (78 species, 47.27%) were

8 dominant leaf size followed by mesophylls (34 species, 20.61%). Khan & Musharaf, (2014) studied the floristic composition and biological characteristics of the Shahbaz Garhi, Mardan area.The flora comprised of 132 plant species belonging to 104 genera and 47 families. Asteraceae and Poaceae were the dominant families. The biological spectrum revealed that therophytes (63 species, 47.73%) were the dominant life form. Dominant leaf size class of plant was microphylls (62 species, 46.97%). Barkatullah et al. (2011) studied the phytosociological and ethnobotanical characters of Skimmia laureola. A total of 44 different species were found in association with S. laureola in different localities. Ethnobotanically the leaves of S. laureola were also used as cough remedy and commercially harvested as flavoring agent in food, and in traditional healing. The smoke of the dry leaves is used for nasal tract clearness. It is also used for cold, fever and headache treatment.

Shah & Rozina (2013) observed phytodiversity of Dheri Baba Hill Gohati and Peer Taab Graveyard from where a total of 72 plant species were identified belonging to 23 families. Twelve different plant communities were recognized. Species like Cynodon dactylon, Boerrhavia procumbens, Calotropis procera, Cyperus rotundus, Tribulis terristris, Digera muricata and Ziziphus mauritiana dominated these communities. The life form and leaf size spectra were also determined in which therophytes (30%) and chamaephytes (13%) dominated all the stands. Microphylls (42%) and mesophylls (24%) were dominant in Dheri Baba hills while in case of Peer Taab Graveyard microphylls (42%) and nanophylls (15%) were the dominant species. Khan et al. (2013) studied the eco-taxanomy of family Brassicaceae of district Mardan. Life form classes indicated 66% therophytes followed by 17% chamaephytes, 14% hemicryptophytes and 3% geophytes. Ilyas et al. (2013) identified a total of 593 plant species that belonged to 130 families from Swat. Among total families Poaceae contributed 65 species (10.96%), followed by Asteraceae (44 species, 7.42%). The largest genera were: Cyperus and Persicaria (7 species each). Sher et al. (2013) recognized 13 plant communities on the basis of importance values from Sudhan Galli Hills, district Bagh, Azad Kashmir. Pinus-Berberis-Carex, Pinus-Sarcococa-Hedra,

9 Pinus-Sarcococa-Carex, Pinus-Vibernum-Poa and Pinus-Sarcococa-Carex were dominant communities on the south facing slopes. Abies-Sarcococa- Fragaria, Abies-Sarcococa-Anogromma, Abies-Sarcococa-Urochloa, Abies- Vibernum-Fragaria, Abies-Vibernum-Galium and Abies-Vibernum-Viola community were recorded on the north facing slopes.

Nazir et al. (2012) studied the composition and diversity of plants in the lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Kashmir. Pinus-Poa-Maytenus, Myrsine-Themeda-Pinus, Colebrookia-Themeda-Dodonaea, Themeda- Carissa-Adhatoda, Themeda-Dodonaea-Eriophorum, Carissa-Myrsine- Themeda, Carissa-Themeda-Dodonaea, Dodonaea - Carissa – Pinus communities were recognized. Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported life form and leaf spectra from the plants of Basu vally, district Sakardu. They described 50 plant species that belonged to 22 families. The biological spectrum showed that chameaphytes (26.38%) were the dominant life form of the area. It was followed by hemicryptophytes (19.83%), nanophanerophytes (19.17%), megaphanerophytes (17.23%) and therophytes (12.06). Leaf size spectra of plant communities consisted of microphylls (24%), leptophylls (52%), nanophylls (20%) and megaphylls (4%). The dominancy of chameaphytes, leptophylls and microphylls showed that the area varied from subtropical to alpine type. Khan et al. (2010) studied the vegetation of Thandiani forests, district Abbottabad. 15 plant communities were recorded in the study area. The soil of the study area was loamy clay with pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.75.

Khan & Hussain, (2013) collected 161 plant species belonging to 52 families in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Pakistan, where 25 monocotyledonous and 136 dicotyledonous species were identified. Among 52 families, the dominant was family Poaceae with 17 species following Asteraceae and Papilionaceae with 13 species each. Sher et al. (2011) identified 40 weed species belong to 21 families, from wheat fields of village Lahor, district Swabi. Poaceae (7 spp) was the dominant family, followed by Brassicaceae (5 spp), Caryophyllaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae (each with 4 spp). The remaining families had single species each. Based on importance value four communities viz., Arenaria- Anagallis-Chenopodium, Fumaria-Rumex-Chenopodium, Fumaria-

10 Chenopodium-Anagallis and Arenaria-Fumaria-Chenopodium were recognised. The biological spectrum revealed that there were 82.5% therophytes and 12.5% hemicryptophytes. Geophytes and chamaephytes were represented by 01 species each. Leaf spectra comprised of microphylls (42.5%), nanophylls (35%) and leptophylls (22.5%).

Ahmed & Qadir, (1976) reported 07 plant communities from himalayan range of Pakistan. Sher et al. (2010) investigated economically important plant communities in several parts of Malam Jabba valley, Swat. They documented 90 species of ethnobotanical important plants, out of these 71 spp used as medicinal plants, 20 spp as fodder plants, 10 spp as vegetables, 14 spp as wild fruit, 18 spp as fuel wood, 09 spp for furniture and agricultural tools, 09 spp for thatching, fencing and hedge, 04 spp for honey bee, 02 spp for evil eyes, 02 spp have religious importance and 03 spp as poison. Phytosociologically six plant communities were found, comprising five herbs- shrubs-trees communities and one meadow community. Jan et al. (2010) carried out the vegetation analysis of district Lower Dir. A total of 06 tree species existed among which Monotheca buxifolia occurred as dominant tree species on overall locations ranging with 62% to 100%. Olea ferruginea and Acacia modesta were reported in four stands as a second dominant species. Farooq et al. (2010) recognized 05 plant communities on the basis of highest importance values in Ziarat area. These communities are Pinus-Abies- Sophora, Pinus-Abies, Abies-Cedrus, Abies-Pinus and Pinus-Abies. All these communities comprised economically valuable wood; firewood, medicinal and aromatic plants. Hussain et al. (2010) carried out the phytosociology of National Park in Northern Areas of Pakistan, Central Karakoram. It was documented that 05 stands by trees and 08 stands by bushes were dominant. Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana form a community in two sites, associated with Juniperus excelsa.

Hadi et al. (2009) worked out the flora of Botanical Garden Azakhel, during summer and reported 30 weed species belonging to 28 genera and 15 families. The dominant family was Poaceae (7 species) followed by Asteraceae (5 species), Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,

11 Solanaceae and Verbenaceae with 2 species each. Leaf size spectra showed 4 leptophylls, 13 nanophylls, 9 microphylls, 3 mesophylls and 01 macrophyll.

Hussain et al. (2009) recorded the diversity and ecological characteristics of weeds of wheat fields at Azakhel, district Nowshera and investigated 62 weed species including 15 monocots and 01 pteridophyte belonged to 24 families. Poaceae contribute maximum number of species (15 spp, 24.19%), followed by Asteraceae (8 spp, 12.90%), Brassicaceae and Papilionaceae (each with 5 spp). Therophytes (53 spp, 85.48%) and nanophylls (25 spp, 40.32%) were the major life form and leaf size classes. Phenological studies showed thatduring January 95% of weeds were in vegetative phase while during March 61 and 26% were in flowering and fruiting stage respectively.

Phytosociology and vegetation analysis of Pakistan forests have been reported by several other workers from time to time i.e Hussain (1969 a, b), Hussain & Qadir (1970), Chaghtai et al. (1989), Naqvi (1976), Ahmed & Qadir (1976), Ahmed (1976, 1988), Hussain et al.(1981), Amin & Ashfaq (1982), Beg & Khan (1984), Qadri (1986), Hussain & Shah (1989), Ahmed et al. (1990), Ajaib et al. (2009), Wahab et al.(2008), Ahmed et al.(2009), Siddiqui et al.(2009), Hussain & Illahi (1991), Hussain (1984), Chaudhri (1960), Qadir et al. (1966), Hussain & Qadir (1970), Shaukat & Qadir (1970), Ahmed (1988), Malik & Hussain (1987), Durrani & Hussain (2005) and Khan & Shaukat (2005). Beside these, individual and localized of some work areas of Pakistan, need comprehensive quantitative investigations to describe various types of forest communities and population structure. One of such area is district Nowshera which comes under the sub-tropical dry forests (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011)

The review showed no reference on the flora and overall phytosociology and ethnobotany of the research area. Thus there is need to investigate phytosociology and ethnobotany of district Nowshera.

12 1.3 Ethnobotany

1.3.1 History of ethnobotany

Harshberger (1896) defined ethnobotany as “the study of the utilitarian relationship between human beings and vegetation in their environment, including medicinal uses”. The concept of ethnobotany began longer before the use of the term by Harshberger. In 77 AD, Dioscorides, the Greek surgeon published “De Materia Medica” which was a catalogue of about 600 plants in the Mediterranean, including information on how the Greeks consumed the plants and when each plant was collected, especially for medicinal purposes (Balick & Cox, 1997).

First record of plant medicine was compiled in Rigveda between 4500- 1600 BC and Ayurveda 2500-600 BC (Harshberger, 1896). In 19th century Humboldt composed data from the new world while Captain Cook brought back information on plants from the South Pacific. At that time botanical gardens were introduced, such as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Edward Palmer collected articles and botanical specimens from people in the North American West (Great Basin) and Mexico from 1860s to 1890s (Balick & Cox, 1997).

1.3.2 Introduction to the ethnobotany

“Ethnobotany is the knowledge of plants usage by the native people and their usefulness as understood to the people of a particular ethnic group, since information concerning a particular plant varies from one ethnic group to another” (Tor et al., 2003; Igoli et al., 2005). Many countries still depend on plants for their economy, medicine, food, construction material, fire wood, dyes and ornamentals purposes etc. The aim of the ethnobotanical study is to have a better understanding of the local uses, improved use of resources, to find new ways for transferring this knowledge to future generations and to search for new pharmaceuticals to be used in biomedicine (Kufer et al., 2005). Similarly ethnobotanical knowledge establishes priorities in the local communities and assists taxonomists, ecologists, pharmacologists, watershed

13 and wild life managers in their efforts for improving the economic status of the area (Ibrar et al., 2007).

Traditionally forests and rangelands are the main sources of medicinal plants in many areas of Pakistan and therefore, are commonly exploited commercially. Since these wild plants have been collected for decades, their cultivation and ex.situ management has been neglected in the past (Beg & Khan, 1984). The lack of knowledge about the part used and time of collection leads to misuse of the species. Presently a number of barriers exist to the sustainable cultivation, gathering and use of medicinal plants. These include little understanding of sustainable management parameters and knowledge of market requirement (Sher & Khan, 2007). Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary science defined as relationship between plants and people and is not restricted to utilization of plants food, shelter, clothing etc but also use for holy ceremonies, decoration and treatment of various diseases (Schultes, 1992).

In early times, ethnobotany research was mostly the investigation of plants used by residents but recent ethnobotany was concerned with enlightenment of multifarious relationships between cultures and uses of plants, keeping in view several aspects mainly on how plants used and observed across human cultures for instance, as food, medicines, textiles, tools, currency, clothing, in cosmetics, dyeing, construction, literature, divination, rituals and in social life (Acharya & Shrivastava, 2008). Long & Wang (1994) conducted a research on thecultural and social values of ethnobotany. To search for the uses of plants, ethnobotany becomes a major part of the world. Modern studies of plants are an imperative fact of ethnobotanical research; from time immemorial, individuals treated themselves with outdated medicines and ancient remedies (Amrit, 2007; Bourdy et al., 2008). Furthermore, it was reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) that about 80% of the total world population depends on traditional medicine (Marshal, 1998; Said et al., 2002; Adiaratou, 2005; Lucy, 1999).

14 Human beings have found medications for several purposes surrounded by their locality and also implemented numerous strategies depending upon the climate, phytogeographic and plant characteristics, as well as upon the socio-structural typologies (Nichter, 1992).

There are variety of plants, whose leaves are reaped and are used as fodder either fresh or stored for times of fodder shortage, such as Quercus incana, Q. semicarpifolia and Q. glauca (Lohan et al., 1983; Bajracharya et al., 1985). In Israel, leaves and young stems of Q. calliprinos are a major source of food for cattles (Perevolotsky et al., 1993).

In Pakistan, maize is cultivated in abundance, as it is cheap and appreciated fodder for animals and also has enough nutrients e.g. 1.66% proteins, 0.34% fats and 5.48% fiber (Nazir et al., 2003). In Himachal Pradesh, India, unavailability of fresh fodder for mulch is a main problem (Banyal & Bhardwaj, 2003). Other plants like Helleteres isora with enough nutrients, reaping ability, tastiness, and restoration potential are also used as fooder (Bhatt et al., 1992).

It was observed that animals are usually selective in their needs of fodder e.g red deers are fond of leaves while goat and sheeps prefer grasses hence produces significant affect on the availability of fodder (Petrak, 1992; Grunwaldt et al., 1994). Unsustainable grazing adversely affected the growth of conifers and other broad-leaves species (Chaghtai et al., 1989).

Cline-Cole et al. (1990) & Smith (1981) stated that the oil-richand developed countries have shifted to modern form of energies leaving behind fuel wood and charcoal, but eventhen almost two billion people from all over the world fulfill their energy needs by fuel wood and charcoal. In ancient times the wood resources were more than the need but with increasing population the need of fuel wood resource increases up to 3 to 4% per annum (IUCN, 2001).To fulfill the need of fuel wood, about 7000 to 9000 hectares of forest has been depleted every year while the rate of this depletion is intence particularly in rular areas due to lack of other fuel wood reources (Ilyas,

15 2006). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 1981 reported that fuel wood is the need of both developed and under developed countries. The report also reveals that about 2 billion people of developing countries are dependent upon fuel wood. Regardless of domestic needs, fuel wood is used in several industries including smithies, brick work, curing of tobacco and potteries. It was further reported by FAO in 1984 that about 1148 million people fulfill their domestic energy need only by consuming fuel wood. Among total estimated population, 1052 million people belong to Asia. Arnold et al. (2003) investigated that the consumption of fossil fuelis dominated as the major source of energy worldwide nevertheless use of traditional fuel resources till play an important role in fulfillment of energy needs. The worldwide biomass fuel resources are estimated at about 100 EJ per annum (EJ= Exajoul). Hillring (2006) identified that Europe, South East Asia and North America are the main trade spots in wood, fuel wood and charcoal.

In Pakistan, it is reported that about 50% of domestic energy necessity are fulfilled by fuel wood while 16% by the fossil fuels and 34% by burning dung and crop waste (Sheikh, 1987). Among major producers of firewood, irrigated plantation of the Punjab, riverian forest of Sindh and the foothill scrubs are of greater importance. Per capita consumption of firewood is about 0.2m3 per annum (Hussain, 1990).

In Pakistan the diverse population of 122 million people uses forest wood. The current shortage in wood purchases had give rise to increasing fuel prices and higher socio-economic cost in the form of constantly eroding woody resources. To maintain developmental level, these resources need instant attention of the government (Sheikh, 1987; Ali & Qaiser, 1991-2004). In some rural areas such as Ushairy valley distric Upper Dir, wood is cheap and easily available source of fuel that is why local people mostly prefer forest wood to fulfill their domestic energy needs (Muhammad, 2011).

Review of ethnobotanical studies studies is summarized as follows:

16 Teklay et al. (2013) stated 114 medicinal plant species belonging to 100 genera and 53 families from Kilte Awulaelo district, Tigray region of Ethiopia. He reported that herbs were the most utilized plants, accounting for 44% of the species, followed by shrubs (29%). Leaf was the most commonly used plant part accounting for 42.98% of the plants, followed by roots (25.73%). Preference ranking exercise on selected plants used against abdominal pain indicated the highest preference of people for Solanum marginatum. Ganapthy et al. (2013) conducted an ethnobotanical survey to document the remedies used as a hepatoprotective in Kuppam, Sathupally and their surrounding villages of Andhra Pradesh, India. They reported that the medicinal plants used to treat variety of diseases and disorders of major body organs including liver as a hepatoprotective and antioxidants are Begonia laciniata, Dendrobium ovatum and Cuscuta epithymum. Pawar (2012) investigated 21 plant species used as traditional medicine against a variety of ailments from Jalgaon, India. All necessary informations about plants including mode and dosage are also provided.

Megersa et al. (2013) investigated a total of 126 medicinal plant species, distributed in 108 genera and 56 families from Wayu Tuka district, East Welega Zone of Oromia Regional State and West Ethiopia. Among 126 species of medicinal plants collected from the study area 86 (68%) were wild whereas 33 (26%) were cultivated. Fabaceae came out as a leading family with 15 medicinal species followed by Solanaceae with 08 species. Medicinal plants reported as being used for treating human ailments were 78 (62%), 23 (18.2%) for the treatment of livestock ailments and 25 (20%) for both. The most frequently used plant parts were leaves (43%), followed by roots (18.5%). Crushing, which accounted for (29%) and powdering (28%) were the widely used methods of preparation of traditional herbal medicines. Kumar et al. (2013) studied 32 plant species of Lower Foot Hills of Himachal Pradesh that has been used for the treatment of various oral complaints. Kumar et al. (2009) explored the information about 71 ethno-medicinally useful plants grown in Kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Family name, botanical name, local name, ethnomedicinal uses are given for each plant.

17 Lulekal et al. (2008) documented 230 plant species in Mana Angetu district south eastern Ethiopia. The most frequently used plant parts were roots (33.9%), followed by leaves (25.6%). Olea europaea L. sub spp cuspidate (Wall. ex G. Don) was the most important species followed by Acacia tortilis (Forssk.). Rasila et al. (2013) collected 24 plant species having medicinal and toxic properties and other uses representing 16 families from Manipurstate of India. The family Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae (3 species each) was dominant followed by Fabaceae, Apocynaceae (2 species each) and Ranunculaceae, Ericaceae, Rutaceae, Cactaceae, Polygonaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae, Sapindaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Mimosacea, and Meliaceae (1 species each). Tardío et al. (2006) compiled a total of 419 plant species belonging to 67 families in Spain. A list of species, plant parts used localization and method of consumption and harvesting time was documented. Among 07 different food categories considered, green vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used to prepare beverages, wild fruits, and plants used for seasoning, sweets, preservatives, and other uses. Arenas & Scarpa (2007) reported that Chorote people used 57 plant species as a source of food, which they used to consume in 118 different ways. A cross-cultural comparison with 04 neighboring ethnic groups reveals that one third of their plant foods are exclusive to the Chorote people, despite the fact that they share most of their edible plants with the other groups. Mizaraite et al. (2007) examined the possibilities of increasing the use of wood from private forests in Lithuania for bioenergy purposes. Potential wood fuel supply and consumption were investigated using a literature review and analysis of statistical data. Costs of wood chips production were calculated applying economic simulation. Okello & Segawa (2007) carried an ethnobotanical survey in Apac district and stated that roots were the most commonly harvested parts which have greatly affected the regeneration of medicinal plants. It was believed that plants collected only from the wild were effective. Though not intentional, plant parts which are not used for medicinal purposes are sometimes destroyed in the process of harvesting.

18 The main source of biomass fuel was homestead forests (40%). Maoe et al. (2009) highlighted the rich plant resources and the vast wealth of ethnobotanical information available with the various tribes of the region.

Parvaiz et al. (2013) studied the ethnobotany of medicinal plants of district Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 50 plant species were identified, that belonged to 29 families, which were being used by local inhabitants of the study area. Zereen & Sardar, (2013) documented the ethnobotanical knowledge of local people on wild trees in 08 districts of Central Punjab, viz., Vehari, Pakpattan, Lahore, Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib, Sahiwal, Sialkot and Narowal. 48 plant species belonging to 23 families were collected, including their utility by local people of respective districts for various purposes i.e medicine, fodder, fuel, vegetables, fruits, timber, etc. Manzoor et al. (2013) reported the medicinal vegetables and their role to treat different diseases. 26 vegetables belonging to 12 families were investigated for various disorders.

Ahmed et al. (2013) recognized a total of 93 plants species belonging to 80 genera and 56 families from New Murree, Pakistan. Most plants were used for medicinal and fodder purposes (27.93% each), followed by fuel (16.90%), fruit (6.55%), vegetable (5.52%) and ethno-veterinary (3.79%). Shahet al.(2013) recognized 131 plant species (2 Pteridophytes, 7 Monocots, 122 Dicots) belonging to 48 families (2 Pteridophytes, 4 Monocots, 42 Dicots) from Makerwal and Gulla Khel. The most commonly represented families were Amaranthaceae (9 species), Mimosaceae (8 species), Asteraceae and Papilionaceae (7 species each); Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Scrophulariaceae (6 species each), followed by Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae (5 species each).

Khan & Hussain, (2013) reported 161 plants belonging to 57 families including 22 trees, 23 shrubs, 104 herbs, 9 grasses and 3 parasite species from Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, district Karak, Pakistan. The locals used 118 (73.3%) species as folk medicinal plants, 114 (70.8%) fodder species, 47 (26.7%) fuel species, 16 (9.94%) timber woods, 23 (14.3%) vegetable species, 50 (31.06%) veterinary use plants and 90 (55.9%) honey bee species.

19 Razzaq et al. (2013) recognized 22 medicinal weeds belonging to 13 families from district Shangla. Among these, 10 weeds were perennial, 10 annual, 01 biennial and 01 was parasitic. Ahmad et al. (2013) recognized 100 ethnomedicinal plants from Madyan valley in district Swat, Pakistan. Most of the plants found to be diuretic, tonic, stimulant, laxative andnarcotic. Gulshan et al. (2012) reported knowledge medicinal plants and their usage from Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. He reported 08 species belonging to 04 (6%) monocotyledon families and 58 species belonging to 26 (44%) dicotyledonous families were in use for medicinal purposes. Shah & Hussain (2012) reported the traditional uses of 82 plant species belonging to 74 genera and 42 families from Mastuj valley Chitral. Most of the plants were used as stomachic, pain killer and against skin diseases. Among recorded plants, 56 were herbs, 17 trees and 09 shrubs.

Sardar & Khan (2009) reported 102 plant species from tehsil Shakargarh, district Narowal, which was being used by local inhabitants for different purposes such as in making baskets, mats and furniture. Also used as medicines, fuel and fodder while some species have edible fruits and vegetables. Ajaib et al. (2010) reported 38 plant species that belonging to 25 families from district Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, of economics importance. The inhabitants used it for medicinal purpose, as fuel andfodder, for shelter and also in making different agricultural tools. Most of the shrubs were noticed having more than one ethnobotanical uses. Tareen et al. (2010) observed that 61 species of medicinal plants belonging to 56 genera and 34 families from Kalat and Khuzdar, Balochistan are usually used by the local women for treatment of several diseases. Family Lamiaceae was dominant by 09 species followed by Asteraceae (07 species), Apiaceae, Papilionaceae, Solanaceae and Zygophyllaceae (03 species each). Qasim et al. (2010) reported 48 wild coastal plant species used in Hub, Lasbela district, Balochistan for 12 various purposes. Plant uses include fodder (56%), medicine (22%), food (5%), household utensils (5%), for increasing milk production in cattle (3%) and other uses (8%). Most frequently used species were from Poaceae (29%) followed by Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae

20 (10% each) and Mimosaceae and Convolvulaceae (6% each). Sher and Al- Yemeni, (2011) reported 50 species of plants belonging to 33 families as ethnobotanically important from Malam Jabba valley, district Swat.

Zaman & Hazrat (2013) reported the ethnobotanical information of about 40 species, belonging to 26 families, from tehsil Dargai, district Malakand Pakistan. Among these, 12 species were trees, 18 were herbs, 07 were shrubs and 02 species were climbers. Wazir et al. (2007) reported 20 medicinal halophytes found in thesurrounding of district Karak. Manan et al. (2007) investigated 52 plant species belonging to 35 families from Upper Dir. All species have a significant role in primary health care. Shah & Hussain (2008a) reported 76 plants belonging to 52 families used for various purposes from Mount Elum district Bunair. The species include 47% medicinal plants, 21% fuel wood, 9% fruit species, 19% honey bee species, 20% timber yielding species and 4% poisonous species. Kamal et al. (2009) concluded that 50 plant species of 30 families were used medicinally and for other purposes in district Bannu. Zahoor et al. (2009) enumerated the traditional uses of 52 plant species belonging to 45 genera and 30 families from Darra‟e Pezo district, Lakki Marwat, Pakistan for various purposes. Out of 52 plant species, 47 were medicinal. Some of useful species are under serious threat due to unsustainable activities. Khan et al. (2009) reported that 50 plant species are being used locally for medicinal and other purposes in F.R. Bannu. The largest families are Poaceae and Moraceae each with 5 species. Agaricus campestris was the only fungus used as food. Akhtar & Begum (2009) recorded that 55 plant species belonging to 38 families which were used for more than 42 ailments in Jalala area district Mardan. Calotropis procera and Boerhavia diffusa had multipurpose medicinal uses. The information reported was purely based on the knowledge of local inhabitants. Taj et al. (2009) revealed that ethnobotanically 29 plant species of 25 families were used for medicinal purposes in Godi Khel district Karak. Hazrat et al. (2010) conducted an ethnobotanical research in Usherai valley and recorded 50 species, belonging to 32 families of wild herbs, shrubs and trees which were used as medicinal plants by their habitants in the valley. Attaullah et al. (2010) identified 27

21 plant species belonging 19 families that were used in traditional health care of Kurram River beds of district Bannu. The uses of these plants were confined mostly to less educated and poor people. However, some plants were also used by local herbalist (Hakims). Badshah et al. (2010) reported 41 plant species with various local uses from Parachinar Kurram valley.

22 CHAPTER-2

MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Floristic structure and ecological characteristics

Floristic survey was conducted all over the district Nowshera from 2013- 2015 in different seasons of the year. Plants from several areas were collected, pressed, dried, poisoned and mounted at standard size (42 x 29 cm or 11 x 16 inches) herbarium sheets and identified with the help of Flora of Pakistan (Nasir & Ali, 1971-1991; Ali & Qaisar, 1995-2009). A complete floristic list was arranged alphabetically and the specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Department of Botany, Islamia College, Peshawar.

2.2 Biological spectra

Plants were classified into various life-form classes after Raunkiaer (1934) and Hussain (1989) as follows: i. Therophytes (The)

These are the annual seed bearing plants which complete their life cycle in one growing season and during the unfavourable winter season by means of seeds and spores. ii. Geophytes (G)

Their perennating buds are located below the surface of soil and include plants with deep rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers and may also include hydrophytes which may be submerged, partly submerged, free-floating and leaf-floating.

23 iii. Hemicryptophytes (Hem)

These are the herbaceous perennials in which aerial portions of the plants die at the end of growing seasons leaving a perennating bud at or just below the ground surface and may be covered by litter. iv. Chamaephytes (Cha)

Their perennating buds are located close to the surface of the ground at a height of 25cm. v. Phanerophytes a. Nanophanerophytes (NaP)

Their perennating buds are borne on aerial shoots at a height of 0.25 m (25 cm) up to 2m above the ground surface. b. Microphanerophytes (MiP)

These are shrubby plant species with perennating buds located at a height of 2 m to 7.5m above the ground. c. Mesophanerophytes (MeP)

These are small trees with their perennating buds located at a height of 7.5 m to 30 m above the ground surface. d. Megaphanerophytes (MgP)

These are tall tree species whose perennating buds are located over the height of 30 m.

2.3 Leaf size spectra

Plants were classified into various Raunkiaerian (Raunkiaer, 1934) and quantitative leaf sizes as follows:

24 i. Leptophylls (L). Leaf area up to 25 mm2. ii. Nanophylls (N). Leaf area from 25 to 225 mm2. iii. Microphylls (Mic). Leaf area from 225 to 2025 mm2. iv. Mesophylls (Mes). Leaf area from 2025 to 18225 mm2. v. Macrophylls (Mac). Leaf area from 18225 to 164025 mm2. vi. Megaphylls (Meg). Leaf area larger than class v.

2.4 Phenological behavior

Plants were classified into the following four Phenological classes:

i. Pre-reproductive-vegetative / seedling stage (S1).

ii. Reproductive stage / Flowering stage (S2).

iii. Reproductive stage / Flower plus fruiting stage (S3).

iv. Post reproductive stage / Dormant stage / Drying stage (S4).

2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation structure

Phytosociological studies were carried out in 06 representative selected sites on the basis of species composition, density, frequency, coverage, habitations, and physiognomic contrast. Vegetation was analyzed by using 5, 10 x 10 m quadrats for trees, 10, 5 x 5 m quadrats for shrubs and 15, 1x1 m quadrats for herbs on each site during four seasons of the year viz. autumn, winter, spring and summer. Density, cover and frequency of each species were measured and values were changed to relative values (Badshah, 2011). The plant communities were established based on highest importance values (Digiovinazzo et al., 2010).

25 2.5.1 Density

Density is the number of individuals of a species in per unit area

Density = No. of individuals of a species Area sampled

Relative Density = Density of a species x 100 Total density of all the species

2.5.2 Frequency

Frequency is the degree of distribution of a species in a community. It is the percentage occurence of species in an area.

Frequency = No. of quadrats in which a species occurs x100 Total number of quadrats sampled

2.5.3 Relative frequency

It is the occurrence value of a species in relation to the occurrence of other species. It can be calculated by following formula.

Relative frequency = Frequency for a speciesx100 Total frequency value for all species

2.5.4 Cover

Cover is the vertical projection of foliage shoots/crown of a species to the ground surface expressed as fraction or percent of a surface area.

Coverage = X value of a species Area sampled

X value = Sum of mid-points of coverage classes of a species Total no of quadrats

Relative Cover = Cover or basal area of a species x100 Total Cover of all species

Following six cover classes (Doubenmire, 1979) were established for estimating plant cover. Mid points values were used for calculation.

26 Table-2.1: Six Cover Classes for establishing plant cover Mid points of coverage Coverage classes Range of coverage % classes %

1 0-5 2.5

2 6-25 15

3 26-50 37.5

4 51-75 62.5

5 76-95 85

6 96-100 97.5

2.5.5 Importance Value

The relative values of each parameter for species were added to get the importance values. The community was named after the three leading species having the highest importance values as follows:

IV = RD+RC+RF

2.5.6 Family Importance Value (FIV)

Importance value of each species in a particular family was added together to give rise the family importance value (FIV) for the recorded families.

2.5.7 Edaphology

During July and August of 2013 to 2015, soil samples were collected from 0-15 cm depth from five different sites and were analyzed for elemental composition and physio-chemical characteristics.

27 2.5.8 Soil texture

The soil texture was determined by Hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1936) and textural classes were determined with the help of textural triangle (Brady, 1990).

2.5.9 Water holding capacity

Water holding capacity of soils was determined by following Hussain (1989).

Water holding capacity = Wet weight - Dry weight x100 Dry weight

2.5.10 Calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate was determined by acid neutralization method (Rayan et al., 1997).

2.5.11 Nitrogen

Total Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method of Bremner & Mulvaney (1982).

2.5.12 Phosphorus

Phosphorus was determined after Olsen and Sommers (1982).

2.5.13 Potassium

Potassium was determined by flame emission spectroscopy (Rhoades, 1982).

2.5.14 pH

Soil pH was measured in 1:5 soil water suspensions with a pH meter (Jackson, 1962).

28 2.5.15 Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil was determined in 1:5 soil water suspensions with EC meter.

2.5.16 Total soluble salts

Total soluble salts were determined by the recommended method of AOAC (1984).

2.5.17 Carbonates and bicarbonates

-2 Dissolved carbonates (CO3 ) and bicarbonates (H2CO3) were determined by titration method (Jackson, 1962) as follows:

-2 Carbonates (Meq/liter) = Volume of acid used in solution A for CO3 x 2 x N x1000 Volume of Soil extract

Bicarbonates (Meq/liter) = Vol. of acid used in sol. B - Vol. used in sol. A x N x 1000 Volume of Soil extract

2.5.18 Chloride

Dissolved chlorides (Cl-) were determined by titrating the soil solution extract with Silver nitrate using Potassium chromate as an indicator (Richard, 1954).

Chlorides (Meq/liter) = ml. of AgNO3 for sample - AgNO3 for blank x 0.005 x 1000 5 ml of water

2.5.19 Calcium++ Magnesium++

Calcium++ and Magnesium++ of soil saturated extracts were determined by titration with Ethylene diamine tetra acetate (EDTA) and disodium salt (Versenate) after Richard (1954).

29 2.5.20 Sodium

Sodium content of soil saturated extract was determined by flame photometer.

2.5.21 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was determined after Richards (1954) as follows:

SAR = Na+ / √Ca+++ Mg++/2

2.5.22 Sulphates

-2 Sulphate (SO4 ) was determined by precipitation as Barium sulphate (Richards, 1954).

SO4 (Meq/liter) = mg of BaSO4 precipitate x 8.568 Volume of Soil extract

2.6 Ethnobotany

As with the social sciences, fieldwork in ethnobotany is profoundly influenced by the individual interaction between the researcher and his network of “informants" (Ashkenazi, 1997). A large number of factors influence the nature of these relationships, including theoretical approaches, field techniques, ethical and philosophical values, personality and innumerable circumstantial factors. Broad studies were carried out from 2013-2015. The area was often visited for collection of plants diversity and ethnobotany of the flora.

2.6.1 Ethnobotanical profile

Plants were classified into various categories on the basis of their uses in the area, local economic uses with special reference to fodder species, fuel timber, wood and medicinal uses. The information was collected from local 423 knowledgeable elderly persons and also supplemented with personal

30 observations during the field surveys. Study covered both the rural and urban area of district Nowshera with an area of size 181610 acres. All the available plants of the valley were carefully collected.

2.6.2 Observations

Field observation included local methods of collection, for example drying, processing, storage and utilization of plants. This information collected through interaction with the local people having sufficient plant resources helped considerably in developing a broader image of the scope of study.

2.6.3 Interviews

Comprehensive interviews were conducted with the local people and Hakeems (experts of herbal and organic remedies) so as to obtain data pertaining to plant uses. Information about the importance of plants was collected from the local people by interviews and group discussions. An open questionnaire was also designed for collecting a systematic data and conducting field analysis. Various informations including plants value, rate of accessibility and consumptions, extent of plants consumed as fodder and fuel was collected from the local people.

2.6.4 Preservation of vascular plants

The plant specimens collected from research area was preserved using naphthalene. All the plants were poisoned by naphthalene powder and pressed in papers or using blotting papers, upon drying, the plants were fixed on herbarium sheets of standard size i-e 41.25cm´28.75cm. Every plant specimens were given voucher numbers with its local and botanical names, family names, part used by the people and other necessary informations.

2.6.5 Fuel and timber wood species

Data about the ethnobotany of fuel wood and timber wood species was collected from different areas of district Nowshera, including brick baking (kilns owner), food seller (tandoor owner), tree sellers (tree cutter), farmers

31 and fuel wood dealers following Ogunkunle & Oladele (2004) and Badshah et al. (2006). These respondents were selected as they were more knowledgeable by virtue of their profession, trades and utilization. The study was conducted during 2013 - 2015. The questionnaire sought the name of the preferred plant and quantity utilized. They were also asked to give the reasons as to why a particular plant species was considered best for fuel and timber wood. Fuel wood sellers were requested to quantify their weekly sales with reference to number of mounds (1 mound equals to 50 kg). The tree sellers were agreed upon to quantify their weekly cutting and removal on the number of average standard logs.

2.6.6 Fodder plants

After a general survey and preliminary discussion with the farmers and herdsmen, 15 villages were selected. In each village personal observations and interviews were conducted with 25 randomly selected persons and were asked to list the plants that are mostly used as fooder.

2.6.7 Local medicinal use of plants

The information on indigenous medicinal plants was gathered from local people, experienced elderly rural folk, traditional herbal medicine practitioners and local herbal drug sellers. Randomly selected respondents of different age were interviewed in local languages. Information on local names, plant parts used, diseases cured along with recipes and mode of administration were recorded. The plants were ranked on the basis of preferences by the inhabitants following Hussain et al. (2006).

2.6.8 Analysis and documentation of research data

The information collected during survey of the area was examined and documented. The data obtained from the area, about plants uses, was noted. This information was arranged according to their local uses and was tabularized. The inventory for various uses of the indigenous plants included

32 voucher numbers, scientific names, local/common names, family, habit and part of the plant used.

2.7 Phytochemical screening

The selected plant extracts were screened for different phytochemicals in methanol, chloroform, and n- hexane crude extraction by using standard procedure (Sofowara, 1993; Trease & Evans, 1989; Aylooa et al., 2008; Ghias Uddin et al., 2012; Rauf et al., 2012) for identification of its chemical constituents. The qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out for the whole plant in the Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar in two phenological stages (at vegetative stage and at post reproductive stage).

2.7.1 Test for alkaloids

Each plant fraction (0.2g) was warmed with 2% H2SO4 (2.0ml) for two minutes. The reaction mixture was filtered and then a few drops of Dragendrof’s reagent were sprayed on the filtrate. The appearance of orange color indicated the presence of alkaloids.

2.7.2 Test for tannins

A small quantity of each extract of selected plants was mixed with water, heated in water bath and then filtered. A few drops of FeCl3 were added to the filtrate. As a result of this a dark green solutuion was obtained, which indicated the presence of tannins.

2.7.3 Test for reducing sugars (Fehling’s test)

A few drops of Fehling’s solution (A and B) were boiled in a test tube alongwith sample solutions (0.5 g of sample in 5 ml of water). Red precipitates were formed which indicated the presence of sugars.

33 2.7.4 Test for saponins

5 ml of distilled water was added to 0.5 g of extract in a test tube. The solution was boiled and shaken vigorously till the formation of a stable persistent froth. 3 drops of olive oil were added to the froth and was again shaken vigorously till the formation of an emulsion.

2.7.5 Test for flavonoids

Dilute ammonia (5 ml) was added to a portion of an aqueous filtrate extract. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1 ml) was also added. The yellow coloration disappeared when the test contents stabilized. This indicated the presence of flavonoids

2.7.6 Test for terpenoids

Concentrated sulphuric acid (3 ml) was carefully added to a test tube containing 0.5 g of each of the extracts in 2 ml of chloroform. Reddish brown coloration at the interface indicated the presence of terpenoids.

2.7.7 Test for cardiac glycosides (Keller-Killiyani test)

About 0.5 g of extract was diluted with 5 ml of water. In this diluted extract 2 ml of glacial acetic acid containing one drop of ferric chloride solution was added drop wise. This was underacted with 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid. A brown ring at the interface indicated the presence of a deoxysugar.

2.7.8 Total phenolic contents

Total phenolics of various samples were determined by the method of Makkar et al. (1993). A sample of 0.1 ml (0.5 mg/ml) was combined with 2.8 ml of 10% Na2CO3 and 0.1 mL of 2N Folin-ciocalteu reagent. The brownish colour indicated the presence of phenolic contents.

34 2.7.9 Test for anthraquinones

Each extract (0.5g) was boiled with 10% HCl for few minutes. The mixture was then filtered and allowed to cool. Equal volume of CHCl3 was added to the filtrate along with few drops of 10% NH3 and then heated. Rose- pink color formation was obtained which indicated the presence of anthraquinones.

35 CHAPTER-3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Floristic composition

The floristic composition and diversity of plants of an area is the reflection of vegetation and resources of plant species. These important resources are badly affected by many biotic and abiotic factors like agriculture, over grazing, cutting and natural changes. The flora of district Nowshera comprised of 221 species which belonged to 75 families. Monocots had the share of 35 species, dicots had 184 species and there were only 3 species of pteridophytes. Family Poaceae dominated the study area with 28 species (12.61%), followed by Asteraceae which had 22 species (9.90%). Brassicaceae had 15 species (6.75 %), Papilionaceae had 14 species (5.85%), Euphorbiaceae and Amaranthaceae with 8 species each (3.60%), Lamiaceae had 9 specieswhile family Polygonaceae and Solanaceae had 6 and 5 species each (2.25%). Moraceae and Verbenaceae were represented by 4 species each (1.80%). Family Boraginaceae, Gerianiaceae, Mimosaceae, Plantagonaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Apiaceae, Rosaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Malvaceae and Chenopodiaceae had 3 species each (1.35%). The families which had 0.90% share with two species each were Adiantaceae, Cyperaceae, Linaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Lythraceae, Nyctiginaceae, Oleaceae, Ranunculaceae, Capparaceae and Rhamnaceae. The remaining 41 families shared 1 species each (0.45%). The abundance and species distribution in this area revealed that families Poaceae and Asteraceae were present in large number through out the research area. Malik & Malik (2004) reported that family Poaceae was dominant in their survey at Kotli Hills during monsoon. Sher et al. (2003) investigated that the largest family was Lamiaceae (09 species), followed by Asteraceae, Poaceae (each with 05 species) and Rosaceae (04 species) from Udigram. Durrani et al. (2005) reported that family Asteraceae was the leading family in Harboi rangeland Kalat.This occurrence in large number of these families may be

36 mainly attributed to the wide ecological amplitude of the species belonging to these families. Results, similar to our findings, were reported by Mendez (2005), Muthuramet al. (2000), Bahtti et al. (2001), Qureshi & Bhatti (2005, 2008 a,b) and Perveen et al. (2008). Poaceae and Asteraceae (each with 04 species) had been reported from flora of Chakwal (Hussain et al., 2009).

All the species reported from the research area were classified on the basis of habitat. The hydrophytes were represented by 44 species (19.81%), xerophytes by 157 species (70.72%), while 21 species (9.459%) were of amphibious nature. The floristic list showed that herbs were 167 (75.22%), shrubs 35 (15.76%) and trees were 20 (9.00%) in number. Durrani et al. (2005, 2010), and Badshah et al. (2006) reported that herbaceous vegetation was dominant from Ladha, South Waziristan, Pakistan. Sher et al. (2003) from Udigram Swat, Hussain et al. (2005) from Ghalegay Swat, Sher & Khan (2007) and Fazal et al. (2010) from district Haripur had reported similar results. Gimenze et al. (2004) had reported 140 species (68.3%) of xerophytes, 46 species (22.4%) of hydrophytes and 10 amphibious species (4.8%) from Iberian Peninsula.

Badshah et al. (2006) reported that dense vegetation was the sign of plant diversity and high density of species in an area. Qualitative features of vegetation of an area were indications of many factors like water availability, temperature, soil structure etc. Important parameters of vegetations are floristic composition, gene pool, and diversity of plant in an area (Siddiqui et al., 2009). The ecological characteristics of plants species such as phenology, periodicity and leaf size spectra were important for phytosociological work (Walther, 2003).

3.1.1 Life form and seasonal variation

The area under investigation was composed of sporadic trees and scrub vegetation in some places. Due to excessive deforestation the percentage of trees at many places had become low. The area had the potential to support shrub and tree vegetation, if grazing and cutting were checked and kept in

37 control (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011). Life form plays a vital role in reflecting the external look of the flora and vegetation of an area. Many abiotic factors influence morphology and physiology of plant life. It provides help in the identification and ecological elucidation of plant species. This classification is based upon the basic role of position and also the level of protection to their perennating buds during unfavourable conditions.

Seasonal changes showed that in different seasons different life forms were dominant. Dominancy of different plants in different seasons may be attributed to changing environmental factors and the ecological amplitude of plants.

Nanophanerophytes with 23 species were dominant during autumn (10.36%) followed by microphanerophytes with 20 (9.69%) species, geophytes with 08 (3.60%), chaemophytes with 05 and therophytes with 04 species each (2.25%), and hemicryptophytes with 03 species (1.5%).

In winter nanophanerophyte life form was dominant with 42 species (18.91%) followed by therophytes with 31 species (14.41%), microphanerophytess 23 species (10.36%), geophytes with 12 species (5.40%),chamaephytes with 06 species (2.70%), and hemicryptophytes shared 04 species (1.80%).

In spring season the therophytes was dominant with 61 species (27.47%). The therophytes dominated the area due to its short life cycle, high ability of adaptation and probably due to high ecological amplitude (Musila et al., 2003; Guo et al., 2009). Nanophanerophytes with 40 species (18.01%) were next in number followed by microphanerophytes with 21 (9.45%), geophytes with 14 (6.30%), chamaephytes with 11 species (4.95%) and hemicryptophytes shared 7 species (3.15%). Rich species diversity was reported in spring and summer seasons from Aghberg rangelands, and highlands of Balochistan, the reports also stated that during spring the therophytes were dominant, (Durrani et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2009) which supported our results

38 During summer the dominant class was nanophanerophytes with 33 species (14.86%), followed by therophytes with 28 species (13.06%), microphanerophytess with 20 species (9.09%), chaemophytes and geophytes with 8 species each (3.60 %), while hemicryptophytes shared only 2 species (0.90%).

Many factors, like deforestation, aridity and over grazing, added in the removal/erosion of stratification. Only few areas, including Cherat hills, Manglot Wild Life Park and Bahadar Baba hills at Manki Sharif were protected and represented stratified vegetation. Batalha & Martin (2002) investigated that in Brazil the dominant life form was phanerophytes and hemicryptophytes. Devineau et al. (2007) from Dynow foothills (Western Carpathians) also reported the therophytes as a dominant life form. Costa et al. (2007) showed that therophytes were dominant followed by phanerophytes in SouthEastern Brazil.

3.1.2 Leaf size spectra and seasonal variation

Nonophylls were dominant in the area with 94 species (42.43%) followed by microphylls with 75 (33.78%) species, leptophylls with 32 (14.41%) species, mesophylls with 16 species (7.20%); aphyllous shared 04 species (2.25 %) to the area.

In spring maximum plants showed their appearance among which the nanophylls were dominant with 71 species (31.98%) followed by microphylls with 49 species (22.7%), leptophylls with 21 (9.45%) and mesophyll with 12 species (5.45 %) while aphyllous were represented by 4 species (1.80%).

In autumn the nanophylls were the leading plant with 34 species (15.31%) followed by microphylls with 24 (10.81%), leptophylls with 12 (5.40%), mesophyll with 5 species (2.25%) and aphyllous plant shared 2 species (1.35%).

In winter the nanophylls with 41 species (18.47%) were the leading plant followed by microphylls with 30 species (13.51%), leptophylls with 11

39 species (4.95%) mesophylls with 4 species (1.80%) and aphyllous with 3 species each (1.00%).

During summer the dominant leaf size class was microphylls with 46 species (20.72%), followed by nanophylls with 42 species (18.91%), mesophylls with 8 species (3.60%), leptophylls with 11 species (4.95%) and aphyllous shared 2 species (1.35%). The leaf size spectra are directly related to the environmental conditions of a particular area. Microphylls are basically feature of steppes, where the water easily runs off after rain and not available for plant growth, while the nanophylls and leptophylls are related to harsh environmental conditions (Cain & Castro, 1959; Hussain et al., 2005). Ahmad et al. (2010) investigated large percentage of microphylls from their study area. Batalha & Martin (2002) presented the relationship of leaf size with environmental conditions. Maliket al. (2007) and Badshah et al. (2010) reported that nanophylls in autumn and microphylls in summer were the dominant leaf size class from their respective study areas thus their results were in conformity to our findings.

40 Table 3.1: Floristic diversity and ecological characteristics

S.No. Botanical Name Habitat A W S Sm Life Form Leaf Size Lamina Habit

Pteridophyta

1. Family Adiantaceae

1 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. W + + + + G Np Dis Hb

2 Adiantum incisum Forssk. W + + + + G Np Dis Hb

2. Family Equisetaceae

3 Equisetum arvensis L. W - - + - G Ap Abs Hb

Monocotyledon Families

3. Family Arecaceae

4 Phoenix dactylifera L. W & D + + + + McP Mec Com Tr

4. Family Alliaceae

5 Allium griffithianum Boiss. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

5. Family Aspodelaceae.

6 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. D - + - - G Lp S Hb Continued…

41 6. Family Cypraceae

7 Cyperus rotundus L. W + + - + G Np S Hb

8 Cyperus bulbosusVahl. W + + - + G Np S Hb

7. Family Liliaceae

9 Tulipa clusiana DC. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

8. Family Poaceae

10 Apluda mutica L. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

11 Avena sativa L. D - + - - Th Np S Hb

12 Aristida monantha Michx. D + + + - Th Np S Hb

13 Arundo donax L. W + + + + G Mp S Hb

14 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

15 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb

16 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. D - - + - H Np S Hb

Continued…

42 17 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. D&W + + + + H Lp S Hb

18 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf D&W - + - - H Np S Hb

19 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. D&W + - + - H Np S Hb

20 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. W - - + - Th Mic S Hb

21 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

22 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link D - - - + Th Np S Hb

23 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb

24 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. W + - + - G Lp S Hb

25 Lolium temulentum L. W - + + - NP Np S Hb

26 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

27 Pennisetum orientale Rich. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

28 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. W + - + + Th Mec S Hb

29 Poa annua L. W - + + - Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

43 30 P. infirma Kunth W - - - + Ch Lp S Hb

31 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. W - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

32 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

33 S. viridis (L.) P.Beauv. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

34 Sorghum halepense (Linn) Bres. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

35 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. D - - + + NP Np S Hb

36 S. spontaneum Linn. W + + + + G Mec S Hb

37 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. D - - - + Th Lp S Hb

Dicotyledons Families

9. Family Acanthaceae

38 Justicia adhatoda L. D + + + + NP Lp S Sb

10. Family Amaranthaceae 39 Achyranthes aspera L. D + - - - Th Np S Hb

40 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. Ex DC. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

Continued…

44 41 A. pungens Kunth. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

42 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. D + + + Ch Lp S Hb

43 Amaranthus viridis L. D + - - - Th Np S Hb

44 Celosia argentea L. D - + + - NP Lp S Hb

45 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. D&W - - - + Th Mic S Hb

46 Pupalia lappacea Linn. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

11. Family Apiaceae 47 Eryngium coeruleum M. Bieb. D - - - + Th Np Dis Hb

48 Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. D&W - + + - NP Mic Dis Hb

49 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

12. Family Apocynaceae

50 Nerium oleander Linn. D&W + + + + NP Mic S Sb

51 Rhazya stricta Decne. D + + + + Ch Np S Sb

13. Family Asclepiadaceae

52 Calotropis procera Aiton. D + + + + NP Mec S Sb

Continued…

45 53 Periploca aphylla Decne. D + + + + Ch Ap Abs Sb

14. Family Asparagaceae

54 Asparagus asiaticus L. D + + + + G Np S Hb

15. Family Asteraceae

55 Artemisia vulgaris L. W - - + + NP Np Dis Hb

56 A. scoparia L. W - - + + NP Np Dis Hb

57 Ageratum conyzoidesL. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

58 Bidens tripartite L. W&D - - + - Th Np S Hb

59 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

60 Calendula arvensis L. W - - + - Th Np S Hb

61 Carthamus oxycantha M.B TH Mie W&D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

62 Cirsium arvense L. Scop. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

63 Cichorium intybus Linn. W&D - + + - NP Mic S Hb

Continued…

46 64 Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter D - - - + Th Np S Hb

65 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. W + - + - G Np S Hb

66 Lactuca serriola L. D - - + + Th Mec Dis Hb

67 L. dissecta D. Don D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

68 Parthenium hysterophorus L. D&W + - + + Mcp Mic S Hb

69 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

70 Silybum marianum Gaertn. D - - + - Th Mec Dis Hb

71 Serratula pallida DC. D&W - - - + Th Mic S Hb

72 Saussurea heteromalla (De. Don) Hand. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb

73 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill W - - - + Th Mec Dis Hb

74 Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber. W - - - + Th Mic S Hb

75 Tagetes minuta L D - - + + NP Np Dis Hb

76 Xanthium strumarium L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

Continued…

47 16. Family Berberidaceae

77 Berberis lycium Royle. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

17. Family Brassicaceae

78 Alyssum desertorum Stapf. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

79 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb

80 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith W + + - - Th Mic Dis Hb

81 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik D&W - - + - Th Lp S Hb

82 Eruca sativa Mill. W - + + - NP Mic S Hb

83 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. & Thomson D + - - - Th Lp S Hb

84 Lepidium sativum Linn. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

85 L. ruderale L. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

86 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

87 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

Continued…

48 88 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. W - - + - Th Np S Hb

89 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomez W - - + + NP Mic S Hb

90 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

91 Sisymbrium irio L. D - - + + Th Np Dis Hb

92 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) Hedge D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

18. Family Boraginaceae

93 Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex Lehm.) A. DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

94 Heliotropium europaeum L. D - - + - Th Mp S Hb

95 Lithospermum arvense L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

19. Family Buddlejaceae

96 Buddleja crispa Benth. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

20. Family Cactaceae

97 Opuntia dillenii Haw. D + + + + NP Np Abs Sb

Continued…

49 21. Family Caesalpinaceae

98 Parkinsonia aculeataL. D + + + + NP Np Com Sb

99 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. D + + + + McP Np S Sb

100 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. D + + + + McP Mic Comp Tr

22. Family Cannabinaceae

101 Cannabis sativa L. W&D + + + + McP Np S Hb

23. Family Capparaceae

102 Capparis spinosa L. D + + + + McP Mic S Sb

103 C.decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. D + + + + NP Ap S Sb

24. Family Caprifoliaceae

104 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms D&W + + + + McP Mic S Sb

25. Family Caryophyllaceae

105 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. W - - + - Th Np S Hb

Continued…

50 106 Stellaria media L. W - - + - Th Np Dis Hb

26. Family Celastraceae

107 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex Lawson. D - + + + NP Mic Com Sb

27. Family Chenopodiaceae

108 Chenopodium album L. D - + + - Th Np S Hb

109 C. ambrosioides L. W - - + - Th Lp S Hb

110 C. murale L. D + - - - Th Lp S Hb

28. Family Convolvulaceae

111 Convolvulus arvensis L. D + + - - Th Np S Hb

29. Family Cornaceae

112 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

30. Family Crassulaceae

113 Sedum hispanicum L. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

51 31. Family Cucurbitaceae

114 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. D + - - - Th Mic Dis Hb

115 Cucumis melo var agretis (Naud.) Grebensc. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

32. Family Cuscutaceae

116 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. D + + + + Par Ap Abs Ps

33. Family Euphorbiaceae

117 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

118 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. D + - - - H Lp S Hb

119 E. pilulifera L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

120 E. helioscopia L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

121 E. prostrata L. D + - + - Th Np S Hb

122 E. heterophylla L. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

123 E. pepulus L. D - - + + Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

52 124 Ricinus communis L. D - - + + Ch Mic S Sb

34. Family Fumariaceae

125 Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. D - + - - Th Np Dis Hb

35. Family Geraniaceae

126 Erodium ciconium L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

127 Geranium rotundifolium L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

128 G. malacoides L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

36. Family Hypericaceae

129 Hypericum perforatum L. D - + - - Ch Np S Hb

37. Family Lamiaceae

130 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth. D - + + + Th Mic S Hb

131 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. W&D - + + - NP Mic S Hb

132 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L. Rob. D + + + + NP Mp S Hb

Continued…

53 133 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) D + + + + NP Np S Sb

134 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. D - - + + Ch Mic S Hb

135 Mentha longifolia L. W - + + - G Np S Hb

136 M. spicata L. W - + + - G Np S Hb

137 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen & V.A.Albert D + + + + NP Np S Sb

138 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb

38. Family Linaceae

139 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

39. Family Lythraceae

140 Ammannia auriculata Wild. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb

141 A. baccifera L D + + + + Ch Np S Hb

40. Family Malvaceae

142 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex A.Rich. D + + + + Ch Np S Hb

Continued…

54 143 Malva neglecta Wallr. D - + + + Th Mic S Hb

144 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke. D - - + - H Np S Hb

41. Family Meliaceae

145 Melia azedarach L. D + + + + McP Np Com Tr

42. Family Mimosaceae

146 Acacia modesta Wall. D + + + + McP Lp Com Tr

147 A. nilotica (L.)Wild. ex Delile D + + + + McP Lp Com Tr

148 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. D + + + + McP Lp Com Sb

43. Family Moraceae

149 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

150 Ficus carica L. D + + + + NP Mic S Tr

151 Morus alba L. D + + + + NP Mic S Tr

152 M. nigra L. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

Continued…

55 44. Family Myrsinaceae

153 Myrsine africana L. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

45. Family Myrtaceae

154 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. D + + + + McP Np S Tr

46. Family Nyctiginaceae

155 Boerhavia diffusa L. D - + - - H Np S Hb

156 B. procumbens Banks ex Roxb D + - - - H Np S Tr

47. Family Oleaceae

157 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don) D + + + + McP Mic S Tr Cif. 158 O. ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

48. Family Oxalidaceae

159 Oxalis corniculata L. W - - + + Th Np Com Hb

49. Family Papaveraceae

160 Papaver pavoninum Schrenk. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

Continued…

56 50. Family Papilionaceae

161 Alhagi maurorum Medic. D - - - + H Lp S Sb

162 Astragalus amherstianusBenth D - - - + Th Np Com Hb

163 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. W&D + + + + McP Np Com Tr

164 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz D - - + - Th Np S Hb

165 Lathyrus aphaca L. W + - - - Th Np Com Hb

166 Medicago sativa L. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

167 M. laciniata (L.) Mill. D - + + - Th Np Com Hb

168 Trifolium alexandrinum L. W - + + - Th Np Com Hb

169 T. repens L. W&D - + + - Th Np Com Hb

170 Trigonella incisa Benth. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

171 Vicia monantha Retz. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

172 V. sativa L. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

Continued…

57 173 Lotus corniculatus L. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

174 Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

51. Family Plantaginaceae

175 Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

176 Plantago lanceolata L. W - - + + Th Np S Hb

177 P. major L. W - - + + Th Mp S Hb

52. Family Polygalaceae

178 Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex Fresen. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

53. Family Polygonaceae

179 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Green W + + + + G Mec S Hb

180 Polygonum mucolosa L. W - - + + NP Mic S Hb

181 P. aviculer L. W - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

182 P. plebeium R. Br. D - - + + G Mec S Hb

183 Rumex hestatus L. W - - + - NP Mec S Hb

Continued…

58 184 R. dentatus L. W - - + - G Mec S Hb

54. Family Primulaceae

185 Anagallis arvensis L. W - + - - Th Np S Hb

55. Family Ranunculaceae

186 Delphinium kohatense Munz D - - - + Th Mec Dis Hb

187 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle. W - - + + G Mic Dis Sb

56. Family Rhamnaceae

188 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. D + + + + McP Np S Sb

189 Z. nummularia Burm. f. D + + + + NP Np S Tr

57. Family Rosaceae

190 Cotoneaster microphyllsus Wall. Ex Lindl. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

191 Rubus fruticosus L. D&W + + + + Mcp Mic Comp Sb

192 Spiraea corymbosa Raff. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

Continued…

59 58. Family Rutaceae

193 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. D + + + + Mcp Mic S Sb

59. Family Rubiaceae

194 Galium tricornutum Dandy. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

60. Family Salicaceae

195 Populus nigra L. D + + + + Mcp Mec S Tr

61. Family Sapindaceae

196 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

62. Family Sapotaceae

197 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A.DC D + + + + NP Np S Sb

63. Family Scrophulariaceae

198 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

199 Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. W - - + - Th Np Dis Hb

200 Verbascum thapsus L. D - - + - Th Mec S Hb

Continued…

60

64. Family Simarubaceae

201 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle D + + + + McP Mic Com Tr

65. Family Solanaceae

202 Datura innoxia Mill.NP Mes D - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

203 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum L. D - - + + H Np S Hb

204 S. surattense Burm. f. W&D - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

205 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal. D + + + + Ch Mic S Sb

206 W. somnifera (L.) Dunal. D - - + + McP Lp S Sb

66. Family Tamaricaceae

207 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. W + + + + McP Np S Tr

67. Family Thymelaecae

208 Daphne mucronata L. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

68. Family Tiliaceae

209 Corchorus tridens L. D + - - + Ch Mic S Hb

Continued…

61 69. Family Ulmaceae

210 Celtis eriocarpa Decne. D + + + + NP Np S Tr

70. Family Utricaceae

211 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) D - - + - Th Mec S Sb

71. Family Valerianaceae

212 Valeriana wallichii DC. D - - + - Th Mec S Hb

72. Family Verbenaceae

213 Lantana camara L. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

214 Phyla nodiflora L. W - - + + Th Lp S Hb

215 Verbena officinalis L. D + - + + Th Np Dis Hb

216 Vitex negundo L. W&D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

73. Family Violaceae

217 Viola stocksii Boiss. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

62 74. Family Vitaceae

218 Vitis jacquemontii Parker. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

75. Family Zygophyllaceae

Continued…

219 Fagonia cretica L. D + + + - H Lp S Hb

220 Peganum harmala L. D - - + - H Lp Dis Hb

221 Tribulus terrestris L. D + - - + H Lp Com Hb

Key:

Habitat Habit Life Form Leaf Size Lamina D = Dry Hb = Herb Th = Therophyte Leptophyll = Lp Sim = Simple W= Wet Sb = Shrub H = Haemicryptophyte Nanophyll = Np Dis = Dissected Tr = Tree Ch = Chamaephyte Microphyll = Mic Com = Compound G = Geophyte Mesophyll = Mec Abs = Absent NP = Nanophanerophytes Aphyllous = Ap Mcp= Microphanerophytes Par = Parasite

63

Figure-3.1: Floristic list of district Nowshera

64 Table-3.2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants

S.No. Ecological characteristics No Percentage

1. Flora i. Total species 221

Ii. Family 75 iii. Genera 196

2. Seasonality/Aspect i. Autumn 83 37.837 ii. Winter 89 40.540 iii. Spring 172 77.927 iv. Summer 119 54.054

3. Habitat types i. Wet 45 19.819 ii. Dry 155 70.720 iii. Both 21 9.459

4. Lamina shape i. Simple 170 76.576 ii. Compound 23 10.360 iii. Absent 04 2.252 iv. Dissected 24 10.810

5. Life form i. Therophytes 109 50.1 ii. Hemicryptophytes 13 5.855 iii. Chamaephytes 15 6.756

Continued…

65 iv. Geophytes 17 7.657 v. Nanophanerophytes 41 17.117 vi. Microphanerophytes 25 10.810 vii. Parasites 01 0.450

6. Leaf size spectra i. Leptophylls 32 14.41 ii. Nanophylls 94 42.34 iii. Microphylls 75 33.78 iv. Mesophylls 16 7.20 v. Aphyllous 04 2.25

3.2 Phenological behavior

Seasonal variation is very important for the development of plant body and different events which are related to plant life cycle such as opening of buds, flowering or leaf drop in autumn (Pott, 2011). Phenological phenomenon depends on the environmental conditions. The physical stature of plant is affected by changes in environmental conditions. Each plant species shows different phenological activity under varied climatic conditions.

Flowering occurs during favourable condition in different seasons. In our research area, March-May was the first flowering spell, in which 129 plants flowered (Table-3.3). The second flowering period was noticed from June to September in which 68 species started reproduction. Last flowering spell started from the month of December till end of February and was represented by 16 species.

The species changed their phenology, during different seasons of the year. Zhang et al. (2009) reported that warmth in winter generally makes spring like phenology.

66 There were 16 plants species which were bloomed from December to February (Table-3.5). The blooming of the plants was on peak in the month of March where 53 species were bloomed. Our survey was not in conformity with Malik et al. (2007) who reported that July and August were the months where majority of the plants produced flowers. The apparent variations in phenology may be attributed to the changes in the locality, accompanied by variations in environmental factors. The percentage of flowering was 48 (21.62%), 28 (12.61%), 31 (13.96%), 24 (10.81%), 11 (4.95%), 02 (0.90%) for the month of April, May, June, July, August and September respectively where as it was 03 (1.35%), 01 (0.45%), 07 (3.15%), 05 (2.25%) and 04 (1.8 %) for the month of October, November, December, January and February respectively. Generally the flowering capabilities of species decreased from spring to winter seasons. During rainy and at the beginning of spring season flowering and other events of plants are on peak in semi-arid region (Qadir, 1986) which are related to our report. In our findings mild seasons had maximum flowering. Golluscio et al. (2005) presented that in autumn–winter, the grasses had high phenological activity than other plants groups, which are the favourable seasons for their collection at vegetative and reproductive stage. In our study and survey many of the grasses were bloomed in the early winter.

It was noticed that 119 of the plants species (53.60%) were in fruiting stage during April to June, 50 species (22.52%) were noticed from August to October, while the remaining 47 species (21.17%) produced their fruit in different months of the year. In April maximum number of species (51 species, 22.97%) produced fruits. The number of plants in fruiting stage in different months of a year was 41species (18.46%) in May followed by 27 species (12.16%) in June, 28 species (12.61%) in July and August each, 17 species (7.65%) in September, 07 species (3.15%) in February, 05 species (2.25%) in October, 04 species (1.80%) each in January and March and 02 (0.90%) each species in November and December.

Whenever the conditions became favourable, the plants showed vigorous vegetative growth. A high number of plant species i.e. 141 species

67 (63.51%) were present in their vegetative phase especially in the month of February to May. A large number of species started their fair vegetative growth in this period mainly because of onset of suitable environmental conditions.

A report from South America stated that beginning of fruiting stage occurred at the end of April and starting of May (Morellato, 2003). Van et al. (2006) showed that these periods (April-May) had a positive effect on seed germination. In our report annual grasses produced seeds and fruits in the month of December. Their phenological behaviour provided a detail about their growth. Jadeja & Nakar (2010) noticed that activity of fruit was high in the month of December. During this period 50% species were reported to be in fruiting. The duration of fruit maturation, and its ripening was longest, while the duration of leaves development was short. A seasonal change is the cause of fruiting and flowering in many species. It is related to the hypothesis that changes and variation in seasons reduce the evolution of reproduction phenologies (Zimmerman et al., 2007).

Our result is in conformity with the survey of Osada et al. (2006) who reported that the growth of flowering and fruiting is particularly abundant in the month of April and May. Beside these two months, the rest of the months were considered as dormant phase for many plant species in the study area. In the 1st dormant spell i.e. from October – December majority of species were dormant. While the 2nd period of dormancy started from June to August. The results were in accordance to the work of Jadeja & Nakar (2010) who presented that in the month of January leaf fall occurred in most species. New leaves were formed before monsoon particularly in the month of February and March.

Phenology of plants is related to biotic and climatic factors. In most of the cases environmental conditions determined the most suitable period for the growth and change in phenology of plants (Saima et al., 2010). During this survey, in the month of October, it was observed that leaf fall started in deciduous trees and shrubs mainly because of the onset of autumn season and gradual decrease in temperature.

68 Table-3.3: Phenological behavior of plants during 2013

S.No. Species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Herbs

Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex 1 PRe - - - - Veg - - Fl - Fr - A.Rich.

2 Achyranthes aspera L. - - - - - Veg Fl - - Fr - PRe

3 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - -

4 Ageratum conyzoides L. - - - - - Veg Fl - - Fr PRe -

5 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

6 Allium griffithianum Boiss. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

7 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. - - - - Veg Fl Fru PRe - - - -

8 A. sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - -

9 Alyssum desertorum Stapf. - Veg Fl Fr - Pre ------

10 Amaranthus viridis L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

69 11 Ammannia auriculata Wild. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - PRe - -

12 A. baccifera L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - PRe - -

13 Anagallis arvensis L. - - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe -

14 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. Fl - Fr PRe ------Veg

15 Apluda mutica L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

16 Aristida monantha Michx Fr PRe ------Veg Fl

Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex 17 - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------Lehm.) A. DC.

18 Artemisia scoparia L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

19 A. vulgaris L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

20 Arundo donax L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe -

21 Asparagus asiaticus L. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr Fl - -

22 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Fr PRe ------Veg Fl

23 Astragalus amherstianus Benth. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

70 24 Avena sativa L. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - Veg -

25 Bidens tripartite L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) 26 - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------Green

27 Boerhavia diffusa L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

28 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

29 Calendula arvensis L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

30 Cannabis sativa L. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -

31 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

32 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

33 Carthamus oxycantha M.B TH Mie. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L. 34 Fr PRe ------Veg - Fl Rob.

35 Celosia argentea L - Fr PRe ------Veg Fl

36 Chenopodium album L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

Continued…

71 37 C. ambrosioides L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

38 C. murale L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -

39 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

40 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

41 Cichorium intybus Linn. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - Veg

42 Cirsium arvense L. Scop. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

43 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. ------Veg Fl Fr - PRe -

44 Convolvulus arvensis L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -

45 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

46 Corchorus tridens L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

47 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith. Veg - Fl Fr PRe ------

Cucumis melo var agrestis (Naud.) 48 ------Veg Fl Fr PRe - - Grebensc.

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) 49 - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - Schult.

Continued…

72 50 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. - - Fl Fr - Pre ------

51 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl ------Veg - Fl Fr PRe

52 C. rotundus L. - Fr - - - - PRe - - Veg - Fl

53 Datura innoxia Mill.NP Mes. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

54 Delphinium kohatense Munz. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

55 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stap.f. - - - - - Fl - Fr - - - PRe

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) 56 Fl Fr PRe ------Veg Stapf.

57 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

58 Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

59 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

60 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. - Fr ------Veg - Fl

61 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

62 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. - - Veg Fl - - Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

73 63 Equisetum arvensis L. - - - Fr - - PRe - - - - -

64 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

65 Erodium ciconium L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

66 Eruca sativa Mill. Veg - - - Fl - - - Fr - - PRe

67 Eryngium coeruleum M. Bieb - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

68 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - -

69 E. helioscopia L. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg

70 E. heterophylla L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

71 E. pilulifera L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

72 E. pepulus L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

73 E. prostrata L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - -

74 Fagonia cretica L. - - - - - Fl Fr PRe - - Veg - Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. & 75 Thomson. Fr PRe ------Veg Fl

Continued…

74 76 Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. - Fl Fr PRe ------Veg

77 Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley - Fl Fr PRe ------Veg -

78 Galium tricornutum Dandy. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

79 Geranium malacoides L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

80 G. rotundifolium L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

81 Heliotropium europaeum L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - Veg -

82 Hypericum perforatum L. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

83 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. - - - Veg Fl - - Fr - - PRe -

84 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

85 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

86 Lactuca dissecta D. Don - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

87 L. serriola L. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -

88 Lathyrus aphaca L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

89 Lepidium ruderale L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

Continued…

75 90 L. sativum Linn. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

91 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

92 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

93 Lithospermum arvense L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

94 Lolium temulentum L. Fl Fr PRe ------Veg -

95 Lotus corniculatus L. - Veg - - Fl - Fr - - PRe - -

96 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. - Veg - - Fl - - Fr - PRe - -

97 Malva neglecta Wallr. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) 98 - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg Garcke

99 Medicago laciniata (L.) Mill. - - Fl Fr PRe ------Veg

100 M. sativa L. - - Fl Fr PRe ------Veg

101 Mentha longifolia L. Veg - Fl Fr PRe ------

102 M. spicata L. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe -

Continued…

76 103 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

104 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -

105 Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

106 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

107 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

108 Oxalis corniculata L. - - Veg - - - Fl Fr - PRe - -

109 Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

110 Papaver pavoninum Schrenk. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

111 Parthenium hysterophorus L. - Veg - - Fl - Fr - PRe - - -

112 Peganum harmala L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

113 Pennisetum orientale Rich. - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. 114 - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - Gomez

115 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

Continued…

77 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex 116 - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - Veg - Steud.

117 Phyla nodiflora L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

118 Plantago lanceolata L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

119 P. major L. - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

120 Poa annua L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

121 P. infirma H. B. K. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex 122 - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - Fresen.

123 Polygonum aviculare L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

124 P. mucolosa L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

125 P. plebeium R. Br. - Fr - - - - PRe - - - Veg Fl

126 P. monspeliensis (L.) Desf. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg

127 Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

128 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

Continued…

78 129 Rumex dentatus L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - Veg

130 R. hastatus L. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

131 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. - - Veg - - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

132 S. spontaneum Linn. - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe - -

133 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

Saussurea heteromalla (De. Don) 134 - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - Hand.

135 Sedum hispanicum L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

136 Serratula pallida DC. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - -

Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & 137 - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------Schult.

138 S. viridis (L.) P. Beauv. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

139 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

140 Silybum marianum Gaertn. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg

141 Sisymbrium irio L. - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

Continued…

79 142 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum L. - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe - -

143 S. surattense Burm. f. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe

144 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

145 Sorgham halepense (Linn) Bres - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - -

146 Stellaria media L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

147 Tagetes minuta L - - Veg - - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

148 Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -

149 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

150 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) Hedge. - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

151 Tribulus terrestris L. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe

152 Trifolium alexandrinum L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - Veg - - -

153 T. repens L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - Veg - - -

154 Trigonella incisa Benth. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

155 Tulipa clusiana DC. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

Continued…

80 156 Valeriana wallichii DC. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

157 Verbascum thapsus L. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

158 Verbena officinalis L. - PRe - - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr

159 Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

160 Vicia monantha Retz. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

161 V. sativa L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

162 Viola stocksii Boiss. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe

163 Xanthium strumarium L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

Shrubs

164 Alhagi maurorum Medic. - - - - - Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe

165 Berberis lycium Royle. - Fl - - Fr - PRe - Veg - - -

166 Buddleja crispa Benth. - Fl - - Fr - PRe - Veg - - -

167 Calotropis procera Aiton. - - Veg - Fl - - Fr - - - PRe

Continued…

81 169 Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. - - - Veg - - - Fl - Fr - PRe

170 C. spinosa L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

171 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. - - - Veg - Fl - - PRe - - - Cotoneaster microphyllsus Wall. Ex 172 - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - Lindl. 173 Daphne mucronata L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

174 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

175 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - - - PRe

176 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

177 Justicia adhatoda L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - - PRe - - -

178 Lantana camara L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - - PRe - - - Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. and 179 Thoms. - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - - Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex 180 - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - Lawson. 181 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A.DC - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

82 182 Myrsine africana L. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

183 Nerium oleander Linn. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

184 Opuntia dillenii Haw. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

185 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen & - - - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - V.A.Albert 186 Parkinsonia aculeate L. Veg - Fl - - Fr - PRe - - - -

187 Periploca aphylla Decne. ------Fl Fr - - PRe

188 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - - PRe -

189 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle - Veg - Fl Fr Pre ------

190 Rhazya stricta Decne. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

191 Ricinus communis L. - - Veg Fl - Fr PRe - - - - -

192 Rubus fruticosus L. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

193 Spiraea corymbosa Raff. Fl Fr - PRe - - - - - Veg - -

194 Vitex negundo L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe -

195 Vitis jacquemontii Parker. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - - Continued…

83 196 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal. - - - Veg - - - Fl Fr - - PRe

197 W. somnifera (L.) Dunal. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - -

198 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. - PRe ------Veg - Fl Fr

199 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. - Veg Fl - Fr - - PRe - - - -

Trees

200 Acacia modesta Wall. - - - Veg Fl Fr - - Fr - PRe -

201 A. nilotica (L.)Wild. ex Delile - - - - Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe -

202 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle - - - Veg Fl - - - Fr PRe - - Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex 203 Roxb. Fl - Fr PRe ------Veg -

204 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - -

205 Celtis eriocarpa Decne. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

206 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

207 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

Continued…

84 208 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Veg - - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

209 Ficus carica L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de 210 - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - Wit. 211 Melia azedarach L. - - Veg - Fl - - Fr - - - PRe

212 Morus alba L. - Veg Fl Fr - - - - - PRe - -

213 M. nigra L. - Veg Fl Fr - - - - - PRe - - Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 214 Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - - (Wall. & G.Don) Cif. 215 O. ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - -

216 Phoenix dactylifera L. - - - Fl - - Fr - - - - Veg

217 Populus nigra L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre ------

218 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe ------

219 Ziziphus nummularia Burm. f. - - - Fr - Pre - Veg - Fl - -

Parasite

220 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. - Veg Fl - Fr - - - - PRe - -

Key: Veg = Vegetative, Fl = Flowering, Fr = Fruiting, PRe = Post Reproductive

85 Table-3.4: Summary of phenological stages

Number of species in different months of the year S. No. Phenological stage Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1. Vegetative (Veg) 08 50 41 24 26 21 02 03 05 04 12 11

2. Flowering (Fl) 05 04 53 48 28 31 24 11 02 03 01 07

3. Fruiting (Fr) 04 07 04 51 41 27 28 28 17 05 02 02

4. Post Reproductive (PRe) 01 06 03 05 30 42 32 32 25 19 10 15

86

60

50

40

Vegetative 30 Flowering Fruiting

Number of plants of Number Post Reproductive 20

10

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure-3.2: Phenological behaviour of plants at district Nowshera

87 3.3 Vegetation structure

During quantitative study of vegetation 134 species belonging to 53 families were reported throughout the year. From the research area 42, 43, 69 and 48 species were reported in autumn, winter, spring and summer respectively. The percentage shared by species in different seasons was 31.34 % in autumn, 32.08 % in winter, 51.49 % in spring and 35.82 % in summer. The highest number of species (69) and families (38) were recorded in spring followed by summer (48 spp. and 35 families).

Vegetation, soil and environmental conditions are inter-connected with each other. The variation in any one of these factors cause change in other associated factors. To determine the possible effect of these factors at least two factors must be pre-explained. The establishment and existence of community structure reflects the type and condition of plants and area where they develop (Felting, 1956). Biotic interaction especially human activities change the community shape and structure (Badshah et al., 2010a). Community is defined as a group of living plants and their mutual relationship among themselves and with environment (Hussain & Sher, 1998; Ahmad et al., 2006).

The area under investigation was semi-arid with mountains and flat plains. The existing survey recognized 20 different plant communities during four different seasons of the year. The observed changes in plant communities were due to different seasons and other aspects like temperature, soil type and time of sampling. The woody and perennial plant species almost remained unchanged; however, slight changes occurred in their existing cover due to their seasonal growth.

The plant communities investigated during different seasons of a year at district Nowshera are discussed as follows:

88 3.3.1 Autumn aspect

According to the floristic survey, total numbers of families during autumn were 28. The Families with number of species were as: Rhamnaceae and Mimosaceae with 03 species each, and Lamiaceae with 2 species. Rest of the families shared 01 species each. While considering the family importance value (FIV), it was reported that Mimosaceae was the leading family with 260.58 FIV followed by Oleaceae with FIV of 183.03, Acanthaceae (174.21), Lamiaceae (165.94), Rhamnaceae (135), Cactaceae (90.96), Sapotaceae (72.99), Poaceae (61.05), Celastraceae (41.71), Malvaceae (41.03), Caprifoliaceae (38.24), Solanaceae (33.31), Papilionaceae (29.36), Amaranthaceae (22.83), Bignoniaceae (16.65), Asclepiadaceae (14.82), Cornaceae (12.96), Asteraceae (12.20), Apocynaceae (7.20), Buddlejaceae (6.65), Vitaceae (6.58), Cypraceae and Euphorbiaceae (each with 6.28) Convolvulaceae (5.84), Verbenaceae (4.57), Chenopodiaceae (4.54), Aspodeliaceae (3.45) and Nyctiginaceae (3.33). There were five plant communities with the following structure during autumn.

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community was present at subtropical areas of the district where temperature remains a little lower than the plains. The soil was sandy-loam in texture. Among 08 recorded species, there were 02 tree species, 04 shrubs species and 2 herb species (Appendix 1). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by 03 dominant species was 179.5, while TIV of 120.4 was shared by remaining species (Table 7). The contribution to importance values by tree species was 92.27, by shrubs it was 179.0 and by herbs it was 28.7 (Table 7).

Ahmad et al. (2009d) reported ten Olea communities from Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

The vegetation consisted predominantly of phanerophytes (nanophanerophytes with 62.5%), followed by microphanerophytes (12.5%).

89 The vegetation was dominated by nanophylls and leptophylls each with 37.5% followed by microphylls (25%). Malik & Malik (2004), Malik & Hussain (2008), Tripathi & Shukla (2007) and Guo et al. (2009) reported that geophytes and leptophylls were the dominant class in the communities of their respective areas. Hadi et al. (2009) worked at Botanical Gardan, Azakhel where nanophylls were dominant. Khan et al. (2010) reported that Olea ferruginea and Acacia modesta were the dominant species at foot hills in lower Dir, where the scarcity of water occurred and sandy-clay loam was the soil textural class.

Justacia-Ziziphus-Corchorus community

Justacia-Ziziphus-Corchorus community occupied the foot hills, where water availability was less, conditions were xeric and soil was sandy-clay loam. There were 13 species among which 04 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 05 were herbs (Appendix 2). The total importance value contributed by 03 dominant species was 133.66 and the remaining species shared a total importance value (TIV) of 166.35. The TIV contributed by trees was 110.07, by shrubs 131.31 and by herbs it was 58.62 (Table 7).

The dominant life form was nanophanerophytes (30.76%), followed by chamaephytes (23.07%), microphanerophytes (15.38%), therophytes and hemicryptophytes (each with 7.69%). The dominant leaf sizes were nanophylls (36.76%), followed by leptophylls, microphylls each of which represensting 23.07% and aphyllous (7.69 %).

Shah & Rozina (2013) observed that therophytes (30%) and microphylls (42%) were the dominant life form and leaf size from Peer Taab Graveyard. Amjad & Hameed (2012) observed that chameophytes (26.38%) and microphylls (24%) were dominant biological spectra at Basu Valley of district Sakardu. Khan & Shah (2013) carried out the eco-taxonomic study of family Brassicaeae of district Mardan in which therophytes (66%) were dominant.

90 Opuntia-Ziziphus-Desmostachya community

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Desmostachya community was recorded at the sandy-clay loam site with 14 major types of plant species including 03 trees, 04 shrubs and 07 herbs (Appendix 3). The 03 dominant species shared a combine importance value of 187.01 and rest of the species with the importance value of 113.4. The importance value contributed by trees was 124.93, by shrub it was 112.01 and by herb it was 63.53 (Table 7). Badshah et al. (2010) studied the vegetation structure of district Karak where Desmostachya was the dominant species. Dasti et al. (2013) while working on vegetation of Suleiman Ranges reported the Calotropis procera and Capparis decidua as dominant species. Hussain et al. (1993) sampled the community structure at Graveyard of Swabi where Ziziphus was the dominant species.

Nanophanerphytes and therophytes each with 28.57%, represent the dominant life form, followed by hemicryptophytes, microphanerophytes (each with 14.28%). The dominant leaf size spectra was nanophylls (71.42%) followed by leptophylls (14.28%). Shukla (2009) stated that therophytes were dominant followed by chaemophytes from their respected study area. Khan & Musharaf (2014) recognized in tehsil Katlang that the dominant life form was therophytes (47.27%) and the dominant leaf size spectra was microphylls (47.27%).

Olea-Rydingia-Acacia community

At upper mountainous region with sandy-clay loam soil class the Olea- Rydingia-Acacia community consisted of 13 different species, among which 04 were tree species, 05 were shrub species and 04 were herb species (Appendix 4). Total importance value for the dominant species was 188.8 and 111.2 for the rest of species. Tree species contributed total importance value (TIV) of 149.06, shrubs shared TIV of 131.4 and herbs shared TIV of 19.53 (Table 7). Scrub community was found due to the xeric and harsh environment. The similar scrub community was reported by Perveen and Hussain (2007), Ahmad et al. (2008) and Khan et al. (2010) from their

91 respective study areas. Khan et al. (2010) also reported the Olea as dominant species from lower Dir, which also supported our results.

Nanophanerophytes were the dominant life form (46.15%) followed by microphanerophytes (30.76%), hemicryptophytes, geophytes and therophytes (each with 7.69%). The result was in contradiction to many other workers (Hussain et al., 2009; Malik & Hussain, 2008; Hussain et al., 2005). Amjed & Hameed (2012) investigated that chameophytes were dominant life form while dominant leaf size spectrum was microphylls and nanophylls (each with 38.76%), followed by leptophylls (23.07%) at Basu Hills, district Sakardu. Arshad et al. (2008), Hussain et al. (2005) and Badshah et al. (2010) reported that nanophylls were the dominant species in their respective sites. Shah & Rozina (2013) observed from Dheri Baba Hill Gohati and at Peer Taab Graveyard that microphylls (42%) was the dominant leaf size spectrum which supported our findings.

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community

Along the arid area and sandy-clay loam soil textural classes the Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community was recognized. It consisted of 04 trees, 03 shrubs and 05 herbs species (Appendix 5). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by three dominant plant species was 202.4, and by remaining species it was 97.57. The contribution of importance value by trees was 103.26, by shrubs 162.58 and by herbs it was 34.20 respectively (Table 7). Qureshi (2008) reported that Prosopis is dominant species from Sawan Wari of Nara desert. Abbas et al. (2009) from Greg Gord Azad Kashmir also reported Acacia among the dominant species. The result was also in accordance to Arshad et al. (2008) from Cholistan Desert, where prosopis was dominant species.

Nanophanerophytes were the dominant (41.66%) life form followed by microphanerophytes (25.0%), chamaephytes (16.66%), therophytes and geophytes (each with 8.33 %). The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls

92 were the dominant leaf size class (100%). Shah & Hussain (2009) from Hayatabad investigated that leptophylls were co-dominant.

3.3.2 Winter aspect

In winter 05 plant communities with a total of 43 plant species belonging to 28 families were recorded. The most important family in term of number of species was Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae with 03 species each, followed by Sapotaceae with 2 species and the rest of the families shared 01 species each.

However, when family importance value (FIV) was considered, again Mimosaceae was the leading family with a FIV of 226.23. The remaining families were recorded in order of importance as: Oleaceae (211.25), Lamiaceae (182.57), Acanthaceae (168.54), Rhmnaceae (147.31), Cactaceae (82.22), Poaceae (79.9), Sapotaceae (51.01), Simarubaceae (36.03), Fabaceae (28.19), Papilionaceae (27.38), Asphodelaceae (23.85), Cannabinaceae (21.48), Salicaceae (19.11), Chenopodiaceae (18.09), Bignoniaceae (17.46), Solanaceae, Berberidaceae and Polygonaceae (each with 16.00), Moraceae (15.88), Brassicaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Capparaceae (each with 14.00), Celastraceae and Amaranthaceae (each with 12.96), Malvaceae (7.37) and Asparagaceae (6.89). The details of communities are as under:

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community consisted of 10 plant species at sandy-loam soil class. It included 03 trees, 05 shrubs and 02 herb species (Appendix 6). Trees shared the importance value of 149.09; shrubs shared 126.9, while herbs shared 23.91. The importance value of three dominant species was 210.72, while 89.27 was shared by the rest of the species (Table 7).

Khan et al. (2010) reported that Olea community was emerged as dominant tree species from lower Dir in 04 stands. The life form reported that nanophanerphytes (80%) were the dominant life form in the area followed by

93 microphanerophytes and therophytes (each with 10% share). Similarly, Hussain & Perveen (2009), Bocuk et al. (2009) reported the nanophanerophytes as dominant species from their respective sites. The leaf size spectra was dominated by nanophylls and microphylls (each with 40%) followed by leptophylls (20%).

Shah & Rozina (2013) observed from Dheri Baba Hill where the microphylls (42%) dominated the community and his findings supported our results. Amjed et al. (2012) also reported from district Sakardu that microphylls (24%) were the second dominant leaf size spectra of the area.

Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia community

Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia community was recorded at foot hills at sandy-clay loam soil. The stand totally comprised of 11 species, among which 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs and 04 were herbs with importance values of 146.7, 110.3 and 42.9 respectively (Table 7). The dominant species shared the importance value of 186.7 and the remaining species shared a total importance value of 113.2. Family Rhamnaceae had the highest family importance value of 181, followed by Acanthaceae (150), Mimosaceae (60) and Sapotaceae (30). Shah & Rozina (2013) recorded at Peer Taab Graveyard that Ziziphus maruitiana was among the dominant species. Ahmad et al. (2008) reported from Soon valley of Punjab that Justicia and Acacia were the dominant species. The area was dominated by nanophanerophytes (45.45%), followed by microphanerophytes (27.2%), therophytes (18.18%) and chamaephytes (9.09%). Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported that chamaephyte (26.38%) were the dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (19.17%) from Skardu. The leaf size spectra show that nanophylls (54.5%) dominated the area followed by microphylls (27.2%), and leptophylls l (18.18%). Amjad & Hameed (2012) investigated that leptophylls (52%) were the dominant leaf size class. Hussain et al. (2009) from Azakhel reported that leptophylls (42.32%) and nanophylls (40.32%) were the dominant leaf size spectra. Costa et al. (2007), Sher & Khan (2007) and Hussain & Perveen (2009) reported that nanophylls were the dominant leaf size which strengthened our findings.

94 Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia community

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia community consisted of 11 species. Among 11 plants species 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs, and 04 were herbs at sandy- clay loam soil (Appendix 8). Total importance value (TIV) by 03 dominant species was 166.04 and 133.75 by the remaining species (Table 7). TIV contributed by trees was 120.4, by shrubs it was 118.2 and by herbs it was 61.6 (Table 7). Malik & Malik (2004) recorded that Acacia and Olea were the dominant species in Kotli Hills during monsoon.

The life form indicated that microphanerophytes and nanophanerophytes (each with 36% share) dominated the habitat followed by therophytes and geophytes (9.09% share), while the dominant leaf size spectra was nanophylls (36.36%), followed by leptophylls and nanophylls (each with 18.18%). Nanophanerophytes life form indicated that it was due to sandy condition where soil had poor water retaining capacity (Manhas et al., 2010). The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls dominancy was due to the drought and dry conditions. It was also supported by various workers (Nazir and Malik, 2006; Badshah et al., 2010), they also investigated the lepto- nanophylls communities from Azad Kashmir and South Waziristan.

Olea-Acacia-Rydingia community

Olea-Acacia-Rydingiacommunity was recorded at the top hills with sandy-clay loam soil, which comprised a total of 12 species. Among total species 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 04 were herbs (Appendix 9). The dominant species shared the total importance value of 163.5 and 136.4 by the remaining species. The trees contributed the total importance value of 139.8, shrubs shared 109.9 and herbs shared a total importance value of 50.2 (Table 7). The total family importance value shared by Lamiaceae (154), followed by Oleaceae (152), Mimosaceae (105), and Caprifoliaceae (92).

The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (58.3%) were dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (25%) and geophytes and hemicryptophytes (each with 8.3%). The leaf size spectra showed that

95 nanophylls (41.6%) were dominating the area followed by microphylls (33.33%), mesophyll (16.6%) and leptophylls (8.3%). Guo et al. (2009) reported that phanerophytes (73.2%) dominated their study area.

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community was recorded at xeric area on the top of hills having sandy-clay loam soil, which comprised a total of 15 plant species. Among the total species 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs and 08 were herbs (Appendix 10). The dominant species shared the importance value of 136.1 and 163.8 by the remaining species. The trees contributed the total importance value of 111.4, 110.8 by the shrubs and 77.6 by herbs (Table 7). The family importance value shared by Mimosaceae (281) was greater followed by Acanthaceae 174 and Oleaceae 28.

The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (33.3%) dominated the area, followed by microphanerophytes, therophytes (each with 26.6%) and geophytes and chamaephytes (each with 6.6%). Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported that nanophanerophytes were among the dominant species at Shahbaz Garhi Mardan area.

The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls, nanophylls and microphylls were 33.33% each. This may be probably due to xeric habitat and harsh environmental conditions. Shah and Rozina (2013) observed that microphylls (42%) were dominant at Dheri Baba Hill. Amjad & Hameed (2012) investigated that leptophylls (52%) were dominant from Basu valley district Sakardu. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported the Microphylls (46.97%) were the dominant species.

3.3.3 Spring aspect

Total numbers of plant species recorded in spring were 63 belonging to 38 families. Families Asteraceae and Mimosaceae had more species (03 species each) followed by Brassicaceae (02 spp), Lamiaceae (02 spp), Geraniaceae (02 spp), Rhamnaceae (02 spp), Papilionaceae (02 spp) and the

96 rest of families shared 01 species each. While considering the family importance value (FIV), it was noted that family Brassicaceae was the leading family with total FIV of 209.31 followed by Asteraceae (126.44), Papilionaceae (113.31), Lamiaceae (105.19), Euphorbiaceae (85.48), Mimosaceae (74.96), Rhamnaceae (72.62), Crassulaceae (57.92), Geraniaceae (56.01), Sapidaceae (55.34), Oleaceae (50.16), Amamllidaceae (45.16), Poaceae (40.19), Scrophulariaceae (39.58), Cannabinaceae (26.23), Acanthaceae (20.2), Celastraceae and Cactaceae (each with 19.45), Liliaceae (17.55), Caprifoliaceae (16.61), Oxalidaceae (15.89), Moraceae (14.77), Rosaceae (12.02), Solanaceae and Amaranthaceae (each with 10.20), Capparaceae and Asclepidaceae (each with 9.09), Caryophyllaceae, Sapotaceae and Rubiaceae (each with 8.50), Fabaceae and Polygonaceae (each with 6.11), Berberidaceae (5.38).It was noted that families Plantaginaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and Papaveraceae had the least family importance values (4.32each). The communities established during spring season are as under:-

Microsisymbrium-Torularia-Olea community

Microsisymbrium-Torularia-Olea community was recorded at xeric habitat at hilly areas having sandy loam soil, which consisted a total of 14 species. Of the total 14 species isolated from the area 02 were tree, 05 were shrubs and 07 were herbs (Appendix 11). The importance value shared by the dominant species was 162.33. All the remaining species shared only 138.07 importance values indicating their low degree of distribution, less coverage values and less number of individuals in the community (Table 7). The total importance value of 36.37, 85.67 and 178.35 were contributed by trees, shrubs and herbs respectively.The family Brassicaceae shared the maximum importance value (374), followed by Sapindaceae (182), Oleaceae (105), Lamiaceae and Acanthaceae (104each), Celastraceae (51), Sapotaceae (45), Moraceae (18) and Oxalidaceae (16). Durrani et al. (2005) investigated from Harboi rangeland, Kalat that family Brassicaceae was the dominant family. Durrani et al. (2010) evaluated that Asteraceae and Brassicaceae were the dominant families from Aghberg land of Quetta.

97 Results revealed that nanophanerophytes was the dominant life form having 57.14% share followed by therophytes (35.71%) and hemicryptophytes (7.14%). Similarly the leaf size spectrum showed that microphylls (57.14%) were the dominant leaf size spectrum followed by nanophylls (35.71%) and leptophylls (7.14%). Hussain et al. (2009) from Azakhel Gardan reported that nanophylls were dominant. Khan & Musharaf (2014) from Tehsil Katlang investigated that microphylls (78%) plants were the dominant species.

Sedum-Geranium-Indigofera community

Sedum-Geranium-Indigofera community was present at foot hills. The textural class of soil was sandy clay loam. Total number of species recorded was 16. Among the 16 recorded species 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 08 were herbs (Appendix 12). The total importance value contributed by herbs was 190.8, followed by trees (57.46) and shrubs (51.73) (Table 7). The total importance value shared by all 03 dominant species was 145.8 and 154.2 by the rest of species (Table 7). While considering the family importance value (FIV) family Geraniaceae (202) was the dominant family followed by Crassulaceae (179), Papilionaceae (173), Rhamnaceae (167), Acanthaceae (165), Sapindaceae (169), Solanaceae (168), Mimosaceae (84), Liliaceae (41), Capparaceae (38), Sapotaceae (34), Asclepidaceae (13) and Rubiaceae (15).

The life form recorded revealed that therophytes (50%) were dominant life form followed by the nanophanerophytes and microphanerophytes (each with 18.75%) and chamaephytes (12.5%). The nanophylls, leptophylls and microphylls (each with 31.25%) was the dominant leaf size spectra followed by aphyllous species (6.25%). Sher et al. (2011) reported from village Lahore, district Swabi that therophytes (82.5%) and nanophylls (22.5%) were the dominant biological spectra from the area.

Lactuca-Salvia-Allium community

Lactuca-Salvia-Allium was present at partial hilly area having sandy- clay loam soil. Total number of plants species were 18, among which 03 were trees, 02 were shrubs and 13 were herbs (Appendix 13). The total importance

98 value contributed by trees was 56.98, by shrubs 45 and by herbs it was 197.63 (Table 7). The total importance value shared by the dominant species was 141.35 and 158.64 was shared by the rest of species (Table 7). While considering the family importance value the Asteraceae (290) was leading family followed by Amamllidaceae (190), Lamiaceae (188), Rhamnaceae (172), Cannabiaceae (150), Cactaceae (108), Mimosaceae (69), Fabaceae (31) and Scrophulariaceae (12). Mendez (2005) reported that at Laguna family Asteraceae was the leading family. Durrani et al. (2005) from Harboi Rangeland investigated that family Asteraceae were the dominant family. Khan & Musharaf (2014) also reported that Asteraceae was the dominant family from Shahbaz Garhi Mardan.

The life form spectra revealed that therophytes (55.55%) were the dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (22.22%), microphanerophytes (16.66%) and chamaephytes (5.55%). The leaf size spectra reported that nanophylls and leptophylls (each with 38.88%) were the dominant class followed by leptophylls (16.66%) and nanophylls (5.55%). Hussain et al. (2009) investigated that therophytes (85.48%) and nanophylls (40.32%) were the leading classes in biological spectrum from Azakhel Botanical Gardan. Sher et al. (2011) from village Lahore, district Swabi reported that therophytes (82.5%) and nanophylls (22.5) were the dominant classes.

Phgnalon-Torularia-Kicksia community

Phagnalon-Torularia-Kicksia was an annual community that was present on high green luxury hills. The soil textural class was sandy-loam. The community comprised of 18 plant species among which 02 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 12 were herbs (Appendix 14). The total importance value shared by trees was 36.78, by shrub it was 75.69 and 187.52 by herbs (Table 7). The total importance value share by the 03 dominant species was 129.63 and 170.36 by the remaining species (Table 7). Considering the family importance value family, Asteraceae (209) was the leading family followed by Brassicaceae (170), Srophulariaceae (161), Oleaceae (149), Lamiaceae (128),

99 Mimosaceae (99), Caprifoliaceae (90), Rosaceae (38), Celastraceae (34) and Amranthaceae (30). Mendez (2005), Durrani et al. (2005) and Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported that family Asteraceae was the dominant family at their respective sites. Dhole et al. (2013) supported our results by investigating that Asteraceae was the dominant family from their respective study area.

The life form showed that therophytes (50%) were the dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (27.77%), microphanerophytes (16.66%) and geophytes (5.55%). Microphylls and nanophylls (38.88%) were the dominant leaf size spectrum followed by leptophylls and mesophylls (each with 11.11 2%).

Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera community

Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera community was present at xeric habitat away from the cultivated land. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant species was 17 among which 02 were trees, 01 shrub species and 14 species were herbs (Appendix 15). The total importance value shared by trees was 25.6, by shrubs it was 10.85 and by herbs it was 263.54. The family importance value showed that Mimosaceae (276) was the leading family followed by Papalionaceae (207), Euphorbiaceae (188), Poaceae (186) and Oleaceae by 43 (Table 7). Hussain et al. (2009) also recorded that at Azakhel garden the therophytic communities were found during spring which supported our results. Khan et al. (2013) also reported that therophytic communities were found during spring from Mardan, which strengthened our findings.

The life form spectrum revealed that therophytes (58.82%) were the dominant class followed by microphanerophytes, nanophanerophytes, haemicryptophytes (each with 11.76%) and Chamaephytes (5.88%). Nanophylls (58.82%) were the leading leaf size class followed by leptophylls (23.52%) and microphylls (17.64%). Costa et al. (2007) supported our result in terms that therophytes (42.9%) were the dominant class from their respective area.

100 3.3.4 Summer aspect

The study of floristic list during the survey in the season of summer, the total number of families was 34. The Families, in terms of greater number of species, were Asteraceae, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae (each with 3 species) followed by Sapindaceae, Celastraceae, Oleaceae, Sapotaceae, Acanthaceae, Solanaceae, Cannabiaceae, Cactaceae, Amaranthaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ranunculaceae (each with 1 sp.). The Family, in terms of maximum family importance value, was Sapindaceae (138.68), followed by Asteraceae (125.24), Mimosaceae (122.92), Ranunculaceae (107.98), Rhamnaceae (102.04), Oleaceae (96.12), Lamiaceae (95.43), Euphorbiaceae (93.33), Cannabiaceae (83.70), Acanthaceae (69.58), Poaceae (60.12), Solanaceae (52.53), Amaranthaceae (46.74), Sapotaceae (32.29), Rosaceae (28.05), Myrtaceae (24.60), Salicaceae (23.78), Celastraceae (23.41), Bignoniaceae (22.22), Moraceae (21.89), Cornaceae (19.62), Nyctiginaceae (17.51), Caprifoliaceae (16.50), Cyperaceae (14.49), Chenopodiaceae (12.17), Cactaceae (11.63), Papilionaceae (9.47), Asclepiadaceae, Lythraceae, Asparagaceae, Liliaceae, Brassicaceae and Cucurbitaceae have importance value less than 7.82. Dhole et al. (2013) supported our results that family Asteraceae had maximum number of species (04) at Marathwada region.

Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea community

Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea community was present at xeric habitat having sandy loam soil. A total of 13 plant species were isolated. Among these 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 05 were herbs (Appendix 16). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by 03 dominant species was 173.68, while TIV of 126.32 was shared by the remaining species (Table 7). The contribution of total importance value by tree species was 95.19, by shrubs 162.94 and by herbs it was 41.85. Ahmad et al. (2009) reported 10 Olea communities from Dir lower Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

101 The life form showed that the area was occupied by nanophanerophytes (69.23%) followed by therophytes (15.38), microphanerophytes and geophytes (each with 7.69%). The leaf size spectrum indicated that nanophylls and microphylls (46.15%) were the dominant class followed by leptophylls (7.69%). Costa et al. (2007) investigated that nanophanerophytes (26.3%) were among the dominant species. Guo et al. (2009) supported our results by reporting the nanophanerophytes (73.2%) as leading class.

Dodonaea-Withania-Justicia community

Dodonaea-Withania-Justicia community was present at foot hills. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant species was 14 among which 04 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 06 were herbs (Appendix 17). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by the dominant species was 164.26 while 135.73 were shared by the rest of the species. The contribution of total importance value shared by the tree species was 80.05, by shrubs it was 172.06 and by herbs it was 47.85 (Table 7). Nazir et al. (2012) reported from Lesser Himalayan sub tropical forest of Kashmir where Dodonaea was the dominant species in some stand.

The life form showed that the area was dominated by nanophanerophytes, Therophytes and Chamaephytes (each with 21.42%) followed by microphanerophytes (14.28%) and haemicryptophytes and geophytes (each with 7.14%). The leaf size spectra revealed that the area was dominated by nanophylls (42.85%), followed by microphylls (21.42%), leptophylls (14.28%) and mesophylls and aphyllous each with 7.14%.

Cannabis-Alternanthra-Ageratum community

Cannabis-Alternathra-Ageratum community was present at low hills and at foot hills. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of species was 17 among which 03 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 10 were herbs (Appendix 18). The tree species shared the total importance value of 57.81, by shrubs it was 113.46 and 128.72 was shared by the herb species. The total

102 importance value (TIV) contributed by the dominant species was 154.70 and 145.29 was shared by the remaining species (Table 7).

The life form revealed that therophytes (47.05%) were the dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes, microphanerophytes with 17.64% each and geophytes, haemicryptophytes each with 5.88%. While the leaf size spectra revealed that nanophylls (52.94%) was the conducting class followed by microphylls (35.29%) and leptophylls (5.88%). Durrani et al. (2005) reported from Harboi Rangeland Kalat that therophytes and microphylls were the dominant classes.

Malik et al. (2007) investigated that microphylls were the dominant class at their respective area that were in conformity to our result.

Euphorbia-Delphinium-Olea community

Euphorbia- Delphinium- Olea community was present at the top of hilly area. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant species was 15 among which 03 were tree species, 05 were shrubs and 08 were herbs (Appendix 19). The contribution of total importance value shared by the tree species was 65.63 followed by shrubs (62.84) and herbs (171.52) (Table 7). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by three dominant species was 155.29 and 144.70 by the rest of species (Table 7).

The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (33.33%) were the dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (26.66%), therophytes (20.00%), chamaephytes (13.33%) and haemicryptophytes (13.33%). The leaf size spectra showed that microphylls (46.66%) were the dominant class followed by nanophylls (33.33%), laptophylls (13.33%) and mesophylls (6.66%). The results were in contradiction with Costa et al. (2007) which revealed that therophytes was the leading class. The results were also in contradiction with Manhas et al. (2010) who supported that therophytes were the dominant class.

103 Malik et al. (2007) supported our result that microphylls were the dominant class at Ganga Chotti and Bedori Hills.

Delphinium-Dittrichia-Prosopis community

Delphinium-Dittrichia-Prosopis community was present at low hilly area near cultivated land. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant species was 18 among which 04 were trees species, 04 were shrubs and 10 were herbs (Appendix 20). The total importance value shared by tree species was 63.50, by shrubs it was 79.15 and by herbs it was 157.34. The total importance value shared by the three dominant species was 158.67 while the rest of species shared 141.32 (Table 7). While considering the family importance value (FIV), Mimosaceae (270) was leading followed by Ranunculaceae (182), Asteraceae (180), Acanthaceae (168) and Oleaceae (34).

The life form showed that nanophanerophytes (27.77%) was the dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (22.22%), therophytes (14.44%) and geophytes (5.55%). The leaf size spectra indicated that microphylls, nanophylls (each with 33.33%) were the leading class followed by laptophylls (27.77%) and mesophylls (5.55%). Malik et al. (2007) from Ganga Chotti hills reported that microphanerophytes were the dominant class, which supported our results.

104 Table-3.5: Number of species and Total Importance Values (TIV) of trees, shrubs and herbaceous species in different communities and seasons

Seasons Autumn Winter Spring Summer

Community 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

 Number of species

Trees 2 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 3 4

Shrubs 4 4 4 5 3 5 3 3 5 3 5 5 2 4 1 5 4 4 5 4

Herbs 2 5 7 4 5 2 4 4 4 8 7 8 13 12 14 5 6 10 7 10

Total 8 13 14 13 12 10 11 11 12 15 14 16 18 18 17 13 14 17 15 18

 Total Importance Value (TIV)

TIV of 3 dominants 179.5 133.6 187.0 188.7 202.4 210.7 186.7 166.0 163.5 136.1 162.3 145.7 141.3 129.6 202.2 173.6 164.2 154.7 155.2 158.6 species

Continued…

105 TIV of remaining 120.4 166.3 113.4 111.2 97.5 89.2 113.2 133.7 136.4 163.8 138.0 154.2 158.6 170.3 97.7 126.3 135.7 145.2 144.7 141.3 species

TIV of 92.2 110.0 124. 149.0 103.2 149.0 146.7 120.4 139. 111.4 36.3 57.4 56.9 36.7 25.6 95.1 80.0 57.8 65.6 63.5 Trees

TIV of 179.0 131.3 112.0 131.4 162.5 126.9 110.3 118.2 109.9 110.8 85.6 51.7 45.3 75.6 10.8 162.9 172.0 113.4 62.81 79.1 Shrubs

TIV of 28.7 58.6 63.5 19.5 34.2 23.9 42.9 61.0 50.2 77.6 178.3 190.8 197.6 187.5 263.5 41.8 47.8 128.7 171.5 157.3 Herbs

106 Table-3.6: Physico-chemical features of soil of different stands

S.No. Soil Textural class pH Ec (dS/m) Organic matter (%) N% P (ppm) K (ppm) CaCo3% Ca+Mg Zn (ppm) Fe (ppm) (Mequ/l)

1 Sandy loam 7.38 0.62 3.68 0.16 16 100 12.5 25 4.4 11.5

2 Sandy-clay loam 7.83 1.8 7.16 0.27 15 130 17.25 35 3.8 10.2

3 Sandy-clay loam 7.55 7.25 0.4 0.02 7 180 14.37 21 2.19 9.45

4 Sandy-clay loam 7.9 0.5 3.75 0.17 9 130 11.2 16.5 2.14 9.88

5 Sandy-clay loam 8.11 0.37 1.47 0.06 7 110 11.7 17 2.11 10.01

107

Figure-3.3: Some views of the research area

108 3.4 Ethnobotany

A sum of 71 plant species belonging to 65 genera and 39 families were reported from district Nowshera. Different plant parts i.e. roots, rhizomes, tubers, leaves, stem, wood and fruits were used by the locals for various purposes in their daily life. Leaves were the most favored plant part used by indigenous community comprised of 50 species (70.42%) followed by stems (47 species, 66.87%), whole plant (13 species, 20.52%), fruits (09 species, 14%) and roots (04 species, 5.71%). During survey family Asteraceae was found to contribute the highest number of plant species (08) to the local usage. It was followed by family Papilionaceae (06 species), Poaceae (05 species), Mimosaceae and Solanaceae (04 species each), Euphorbiaceae (03 species), Apocynaceae, Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Capparaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Polygonaceae, Rhamnaceae, Malvaceae and Myrtaceae shared 02 species each while family Arecaceae, Acanthaceae, Cactaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cyperaceae, Canabaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Fumariaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Primulaceae, Oleaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Temaraceae, Oxalidaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Soliaceae, Apiaceae and Zygophyllaceae were represented by one species each. Zereen & Sardar (2013) reported from Punjab a total of 48 plant species belonging to 23 families used for various purposes by the local community.Jan et al. (2010) reported from lower Dir that family Asteraceae was the most important family with regards to its ethnobotanical value. He documented 26 weed species belonging to 16 families. Haq (2012) reported a total of 172 medicinal taxa from Allai Valley, Pakistan used by the indigenous people for treatment of various illnesses. Popularly used 31 medicinal plants by the indigenous were reported from Northern Ethopia (Mesfin et al., 2013)

At district Nowshera the indigenous people mainly used wild herbs (44 spp., 61.11%), followed by wild trees (16 spp., 23.61%) and wild shrubs (11 spp., 15.06%). These plants were used for different purposes such as fodder, furniture, fuel, oil, edible fruits and vegetables. Most of the reported species

109 were used for multipurpose. In the present study it was concluded that 45 species (63.5%) were used as fodder, 30 species (41.66%) for fuel, 10 species (14.69%) for furniture, thatching species were 08 (11.95%), 07 species (9.58%) were used as vegetable, 04 species (7.04%) for hedge purpose, fruit species were 04 (6.04%), 03 species (4.10%) were grown for ornamental purposes and 01 species (1.36%) for each of the following purposes; coloring the clothes, oil for hairs, perfume, in surf industries and in making basket, ropes and hand fan. Barkatullah & Ibrar (2011) reported 31 plants species from Malakand agency which were used in the area for fuel, 14 plant species for making furniture, 15 species for house construction particularly for thatching purpose, 47 species were most frequently used for fodder/forage, 40 species (23.68%) were consumed as vegetable and fruit. There were 19 species grown around houses and crop fields as fence. Khan et al. (2003) conducted survey in district Buner and reported 21 fuel plant species, 13 vegetables, 7 roof thatching species, 6 timber wood species and 40 species for medicinal purpose. 10% of plant species were used for fuel and furniture from district Mana Angetu (Lulekal et al., 2008). 16 plant species were used as fuel at Jandool Valley, Dir Lower (Nasrullah et al., 2012). Khan (2011) reported 15 plant species used for furniture and 9 plant species used for ornamental purpose at Ushairy Valley, district Dir (Upper). Cones of gymnosperm were used for decoration at Poonch valley Azad Kashmir Pakistan (Khan, 2008).

04 spiny and bushy species were used as hedge around the fields and houses (Table 15). The oil of Eruca sativa is used as hair tonic while oil of Pongamia pinnata is used for cooking purpose. The Ocimum bacilicum is used in perfumes due to its fragrance. Aloe vera fleshy leaves are used in surf industries. The ash of Calotropis procera is used as cloth coloring agent.

Lack of proper education and poor economic condition of the area has led to deforestation of natural vegetation, which is added by unavailability of alternative fuel.

110 Table-3.7: List of ethnobotanically important plants

Vernacular S. No Botanical Name Family Habit Parts Uses Name Leaves and 01 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub Its dried leaves and stems are used as fuel. Stems Stems and Stems are used as fodder while its leaves are 02 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb Leaves used as vegetable. Scandix pecten- veneris Stems and 03 Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb Used as fodder. L. Leaves Foeniculam vulgare Fruits and 04 Sonf, Kaga Apiaceae Herb Used as food. Miller. Leaves Stems and Plant is used for ornamental purpose. 05 Nerium oleander L. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub Leaves Also used as fuel. Stems and 06 Rhazya stricta Decne. Kaneer Apocynaceae Shrub Stems and leaves are used as fuel. Leaves Leaves are used for making ropes, baskets Leaves and 07 Phoenix dactylifera L. Kajora Arecaceae Tree and hand fans. Fruits Fruits used as food. Calotropis procera Roots, Stems 08 Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae Shrub Ash is used as cloth coloring agent. Aiton. and Leaves Continued…

111 Leaves and Leaves are used as fodder while 09 Sonchus asper L. Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb Stems dried stems are used as fuel. Calendula arvensis (L.) Stems and 10 Zyer Gulay Asteraceae Herb Grazed by cattle. Vaill Leaves Stems and Dried stems are used as fuel. 11 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lala hozah Asteraceae Herb Leaves Leaves are used as fodder. Parthenium Lewanai Leaves and 12 Asteraceae Herb Leaves and stems are used as fuel. hysterophorus L. Bang Stems Leaves, Stems Leaves and stems are used as fodder. 13 Silybum marianum L. Churg azghy Asteraceae Herb and Seeds Seeds are used as food. Taraxacum officinale 14 Ziarrguli Asteraceae Herb Whole plant It is used as fodder. (L.) Weber. Xanthium strumarium 15 Kata sora Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel. L. 16 Artemisia vulgaris L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel. Heliotropium 17 Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub Leaves Grazed by animals. europaeum L. Oil obtained from seeds and used as hair 18 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae Herb Seeds tonic. Used raw as salad. 19 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb Whole plant Used by grazing animals. Continued…

112 20 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb Stems Used as hedge around cultivated fields. Leaves and 21 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb Used as fodder and fuel. Stems Capparis decidua 22 Jaba Capparaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel. (Forssk.) Edgew Stellaria media (L.) Stems and Used as fodder. 23 Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb Vill. Leaves Leaves are used as vegetable. Green leaves are used as vegetable. 24 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Leaves Used by grazing animals. Used as vegetable. 25 C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fodder. 26 Convolvulus arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant is used as fodder. Citrullus colocynthis Stems and 27 Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb Used as fodder. (L.) Schrad Leaves 28 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel and fodder. Chrozophora tinctoria Roots, Leaves 29 Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb Used as fuel and fodder. (L) Raf. and Stems Euphorbia helioscopia 30 Ghanda Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel. L. Leaves and 31 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae Shrub Used as fuel. Stems Continued…

113 Fumaria indica Lewanai 32 Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fodder. Hausskn. Gazara Stems and Used as fodder. 33 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub Leaves Plant used for ornamental purposes. Stems and The fleshy leaves are used in detergent 34 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae Herb Leaves industries. Abutilon bidentatum 35 ziary Malvaceae Shrub Whole plant Used as fuel. Hochst. ex A.Rich. Leaves and 36 Malva neglecta Waler. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae Herb Used as vegetable and fodder. Stems Acacia arabica (Lam.) Stems and Used as fuel, fodder, timber, in furniture 37 Kiker Mimosaceae Tree willd. Leaves industries. Used as fuel, fodder, timber, in furniture industries. Leaves Stems 38 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree Dried stems are used in thatching. and Gums Gums are used by honey bees for collecting nectar. Stems are used as fuel, furniture and for Stems, Leaves thatching. 39 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree and Flowers Leaves are used as fodder. Flowers are used for fragrance. Prosopis juliflora Stems are used in timber, as fuel, for 40 Angrizi Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Stems Swartz. making furniture and in thatching. Continued…

114 Leaves are used as fodder. Leaves, Stems 41 Morus nigra Shahtoth Moraceae Tree Stems are used as fuel and for timber. and Fruits Fruits are edible. Eucalyptus Used as fuel and in furniture. 42 Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Stems camaldulensis Dehnh. Wood is used as timber. Boerhavia procumbens Stems and 43 Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb Used as fodder and fuel. Bank ex Roxb. Leaves

Stems and Used as fuel and for furniture purpose. 44 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree Leaves Leaves are also used as fodder.

Olea ferruginea Wall. Leaves and Wood is used in furniture industry. 45 Shona Oleaceae Tree ex G. Aitch. Stems Stems and leaves are used as a fuel.

46 Oxalis corniculata L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb Leaves Used as vegetable. 47 Pongamia pinnata L. Sukh chain Papilionaceae Tree Seeds Seeds yield edible oil. Leaves are used as fodder. Leaves and 48 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae Tree Stems Wood is used as furniture, timber and fuel purpose. Medicago denticulata Leaves and 49 Peshtara Papilionaceae Herb Used as fodder and vegetable. Willd. Stems Continued…

115 Used as fodder. Melilotus indica (L.) Leaves, Stems 50 Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb All. and Flowers Flowers are used by bees for collecting nectar. Trifolium alexandrinum Leaves and 51 Shotall Papilionaceae Herb The whole plant used mainly as fodder. L. Stems Leaves and 52 T. resupinatum L. Zierawona Papilionaceae Herb Leaves and stems are used as fodder. Stems Cenchrus Stems and 53 pennisetiformis Hochst Shamloha Poaceae Herb Used as fodder, fuel and thatching. Leaves And Steud. Stems and Sticks are used as thatching. 54 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Leaves Used as fodder and fuel. Cymbopogon 55 jwarancusa (Jones.) Sargarra Poaceae Herb Whole plant It is used as thatching. Schult Used as fodder. Leaves, Stems 56 Cynodon dactylon L. Kabal Poaceae Herb and Roots Plant grown in lawns for ornamental/beautification purpose. Eragrostis cilianensis 57 Mumloha Poaceae Herb Stems Used as fodder and in thatching. (All.) Janchen. Calligonum Leaves and It is used as fodder. 58 Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub polygonoides L. Stems Its ash is used in making snuff. Continued…

116 Leaves and 59 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhy Polygonaceae Herb Used as vegetable and fodder. Stems Leaves and 60 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen starga Primulaceae Herb Used as fodder. Stems The fruits are eadible and are largely consumed by local people. Most valuable in honey industry. Fruits, Leaves 61 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree Leaves are used as fodder. and Stems Its branches are used for making hedges around cultivated fields. Its stems are used as fuel. Fruits are eadible. Leaves and Leaves are used as fodder. 62 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree Fruits The plant is also used as hedges around cultivated farms and is also used as fuel. Leaves and 63 Populus nigra L. Sufaida Salicaceae Tree It is mostly used for timber and also as fuel. Stems The branches are used in manufacture of 64 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub Stem roofs. Wood is used as fuel. Monotheca boxifolia Leaves, Stems Used as fuel and fodder. 65 Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree Falc. and Fruits Fruits are edible. Continued…

117 Datura alba Rumph. ex Leaves and 66 Daltura Solanaceae Shrub Used as fodder and fuel Nees. Stems Solanum surattense Used in erecting hedges around cultivated 67 Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb Whole plant Burm.f. fields and also as fuel. Leaves, Stems Used as fodder. 68 Withania somnifera L. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb and Fruits Fruits are edible. Leaves and 69 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb Mainly used as vegetable. Fruits Tamarix aphylla (L.) 70 Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree Stems Mainly used for fuel and timber purposes. Karst. Stems and 71 Peganum harmala L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb Used as fuel. Leaves

118 Table-3.8: Plants used as fodder

S. Botanical Name Local Family Habit No. Name

1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb

2 Scandix pecten- veneris L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb Sonf, 3 Foeniculam vulgare Miller Kagah Apiaceae Herb

4 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb

5 Calendula arvensis (L.) Vaill Zyer Gulley Asteraceae Herb

6 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae Herb Lewanai 7 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Bang Asteraceae Herb

8 Silybum marianum L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb Taraxacum officinale (L.) 9 Weber. Ziarrguli Asteraceae Herb

10 Heliotropium europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub

11 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb

12 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb

13 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb

14 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

15 C. muraleL. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

16 Convolvulus arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Citrullus colocynthis (L.) 17 Schrad Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb

18 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) 19 Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb Continued…

119 Lewanai 20 Fumaria indica Hausskn. Gazara Fumariaceae Herb

21 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub Tor 22 Malva neglecta Wallr. Peshtara Malvaceae Herb

23 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree

24 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree

25 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree

26 Morus nigar L. Shahtoth Moraceae Tree Boerhavia procumbens Bank 27 ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb

28 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree

29 Medicago denticulta Willd. Speshtara Papilionaceae Herb

30 Melilotus indica (L.) All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb

31 Trifolium alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb

32 T. resupinatum L. Zierawona Papilionaceae Herb Cenchrus pennisetiformis 33 Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb

34 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

35 Cynodon dactylon L. Kabal Poaceae Herb

36 Eragrostis cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

37 Calligonum polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub

38 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb Sheen 39 Anagallis arvensis L. starga Primulaceae Herb

40 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree

41 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree Continued…

120 42 Monotheca boxifolia Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree

43 Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub

44 Withania somnifera L. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb

45 Peganum harmala L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb

121 Table-3.9: Plants used as fuel

Local S.No. Botanical Name Family Habit Name

1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub

2 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae Shrub

3 Rhazya stricta Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub Lewanai 4 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Bang Asteraceae Herb

5 Silybum marianum L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb

6 Xanthium strumarium L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb

7 Artemisia vulgaris L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Capparis decidua (Forssk.) 8 Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb

9 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb

Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) 10 Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb Raf. Ganda 11 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb

12 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae Shrub

13 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree

14 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree

15 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree Angrizi 16 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Eucalyptus camaldulensis 17 Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Boerhavia procumbens Bank 18 ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 19 Aitch. Shona Oleaceae Tree

20 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa papilionaceae Tree Cenchrus pennisetiformis 21 Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb

Continued…

122

22 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

23 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree

24 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree

25 Populus nigra L Sufaida Saicaceae Tree

26 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub

27 Monotheca boxifolia Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree

28 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb

29 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree

123 Table-3.10:Plants used in furniture industries Local S.No. Botanical Name Name Family Habit

1 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree

2 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree

3 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree

4 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree Angrizi 5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Eucalyptus camaldulensis 6 Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 7 Aitch. Shona Oleaceae Tree

8 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree

9 Populus nigra L Sufaida Saicaceae Tree

10 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree

Table-3.11: Plants used in thatching Local S.No. Botanical Name Name Family Habit

1 Acacia modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree

2 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree Eucalyptus camaldulensis 3 Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Cenchrus pennisetiformis 4 Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb

5 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Cymbopogon jawarancusa 6 (Jones.) Schult. Sargarra Poaceae Herb

7 Eragrostis cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

8 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub

124 Table-3.12:Plants used as vegetables Local S.No. Botanical Name Name Family Habit

1 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

2 C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Tor 3 Malva neglecta Wallr. Peshtara Malvaceae Herb

4 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb

5 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb

6 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb

7 Oxalis corniculata L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb

Table-3.13: Plants used in hedge

Local S.No. Botanical Name Family Habit Name 1 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb

2 Ziziphus nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree

3 Z. jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree

4 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb

125 Table-3.14: Percentage of ethnobotanical usage of plants in district Nowshera

Ethnobotanical Usage No. of Plants Percentage S.No.

1 Plants used as fodder 45 62.5 %

2 Plants used as fuel wood 29 41.66 %

3 Plants used for furniture 10 13.69 %

4 Plants used for ornamental 03 4.10 % purpose 5 Plants used as coloring cloths 01 1.36 %

6 Oil yielding plants 01 1.36 %

7 Plants used as vegetable 07 9.58 %

8 Used as hedge 04 5.55 %

9 Plants producing edible fruit 04 5.47 %

10 As perfumes 01 1.36 %

11 For roof thatching purpose 08 10.95 %

126

Figure-3.4: Percentage of ethnobotinical usage of plants in district Nowshera

127

Figure-3.5: Sheep and Goat of local breed grazing on meager forage in the range land of district Nowshera

Figure-3.6: Ziziphus, Olea, Acacia, Dodonaea and Prosopis largely used as fuel wood that further reduces local vegetations

128

Figure-3.7: Stem branches of Ziziphus used as fences

Figure-3.8: Gum of Acacia used in market

129 3.5 Ethnomedicine

Survey was carried out to explore the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of the research area. 90 ethnomedicinal plant species were recorded from the area belonging to 84 genera and 37 families. The wild plants were mostly used by the local community for treatment of various ailments. Indigenous medicinal plants of 66 species of wild herbs (73.95%), followed by wild trees (13 spp., 14.58 %) and wild shrubs (11 spp., 12.45 %) were in use by the locals. The highest number of indigenous medicinal plants were contributed by family Asteraceae (12 spp), followed by Papilionaceae with 07 species, Poaceae with 06 species, Solanaceae 05 species, Mimosaceaeand Brassicaceae 04 species each,Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae,Polygonaceae, Zygophyllaceae and Lamiaceae 03 species each, Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Apocynaceaeand Chenopodiaceae 02 species each. Rest of the families i-e Berberidaceae,Capparaceae, Moraceae, Asclepidaceae,Caryophyllaceae, Cactaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae, Alliaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Oxalidaceae, Convulvulaceae, Cyperaceae, Cannabaceae, Oleaceae, Temaraceae, Plantaginaceae and Sapindaceae were represented by one species each. Ethnomedicinal information particularly for asthma, stimulant, dysentery, diarrhea, fever, emollient, snake bite and for piles was documented from the study area. During the survey maximum number of plants species (30 spp) were used for fever treatment followed by diarrhea (09 spp), anthelmintic, stimulant and dysentery (08 spp each), asthma (06 spp), snake bite (04 spp) and as emollient (02 spp). Qamar et al. (2010) reported 32 species used against human diseases (14 spp., used as antiseptic, 9 spp., used as tonic, and 9 spp., used as anthelmintic)from Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Lulekal et al. (2008) documented 78.7% of plant species for different ailments (Asthma, cough and piles etc). Zereen & Sardar (2013) reported 38 plant species used for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom central Punjab. Haq (2012) documented 47 plant species used for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom Allai Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Khan et al. (2009) reported

130 Tamarix and Calatropis species used against coughfrom F.R. Bannu. Jabbar et al. (2006) reported 5 plant species used for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom Chapursan Valley, district Mian Wali. 22 medicinal weeds belonging to 13 families were used by the local community for treatment of various illnessesfrom district Shangla (Ishtiaq et al., 2007). 24 plants species belong to 16 families were used for medicnal purpose by the local inhabitant of Manipur, India (Rasila et al., 2013). Mahmood et al. (2013) investigated 71 ethnomedicinal plants belonging to 38 families from Gujranwala district, Pakistan. Ghulam et al. (2015) documented a sum of 120 plant species belonging to 50 families from Thar Desert of Sindh, Pakistan. There were 61 medicinal plants belonging to 40 families from 17 sites of Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Mahmood et al., 2012). Tag et al. (2012), Mahmood et al. (2012) and Ghulam et al. (2015) reported the maximum usage of wild herbaceous medicinal plants from their research area. During the present study ethnomedicinal information of each species along other botanical data were recorded in different seasons of the year (Table 17). Choudhury et al. (2015) and Meena & Yadav 2010 reported 49 plant species from Southern Assam, India used against the digestive system disorder. Ahmad et al. (2009) recorded 49% plant species used in research area as anti-diabetic.

Plant parts used for the treatment of various ailments comprised of leaves, seeds, stems, flowers, roots, fruits, whole fresh and whole dry plant. Leaves (62.12%) were the most preferred plant part used as indigenous medicine, followed by stems (33.18%), roots (21.16%), seeds (17.50%), fruits (16.37%), whole plant (15.37%), and flowers (3.08 %) (Fig.2). Mahmood et al. (2013) from Gujranwala district, Mahmood et al. (2012) from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Ghulam et al. (2015) from Islamabad and Thar Desert of Sindh, Pakistan and Choudhury et al. (2015) reported from Southern Assam, India, that leaves are the most prominent part used by the local community. The extensive use of leaves in indigenous recipes may be probably due to their highest healing potential possessing secondary metabolites (Verpoorte, 1998; Verpoorte & Memelink, 2002).

131 Sardar & Khan (2009) investigated that medicinal halophytes were used to cure about 30 to 35 types of diseasesfrom tehsil Shakargarh, district Narowal, Pakistan. About 27% species have been used as blood purifier, 13% species are painkiller, 13% are laxative whereas 22% species specially used as fodder. 11% species in the remaining have been used against asthma, 08% species against ulcer while, 06% species have been used in soap industry. Researchers are actively engaged in exploring plants that have important medicinal properties such as anti-ulcer, anti-diabetes, antioxidant and anti- inflammatory (Haq, 1983).

Plant extracts contain chemicals which ceased the formation and development of crystals. Due to this character plants play a positive role to avoid kidney stones and crystals accumulation (Goodman & Gafoor, 1992). The present pharmacopoeia comprises of about 25% medications extracted from plants (Shinwari, 2010). Hara & Williams (1997) reported 66 medicinal plant species used to treat various diseases and ailments grouped under 11 disease categories.

132 Table-3.15: List of ethnomedicinal plants

Vernacular S.No. Botanical name Family name Habit Part use Ethnomedicinal Uses name Leaves, Extracts of crushed leaves and roots are used in Roots, asthma,cough, rheumatism, bronchitis, dysentery in animals 1. Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub Flowers and and also as anti-inflammation. Fruits Extracts of flowers and fruits are used as anthelmintic. Allium Leaves and Bulbs are used as aphrodisiac. Leaves extract is used in optic 2. Piazaky Alliaceae Herb griffithianum Boiss. Bulbs pain, flatulence and skin diseases. Roots and stems decoctions are used in inflammation and Roots, Stems dysentery.They are also used as pain killer and in fever 3. Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb and Leaves Leaves decoctions are used as emollient and against snake bite and in scorpion sting. Foeniculam vulgare Fruits and 4. Sonf, Kaga Apiaceae Herb Used as carminative and stimulant. Miller. Leaves Decoctions of whole dry plant are useful in excessive menstruation, diarrhea, dysentery, and piles. 5. Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant Decoctions of leaves are used as remedy for toothache and abdominal pain.

Scandix pecten- veneris 6. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant extract is used for cooling of animal body. L.

Continued…

133 Dried roots are grinded to make paste and usedin snake Roots and bite, scorpion sting and for skin diseases. 7 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae Shrub Leaves Leaves decoctions are used for the treatment of skin inflammation. Rhazya stricta Roots, Stems Decoctions of plant are used in blood purification, skin 8. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub Decne. and Leaves diseases and for fever. Dried leaves are grinded into powder, mixed with ghur (local name of sugar) and their paste is used for snake Calotropis procera Stems and bite. 9. Spalmy Asclepiadaceae Shrub Aiton. Leaves Latex is useful for ringworm and skin disease. Leaves are heated in water. Extract obtained is used in ear pain and against fever. Calendula arvensis The dried flowers are crushed and their extract is used for 10. Zyer Gulley Asteraceae Herb Flowers (L.) Vaill toothache. Taraxacum Roots, Stems 11. officinale (L.) Boda sary Asteraceae Herb Decoctions are used for fever and stomachache and Leaves Weber. Cichorium intybus Extract of whole plant is used for abdominal disorders, 12. Kashnee Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Linn. indigestion, headache, asthma, gout, and joint pain. Whole plant decoctions have a tonic effect on the 13. Eclipta prostrata L. Daryai boti Asteraceae Herb Whole plant circulatory, nervous and digestive system. Continued…

134 The tea prepared from its leaves is used by pregnant Leaves and woman to keep them cool. 14. Lactuca serriola L. Pae gully Asteraceae Herb Stems Decoctions of dried leaves and stems are used as cooling agent, sedative and diaphoretic. Seeds and flowers are used in measles, as stimulant, for Stems, fever and eruptive skin disease. Carthamus 15. Ghzanka Asteraceae Herb Flowers and Oil obtained from its seeds is used as hair tonic. oxycantha L. Seeds Stems are dried, crushed and powder is made which is used as antipyretic. Extraction of stems is used as a stimulant. Conyza aegyptiaca Stems and 16. Lalahozah Asteraceae Herb L. Leaves Dried leaves decoctions are made which is used in dysentery, diarrhea and is used as antipyretic. Whole plant decoctions are used in asthma. Sonchus asper (L.) 17. Tariza Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Hill Extractions of roots and leaves are used in constipation, inflammation of skin and for fever. Xanthium Fruits and Fruits are dried and grinded into powder which is used 18. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb strumarium L. whole plant for urinary tract infection and as antipyretic.

Parthenium Lewanai Leaves and Leaves and stems decoctions are used as blood purifier 19. Asteraceae Herb hysterophorus L. Bang Stems and fever.

Continued…

135 Leaves and stems are used as diaphoretic. Silybum marianum Leaves, Stems 20. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb L. and Seeds Seeds are emollient and are used for hemorrhage (bleeding).

Artemisia vulgaris Leaves decoctions are used as antiperiodic and as 21. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Leaves L. carminative.

Coronopus didymus Stems and Grounded roots are used as anthelmintic while powder 22. (L.) Sm. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb Roots form of stems is used for fever.

Decoctions of leaves and stems with honey are given Berberis lycium Stems, Leaves twice a day for 7-15 days in jaundice. 23. Ziarlargy Berberidaceae Herb Royle and Roots Roots extract is given twice a day for 3-6 months for jaundice. Heliotropium Fresh leaves are grinded and decoctions are made which 24. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub Leaves europaeum L. is used as diuretic and purgative The dried seeds are grinded and squeezed to extract oil. It is given to the cattle’s as anthelmintic and also used as Seeds and 25. Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae Herb hair tonic. Leaves Fresh leaves are crushed, boiled and decoctions are made which is used for fever. Dried seeds are mixed with water, heated and upon Seeds and cooling are given for abdominal pain. 26. Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae Herb Fruits Roasted fruits are mixed with curd and usedfor fever and in diarrhea. Continued…

136 The dried seeds and leaves are grinded and used for Seeds and throat infection, as diaphoretic and fever. 27. Sisymbrium irio L. Badal Bang Brassicaceae Herb Leaves Powder of the grinded seeds is used as expectorant and stimulant.

Opuntia dillenii Infusion of seeds is used in asthma, fever, as stimulant 28. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb Seeds Haw. and antispasmodic.

29. Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb Leaves Used as sedative, diuretic and for fever. Capparis decidua Leaves decoctions are used as carminative, for piles and 30. Jaba Capparaceae Herb Leaves (Forssk.) Edgew for fever.

Stellaria media (L.) Caryophyllacea Leaves and 31. Gulpullan Herb Dried leaves and stems are used as antipyretic. Vill. e Stems

Decoctionsare made of dried roots, which are used for Chenopodium Roots and urinary tract infection. 32. Spin Soba Chenopodiacea Herb album L. Seeds Dried seeds are grinded into powder and this powder is used in rheumatism. Extracts of its seeds are used in asthma, as aromatic, as 33. C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea Herb Seeds stimulant and as antispasmodic. Continued…

137 Dried fruits are grinded into powder and used for hair washing to remove dandruff. Convolvulus 34. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant decoctions are used for pain worms. arvensis L. Dried roots are crushed and decoctions are made and used as laxative. Citrullus Stems and Stems and roots decoctions are used in dysentery and 35. colocynthis (L.) Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb Roots diarrhea. Schrad. Fresh plant decoctions are made which is used as Cuscuta reflexa 36. Chambal Cuscutaceae Herb Whole plant diuretic, anthelmintic, carminative andfor toothache, Roxb. Plant extraction is used in vomiting and as antipyretic Leaves are used in back-ache, weakness and in 37. Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Leaves inflammation. Dried stems are powdered and used in constipation. Euphorbia Stems, Roots Roots decoctions are used as anthelmintic. 38. Ganda Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb helioscopia L. and Leaves Fresh leaves of the plant are grinded and decoctions are made which is used in hepatitis. Continued…

138 Seeds are crushed into powder and a paste is made which is given to cattle in constipation and fever Ricinus communis Seeds and The oil extracted from its seeds is used in snake bite and 39. Arhund Euphorbiaceae Shrub L. Stems also used to expel out the poison. The bark of the stems is grinded into powder; paste is prepared and is used for healing wounds. Dried plant is crushed into powder and is used for constipation. It is also used for purification of blood. Fumaria indica Lewanai Extraction of plant is used as antipyretic,vermifuge, 40. Hausskn. Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant Gazara antiperiodic and in skin eruption.

Leaves decoctions are used for diabetes, dyspepsia, jaundice and joint pains. Leaves and stems areheated and wrapped over the wound Ocimum bacilicum Leaves, Stems 41. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub till recovery in case of injury. L. and Seeds Seeds decoctions are used in dysentery and diarrhea.

Used in wound healing, constipation, abdominal 42. Mentha spicata L. Bodina Lamiaceae Herb Leaves disorders and as condiments.

Used as carminative also in indigestion, gastric troubles 43. M. longifolia L. Vinaly Lamiaceae Herb Whole plant vomiting and as antipyretic. Continued…

139 Leaves extraction is mixed with salt and used in hepatitis Aloe vera (L.) and fever 44. Zargeya Liliaceae Herb Leaves Burm.f. Heated leaves are used to treat the inflamed part of the body. Leaves are crushed and decoctions are made which is Malva neglecta Leaves and 45. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae Herb used in dysentery. Wallr. Roots Grinded roots are used as anthelmintic. Abutilon bidentatum The decoctions of leaves are useful for diarrhea, 46. Ziary Malvaceae Shrub Leaves Hochst. ex A.Rich. inflammation of bladder and for fever. Malvastrum Leaves paste is applied on minor wounds. 47. coromandelianum Balla Malvaceae Leaves Leaves are used by the sugar patients to normalize biood L. Herb sugar level. Leaves are given to cattles as carminative. Roots and Leaves of the plant are grinded and decoctions are made 48. Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree Leaves which is used as anthelmintic and antipyretic Decoctions of roots are used as a vermifuge. Stems and roots decoctions are used in dysentery and Acacia arabica Roots and 49. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree diarrhea. (Lam.) Willd. Stems Stems decoctions are used in constipation. Leaves extract is used for animals as carminative. Leaves and 50. A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree Gum acts as a demulcent material that serves to sheathe Gum cuts, wounds and inflamed part of skin also used as aromatherapy and as food. Continued…

140 Prosopis juliflora Angrizy 51. Mimosaceae Tree Stems Bark decoctions are used in rheumatism and for fever. Swartz. Kikar

Albizia lebbeck Leaves and 52. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree Used as antipyretic and for ulcers. Benth. stems

Decoctions of fruits and leaves are used for throat Fruits, Leaves infection. 53. Morus nigra L. Shahtoth Moraceae Tree and Roots Extracts of roots and barks is used to kill abdominal worms. Eucalyptus Leaves decoctions are used as antiperiodic, carminative, 54. camaldulensis Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Leaves expectorant and antiseptic. Dehnh. Dried roots are grinded into powder and used to treat Boerhavia hepatitis. 55. procumbens Bank Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb Roots ex Roxb. Roots decoctions are used as purgative, diuretic and also used for fever. Oil is obtained from its fruits which are used in Olea ferruginea 56. Shona Oleaceae Tree rheumatism, for back ache and for burns. Wall. ex G. Aitch. Fruits and Leaves Leaves extracts are used as diuretic and antiseptic. Oxalis corniculata Leaves and Used in wound healing, stomachache, as cooling agent 57. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb L. Roots and antipyretic. Dalbergia Leaves and Decoctions of leaves are used for fever. 58. Shawa Papilionaceae Tree sissooRoxb stems Wood is used in asthma. Continued…

141 Oil extracted from its seeds is used externally to cure Pongamia pinnata Seeds and 59. Sukh chain Papilionaceae Tree herpes and eczema. L. Roots Roots extract cures ulcer and fistula. Lathyrus aphaca 60. Jangli matter Papilionaceae Herb Seeds Seeds extract is used as narcotics. Linn. Alhagi maurorum Decoctions of plant are used in skin allergies and also 61. Spulmaka Papilionaceae Herb whole plant Medic. used as blood purifier.

Medicago denticulta Leaves and Leaves and stems are crushed and extraction is obtained 62. Speshtara Papilionaceae Herb Willd. Stems which is used as carminative.

Decoctions of leaves are used for toothache and Melilotus indica (L.) Leaves and 63. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb abdominal pain. All. Roots Roots decoctions are used for fever.

Trifolium Leaves ,Stems Fruits are used in constipation. 64. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb alexandrinum L. and Fruits Decoctions of leaves and stems are used for fever.

Decoctions of seeds are used in diarrhea, dysentery, and Seeds and constipation. 65. Plantago major L. Spinghol Plantaginaceae Herb Leaves Leaves decoctions are used for skin diseases. Crushed leaves are used as anti-coagulant. Continued…

142 Cymbopogon Stems and Extraction of crushed stems and leaves are used as 66. jawarancusa Sargarra Poaceae Herb Leaves antipyretic. (Jones.) Schult.

67. Avena sativa L. Judar Poaceae Herb Leaves Leaves extract is used as stimulant.

Plant decoctions are used as blood purifier and diuretic. Cynodon dactylon Leaves, Stems Mixture of leaves and milk is used for bleeding piles 68. Kabal Poaceae Herb L. and Roots vomiting, and irritation of urinary tract. Leaves are given to cows for increasing milk production.

Eragrostis 69. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Leaves Fruits are used to treat gas troubles and as antipyretic. cilianensis All.

Seeds and Dried seeds and leaves are grinded and used as 70. Cenchrus ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Leaves diaphoretic and in fever.

C. pennisetiformis Stems and 71. Shamloha Poaceae Herb Used in digestive disorders and as antipyretic. Hochst. And Steud. Leaves

Leaves and Dried leaves and stems powder are mixed with honey and 72. Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb Stems used in fever. Continued…

143 Polygonum 73. Adranaky Polygonaceae Herb Whole plant Plant decoctions are used in digestive disorders. plebeium R. Br

Calligonum Dried leaves are crushed, a powder is made which is used 74. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub Leaves polygonoides L. to treat diabetes and in fever.

Anagallis arvensis 75. Sheen starga Primulaceae Herb Leaves Leaves extract is mixed with milk and used for fever. L.

Ranunculus 76. Ziara gaya Ranunculaceae Herb Whole plant Decoctions are used in skin diseases. scleratus L.

Ziziphus Rhamnaceae 77. Badabera Tree Fruits Fruits are used for constipation. nummularia Burm.

Fruits are used in constipation. Rhamnaceae Leaves and 78. Z. jujuba Mill. Bera Tree Dried leaves are crushed and a powder is made which is Fruits used to treat diabetes. Decoctions are used to treat inflammation of skin and Dodonaea viscosa wound healing. 79. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub Whole plant Jacq. Decoctions of leaves are used as astringent, stimulant rheumatism and for burns. Continued…

144 Oil from seeds is used as demulcent and emollient. Verbascum thapsus Scrophulariacea Seeds and 80. Khrghwagy Herb L. e Leaves Leaves are used as stimulants and also used in diarrhea, cough and fever..

Solanum nigrum 81. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used for cardiac diseases and as antipyretic. var. nigrum L.

Fruits are used for sore throat, as purgative and in Fruits, constipation. S. surattense 82. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb Leaves, Stems Leaves extractions are used as rheumatism. Burm.f. and Flowers Decoctions of stems, flowers are used as antipyretic and carminative.

Withania somnifera 83. Odagy Solanaceae Herb Seeds Seeds are given to cattles to treat digestive disorders. L.

W. coagulans Leaves. Stems Leaves, stems and fruits are given to cattle to treat gas 84. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb (Stock) Dunal and Fruits troubles.

Dried fruits are grinded into powder and are given to cattle to treat digestive disorder. The extractions of fruits Datura alba Leaves and 85. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub are used as hair tonic. Rumph. ex Nees. Fruits Decoctions of leaves are used in skin diseases and in fever. Continued…

145 Tamarix aphylla Leaves and Stems decoctions are used for toothache. 86. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree (L.) Karst. Stems Dried leaves are used for curing of burn spots. Verbena, Fumaria indica and Solanum nigrum are dried Verbena officinalis and crushed into powder, mixed with water and used 87. Shomokha Verbenaceae Herb Whole plant L. thrice a day before meals. it is effective in itching, warts, in blood purification and for fever. Peganum harmala 88. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used in gas troubles. L. Leaves and Stems and leaves extractions are used for blood 89. Fagonia cretica L. Sperlaghzai Zygophyllaceae Herb Stems purification and also used for skin diseases and fever.

Tribulus terrestris 90. Melai Zygophyllaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used as diuretic and tonic. L.

146 Table-3.16: Plants used against asthma

S.No. Palnt Name Vernacular name Family

1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae

2 Cichorium intybus Linn. Kashnee Asteraceae

3 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tariza Asteraceae

4 Chenopodium murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea

5 Opuntia dilleni Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae

6 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae

Table-3.17: Plants used in dysentery

S.No. Plant name Vernicular name Family

1 Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae

2 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae

3 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae

4 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae

5 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Schrad

6 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae

7 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae

8 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae

147 Table-3.18: Plants used as anthelmintic

S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family

1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae

2 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Kakorai Brassicaceae

3 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae

4 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Chambal Cuscutaceae

5 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Ganda Booti Euphorbiaceae

6 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae

7 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae

Table-3.19: Plants used as stimulant

S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family

1 Foeniculam vulgare Miller. Snof, Kagah Amaranthaceae

2 Carthamus oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae

3 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae

4 Sisymbrium irio L. Badal Bang Brassicaceae

5 Opuntia dillini Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae

6 Chenopodium murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea

7 Avena sativa L. Judar Poaceae

8 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae

9 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae

148 Table-3.20:Plants used in diarrhea

S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family

1 Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae

2 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae

3 Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae

4 Fumaria indica Hausskn. LewanaiGajar Fumariaceae

5 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae

6 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex Ziary Malvaceae A.Rich.

7 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae

8 Plantago major L. Spinghol Plantaginaceae

9 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae

Table-3.21: Plants used as emollient

S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family

1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae

2 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae

Table-3.22: Plants used in snake bite

S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family

1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae

2 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae

3 Calotropis procera Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae

4 Ricinus communis (L.) Rund Euphorbiaceae

149 Table-3.23: Plants used in fever

Vernacular S.No. Plants name Family name

1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae

2 Rhazya stricta Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae

3 Calotropis procera Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae

4 Carthamus oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae

5 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Tariza Asteraceae

Taraxacum officinale (L.) Zyr gully Asteraceae 6 Weber.

7 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai Bang Asteraceae

8 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae

9 Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae

10 Sisymbrium irrioL. Badal Bang Brassicaceae

11 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae

12 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae

13 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Jaba Capparaceae 14 Edgew

15 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae

16 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae

Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex Ziary Malvaceae 17 A.Rich.

18 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi Kikar Mimosaceae

19 Boerhavia procumbens Bank. Pendrawush Mytraceae

20 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae Continued…

150

21 Melilotus indica (L.) All. Uzmai Papilionaceae

22 Trifolium alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae

23 Cenchrus ciliarus L. Mumloha Poaceae

24 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen starga Primulaceae

25 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae

26 Calligonum polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae

27 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae

28 Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae

29 Verbena officinalis L. Shomokha Verbenaceae

30 Fagonia cretica L. Sperlaghzai Zygophyllaceae

Table-3.24: Percentage of ethnomedicinal uses of plants

S.No. Ethnomedicinal Uses No. of Plants Percentage

1 For Asthma 06 6.59%

2 As Anthelmintic 07 7.62%

3 In Dysentery 08 8.79%

4 As Stimulant 09 8.79 %

5 In Diarrhea 09 9.37 %

6 As Emollient 02 2.08 %

7 For Snake bite 04 4.39 %

8 For Fever 30 33.11 %

151

Figure-3.9: Percentage of Ethnomedicinal usage of plants at district Nowshera

152 3.6 Phytochemical screening

Pharmacognostic study is of utmost importance to correctly identify crude drugs. For this purpose, emphasis is laid down on standardization of medicinal plants used in health problems. Pharmacognostic techniques still play an important role for identification and standardization of important chemicals (Najafi & Deokule, 2010). Pharmacognosy is primarily the study of physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources (Tyler, 1999). It is a long established discipline of finding, characterization, manufacturing and standardization of plant material in term of their morphological, anatomical and biochemical features (Kinghorn, 2002). Plants contain several active constituents of pharmacological importance (Ming et al., 2005). In the present study qualitative phytochemical tests were carried out at two phenological stages of ten selected plants Olea ferruginea, Chenopodium album, Plantago lanceolata, Lactuca serriola, Parthenium hysterophorus, Carthamus oxycantha, Chrozophora tinctoria, Achyranthes aspera, Withania somnifera and Cichorium intybus. Preliminary phytochemical screening is important and useful for isolation of pharmacologically active compounds present in the plants (Sugumaran & Vetrichelvan, 2008). The anti-oxidant activity of plants is due to the presence of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, phenolics and saponins (Ghias Uddin et al., 2011; Rauf et al., 2012).

3.6.1 Alkaloids

Alkaloids are nitrogen containing secondary metabolites with bitter/acrid taste providing safety to plants against grazing and browsing. Alkaloids are physiologically and therapeutically active compounds (Tyler, 1999). Phytochemical screening for alkaloids at vegetative stage revealed presence of alkaloids in the selected plants in methanolic and chloroform fractions while absence in Chrozophora tinctoria and Achyranthes aspera in chloroform fraction. Alkaloids were present in n-hexane fraction in all plants except Chenopodium album, Lactuca serriola, Withania somnifera and

153 Cichorium intybus (Samuelsson, 2004; Trease et al., 1989). Siddiqui et al. (2010) reported the absence of alkaloids in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli and their presence in n-butanol fraction. Naz & Bano (2013) investigated high concentration of alkaloids, phenolics and flavonoids in leaves of Lantena camara at fruiting stage which is in conformity with our findings. Methanol and ethanol extracts showed the presence of more secondary metabolites than other extracts (Naz & Bano, 2013).

3.6.2 Tannins

Tannins act as feeding deterrents against herbivores due to their astringent effects. Presence of tannins also suggests a major curative role in treatment of some human disorders (Asquith & Butler, 1986). At vegetative stage the tannins were observed in the selected plants in methanolic fraction while in chloroform fraction they showed their presence except Achyranthes aspera and Withania somnifera. Tannins were absent in n-hexane fraction except Lactuca and Carthamus (Table 3.25). The present results are similar to the investigations of Urmila et al. (2013) who reported more active secondary metabolites in methanolic and aqueous extracts as compared to other extracts. At fruiting stage tannins were observed in the selected plants in all fractions. Magaji et al. (2007) reported phytochemical constituents in methanolic extract of various parts of Securinega virosa. Rauf et al. (2014) reported that ethyl acetate contained the maximum phytochemicals than n-hexane and aqueous extracts of Euphorbia milli. Skimmia laureola aqueous and ethanolic extracts contained alkaloids, flavonoids and tannins, while they were absent in n- hexane fraction (Barakatullah & Ibrar, 2011) which are in conformity with the present study. Similarly Arjun et al. (2009) explored phytochemical composition of Hygrophila spinosa leaves reporting the maximum concentration of secondary metabolites in methanolic fraction.

3.6.3 Sugars

Sugars were found in methanolic fraction (extract) of all the tested plants while their absence was recorded at vegetative stage. Such findings

154 were reported by Siddiqui et al. (2010). In chloroform fraction Chenopodium, Parthenium and Carthamus showed their presence while rest of the plants showed their absence. At fruiting stage sugars were found in all the tested plants in methanolic fraction. In chloroform fraction sugars were absent in Plantago, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium while in n-hexane fraction their absence was recorded in all tested plants (Table 27). Ethyl alcohol extract showed more plants chemicals than the choloroform and n-hexane (Rauf et al., 2014)

3.6.4 Saponins

Saponins, special classes of glycosides that has a soapy characteristics, acts as an antifungal agent (Fluck, 1973; Sodipo et al., 1991). Phytochemical study revealed the presence of saponins in both methanolic and chloroform fractions in all plants except Chrozophora. N-hexane fraction shows the presence of saponins only in Chenopodium, Plantago and Parthenium and absence in rest of the plants. At vegetative and post reproductive stage saponins were present in methanolic and chloroform fractions, while in n- hexane fraction maximum plants like Olea, Chenopodium, Lactuca, Parthenium and Carthamus showed their presence and Plantago, Chrozophora, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium showed absence of saponins (Table 26). The qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out using different extracts of whole plant at vegetative and post reproductive phase. Nijveldt et al. (2001) investigated that flavonoids and phenolics were present at higher concentration in native plant compared to exotic species. Chirikova et al. (2010) investigated that maximum concentration of secondary matabolites were present in methanolic fraction of Scutellaria baicalensis.

3.6.5 Flavoniods

Flavoniods in plants prevent oxidative cell damage; possess antiseptic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory effects and mild hypersensitive properties which help in preventing oxidative cell damage (Okwu, 2004). Havsteen (2002) reported some biological activities of flavonoids like antimicrobial,

155 antioxidant, anti-viral, cardio-protective and neuro-protective properties. The phytochemical screening for flavonoids in vegetative stage showed their presence in all the tested plants in methanolic and chloroform fractions but n- hexane fraction showed their absence in the selected plants. Siddiqui et al. (2010) reported absence of flavonoids in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli. At fruiting stage the flavonoids were present in methanolic and chloroformic fractions, while in n-hexane they were also found in some plants except Chenopodium, Plantago, Chrozophora and Withania. The presence and absence of flavonoids depended on plant material collection site (Mandindi, 2015). Ethanolic extract analysis of Clitoria ternatea seeds showed the maximum presence of flavonoids (Kalyan et al., 2011).

3.6.6 Terpenoids

Terpenoids are known to possess anti-microbial activities mainly anti- bacterial and anti-fungal (Ghias Uddin et al., 2011; Rauf et al., 2012). Diterpenes like gibberellins have role in plant growth and development. At vegetative stage methanolic fraction showed the presence of terpenoids in all tested plants, also in chloroform and n-hexane fraction. Plantago, Carthamus and Achyranthes showed absence of terpenoids in both fractions. The terpenoids at fruiting stage showed its presence in methanolic and chloroform fractions in all plants, while the result for n-hexane indicated their presence in all tested plants except Plantago and Parthenium. Highest concentration of tannins, phenolics and sugar contents were investigated in ethyl acetate and methanolic fractions and less concentration in n-hexane fraction of selected plant materials (Skerget et al., 2005).

3.6.7 Cardiac glycosides

Cardiac glycosides are plant secondary metabolites having volatile poisons and toxins which are feeding deterrents to many insects and other herbivores. The results at vegetative stage revealed that cardiac glycosides were found in all tested plants except Carthamus and Withania in methanolic and chloroform fraction. The n-hexane tests indicated the presence of cardiac

156 glycosides in Olea, Plantago and Cichorium, while their absence was recorded at vegetative stage for rest of the tested plants. The absences of cardiac glycosides were investigated in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli (Siddiqui et al., 2010). At fruiting stage methanolic and n-hexane fractions contained cardiac glycosides in all the selected plants, while absent in n-hexane fraction of Chenopodium, Plantago, Parthenium and Achyranthes. Less amount of secondary metabolites were reported in n-hexane and methanolic fraction of berries of Manitoba (Canada), choke cherries and sea buck thorn (Hosseinian et al., 2007). Phenols and cardiac glycosides were found in leaves of Euphorbia milli possessing anti-oxidant activity (Piett, 2000).

3.6.8 Phenolics

Phenolics compounds are responsible for antioxidant activity (Piett, 2000). Phenolics play an important role in pollinations, fruit and seeds dispersal. Phenolics also contribute to allelopathic potential. The tests for phenolics at vegetative stage revealed the presence of phenolics in methanolic fractions in all selected plants, while Achyranthes showed their absence in chloroform fraction. In n-hexane fraction, phenolics were present in Parthenium and Chrozophora, their absence was observed in rest of the plants. The present result was supported by Siddiqui et al. (2010). At fruiting stage phenolic were found in all plants in methanolics, n-hexane and chloroform fractions.Chenopodium album contained less phenolic than Solanum nigrum at fruiting stage (Mandindi, 2015).

3.6.9 Anthraquinones

At vegetative stage in methanolic fraction anthraquinones were found in Chenopodium, Parthenium, Carthamus, Chrozophora and Withania and their absence were observed in Olea, Plantago, Lactuca, Achyranthes and Cichorium. In chloroform fraction these were only found in Chrozophora and absence was recorded in rest of all the tested species. While in n-hexane fraction anthraquinones were absent in all tested plants. Euphorbia hirta is a rich source of bioactive substances, which might be helpful in combating

157 diseases. There bioactive substances were mainly found in methanolic fraction and absent in n-hexane (Bhagwat, 2008). Gu et al. (2004) reported that less amount of secondary metabolites were present in n-hexane than methanol fraction. At fruiting stage Cichorium showed the absence of anthraquinones while their presence in rest of test plants. The n-hexane fraction showed absence of anthraquinones in Olea, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium and presence in the rest of test plants. Amaranthus dubius contained more secondary metabolites than Urtica lobulata, Solanum nigrum, and Chenopodium album (Mandindi, 2015). Ethanolic fraction of Hygrophila spinosa leaves showed the presence of anthraquinones, alkaloids, steroids, proteins, flavonoids, fats, oils, tannins, mucilage and organic acids (Patra et al., 2009).

The findings of various researchers suggest that preliminary phytochemicals screening play a significant role in providing ease in isolation of pharmacological active plant constituents.

158 Table-3.25: Different phytochemical tests of selected ten plant species at vegetative stages

Chemical Test Test Name Methanol fraction Chloroform fraction n-Hexane fraction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Alkaloids + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + + ------Dragon drof + Tannins + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + - - - + - + - - - - Ferric chloride

Sugars + + + + + + + + + + - + - - + + ------Fehling

Saponins + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + - + + - + - - - - - Frothing test

Flavonoides + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ------Alkali reagent + Terpenoids + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - + - + + + + - + + - + - + + Salkowiski Cardiac Glycosides + + + + + - + + - + + + + + + - + + - + + - + ------+ Killaer killani Phenolics + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - - - - + - + - - - Ferric chloride Anthraquin HCl detection ones - + - - + + + - + ------+ ------test

1= Olea ferruginea, 2= Chenopodium album, 3= Plantago lanceolata, 4= Lactuca serriola, 5=Parthenium hysterophorus, 6= Carthamus oxycantha, 7= Chrozophora tinctoria, 8= Achyranthes aspera, 9=Withania somnifera, 10= Cichorium intybus

159 Table-3.26: Different phytochemical test of selected plant species at fruiting stage

Chemical Test Test Name Methanol fraction Chloroform fraction N-Hexane fraction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + + Alkaloids + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + - - Dragon drof + + + + Ferric Tannins + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + chloride + Sugars + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + ------Fehling + + Saponins + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + - + + + - - - - Frothing test + + + + Alkali Flavonoides + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + + + - + + - + + + reagent + + + Terpenoids + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + + Salkowiski + + + Cardiac + + + Killaer + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + - + + - + + Glycosides + + + killani + + + Ferric Phenolics + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + chloride Anthraquin HCl + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - - + + + + + + - - - ones detection test 1= Olea ferruginea, 2= Chenopodium album, 3= Plantago lanceolata, 4= Lactuca serriola, 5=Parthenium hysterophorus, 6= Carthamus oxycantha, 7= Chrozophora tinctoria, 8= Achyranthes aspera, 9= Withania somnifera, 10= Cichorium intybus

160 3.7 Chemical evaluation of some selected plants

Plants play a significant role in providing primary health care services to rural people and are used by about 80% of the marginal communities around the world (Dastagir et al., 2013). All medicinal plants have specific nutritional value in spite of medicinally important chemicals. These phytochemicals plays a vital role for proper development of living body (Adnan et al., 2010). Most of the researchers investigated the proximate composition of several plants; Amaranthus viridis by Falade et al. (2004); Sonchus eruca, Withania coagulans and Fagonia indica by Hussain et al. (2010); Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum and Parkia biglobosa by Odebunmi et al. (2010). Forages have always been an extremely important source of nutrients of livestock. Additionally, they provide fibers which enhance proper digestion in forage-consuming animals. Through their conversion into milk and meat products, forages continue to be one of the primary sources of nourishment in the human diet (Khan & Musharaf, 2014). During periods of initial plant growth in the spring and summer all forage species are high in nutrient content, although moisture content may also be high and limit dry matter intake (Khan & Musharaf, 2014). The proximate composition of some range forage has been carried out to find out its possible role in the research area.

3.7.1 Proximate analysis

Moisture contents (%)

The moisture content in the test species ranged from 2.31% to 59.23% in Olea ferruginea, Plantago lanceolata at vegetative stage and 1.46% to 62.51% in Chrozophora tinctoria and Plantago lanceolata at reproduction stage. In Olea ferruginea and Plantago lanceolata and Chenopodium album the moisture content increased from vegetative stage to fruiting stage from 2.92% to 60.87%. While in rest of the species the moisture content decreased as the plant passed from vegetative to fruiting stage (Table 29). The result is in conformity with Saidu & Jideobi (2009) where moisture contents decreased at

161 fruiting stage. Adnan et al. (2010) reported that in Rydingia limbata the moisture contents decreased with age. Sowemimo et al. (2011) reported that seeds of Detarium senegalense contained 5.89% moisture contents. Acharya & Shrivastava (2011) reported less moisture contents in seeds of Arachis hypogea than their leaves.

Ash contents (%)

In test species ash contents ranged from 0.9% to 18.50% in Parthenium hysterophorus and Chenopodium album at vegetative stage, while at reproductive stage it ranged from 2.1% to 20% in Parthenium, Plantago and Chenopodium. The overall average ash contents ranged from 1.5% to 19.25% in Parthenium and Chenopodium respectively. Ash contents increased with developing phenological stages in Withania somniferai.e. 3.00% at vegetative stage and 5.93% at fruiting stage. Khan & Musharaf (2014) also reported such findings. Ash contents vary according to the part and age of plant (Vermani et al., 2010). Dastagir et al. (2013) reported that ash contents in leavesof Chrozophora tinctoria is highest (16.0%) then its roots (8.3%). According to Zain Ullah et al. (2013) low concentration of ash contents were recorded in Withania while high in Chenopodium. Hussain et al. (2010) reported that ash contents declined towards maturity of plant which is in inconsistency to our findings because ash contents increased with developing phenological stages in all test species.

Crude fats (%)

Crude fat contents ranged from 0.98% to 23.45% at vegetative stage in Achyranthes aspera and Carthamus oxycantha. While at fruiting stage it ranged from 1.20% to 28.93% in Plantago and Carthamus. The average of crude fatsin Achyranthes and Carthamus ranged from 1.14% to 26.19%. Crude fat contents increased with increasing phenological stage in all test species. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported maximum percentage of crude fats in Chrozophora obliqua (5.46%) at vegetative stage. It was observed that with age of plant crude fat contents increased. Dastagir et al. (2013) reported highest fat contents (13.0%) in leaves and lowest in stem and root of

162 Chrozophora tinctoria. Low concentration of crude fats was recorded in Withania coagulans while highest in Datura alba and Chenopodium album (Zain Ullah et al., 2013). Marconiet al. (2003) reported that the crude fats in chicory seed ranged from 21% to 22% which is higher than that of Achyranthes bidentata seeds.

Crude fibers (%)

Result revealed that crude fiber ranged from 0.2% to 15.11% in Chenopodium album and Carthamus oxycantha at vegetative stage. At fruiting stage it ranged from 0.3% to 20.68% in Chenopodium album and Cichorium intybus. The average crude fibers ranged from 0.25% to 17.76% in Chenopodium and Cichorium. According to Khan & Musharaf (2014) minimum fiber percentage at vegetative stage was 2.42%, reproductive stage it was 2.46% and 2.78% at post reproductive stage in Chrozophora. Epidemiological evidence revealed that use of minimum amount of dietary fibers from 20 to 35 g/day lower the risk of heart diseases and obesity (Ishida et al., 2000; Abidemi, 2013). Gharibzahedi et al. (2011) reported high value of proteins and fibers in Ricinus communis.Fibers in Chenopodium album showed quite different result from the present study and may be due to environmental condition (Zain Ullahet al., 2013). Hussain et al. (2011) reported the highest fiber contents (40.15%) in Nepa suavis.

Protein contents (%)

In test species the crude protein contents ranged from 2.31% to 27.56% at vegetative stage in Withania coagulans and Parthenium hysterophorus. Whilein Plantago and Chenopodium album it ranged from 4.71% to 28.56% at fruiting stage. Overall average ranged from 3.65% to 27.49% in Plantago and Chenopodium album. Protein contents increased with increasing in phenological stages except in Olea ferruginea which showed decreased tendency from vegetative to fruiting stage. According to Jan et al. (2010) reported that the highest values (18.55%) of crude proteins are found in seeds and lowest (5.54%) in roots which are not in conformity to our results. Heinrich et al. (2004) compaired Cichorium intybus with Trifolium repens for

163 their nutritional value in forage and investigated that Cichorium intybus contained 3.74% of crude proteins. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported the least protein percentage at vegetative stage was 2.11% and 3.14% at fruiting stage. Bukush et al. (2007) reported high protein contents in cultivated plants as compared to wild plants and significantly high protein contents in leaves of Eruca sativa as compared to Carthamus oxycantha and Plantago. The present study also demonstrates the minimum amount of proteins in Plantago lanceolata. Shah & Hussain (2009) investigated the highest protein contents varied from 22% to 23% in Chenopodium and Plantago. Hussain & Durrani (2009) stated that protein contents vary with progressing phenological stages. The present results of test species are in line with James et al. (2010).

Carbohydrate contents (%)

Carbohydrate contents showed variation from vegetative stage to fruiting stage. At vegetative stage it ranged from 28.39% to 83.53% in Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somnifera. At fruiting stage it ranged from 20.14% to 74.95% in Parthenium and Chrozophora, while the overall average value ranged from 29.35% to 78.83% in Plantago lanceolata and Withania somnifera. The result showed that carbohydrate contents decreased with progressing phenological stages, except in Carthamus oxycantha which showed an increase of 32.34% to 33.17%. Audu et al. (2007) reported carbohydrate contents in leaves of Lophira lanceolata. Lee & lim (2006) isolated new glycoproteins from Solanum nigrum which contained 69.74% of carbohydrate contents. Aberoumand (2012) reported that Solanum indicum contained 40.67% carbohydrates. Abbasi (2013) recorded 7.680% carbohydrate contents in Chenopodium album and 54.88% in Plantago lanceolata.

164 Table-3.27: Proximate composition of the selected plants species Carbohy Crude Crude Crude S.N Phenological Moisture Avera Ash Avera Avera Avera Avera drate Avera Plant Name fat fiber protei o. Stage (%) ge (%) ge ge ge ge (NFE) ge (%) (%) n (%) (%) Vegetative 2.31 4.62 20.12 9.47 15.25 48.23 Olea ferruginea stage 1 2.92 4.92 21.56 9.49 13.89 47.17 Wall. ex G. Fruiting 3.54 5.23 23.00 9.51 12.53 46.11 Aitch. stage Vegetative 3.51 18.50 3.21 0.2 26.43 48.15 Chenopodium stage 2 4.27 19.25 3.85 0.25 27.49 44.87 album L. Fruiting 5.04 20 4.5 0.3 28.56 41.59 stage Vegetative 59.23 1.5 1.20 2.31 2.60 33.16 Plantago stage 3 60.87 1.8 1.56 2.75 3.65 29.35 lanceolata L. Fruiting 62.51 2.1 1.93 3.20 4.71 25.55 stage Vegetative 33.35 3.61 8.24 3.9 13.25 37.66 Lactuca stage 4 27.67 4.42 12.82 5.5 30.04 serriola L. Fruiting 22.00 5.23 17.41 7.1 17.53 15.39 30.43 stage Vegetative 30.11 0.9 3.54 9.50 27.56 28.39 Parthenium stage 5 24.94 1.5 7.37 10.90 31.01 24.26 hysterophorus L Fruiting 19.78 2.1 11.20 12.31 34.47 20.14 stage Continued….

165 Vegetative Carthamus 17.85 1.0 23.45 15.11 10.25 32.34 stage 6 oxycantha M.B 12.22 1.85 26.19 15.67 11.31 32.75 Fruiting TH Mie 6.6 2.7 28.93 16.23 12.37 33.17 stage Vegetative 4.98 5.13 5.20 2.35 3.91 78.43 Chrozophora stage 7 3.22 6.54 5.95 2.72 4.86 76.69 tinctoria L. Raf. Fruiting 1.46 7.96 6.71 3.10 5.82 74.95 stage Vegetative 5.00 10.32 0.98 9.51 18.38 55.81 Achyranthes stage 8 4.47 10.91 1.14 10.02 20.01 53.44 aspera L. Fruiting 3.94 11.50 1.3 10.54 21.65 51.07 stage Vegetative Withania 4.10 3.00 2.13 4.93 2.31 83.53 stage 9 somnifera L. 3.55 4.46 2.64 5.96 4.54 78.83 Fruiting Dunal 3.00 5.93 3.15 7.00 6.78 74.14 stage Vegetative 11.25 2.56 9.63 14.85 17.29 44.42 Cichorium stage 10 9.59 4.33 10.74 17.76 20.36 37.21 intybus Linn. Fruiting 7.93 6.10 11.86 20.68 23.43 30.00 stage

Average 15.37 5.99 9.38 8.10 15.25 45.86

166

Figure-3.10: Proximate composition of selcted plant species at vegetative stage

167

Figure-3.11: Proximate composition of selcted plant species at fruiting stage

168 3.8 Elemental nutrient analysis of selected plants a) Macronutrients

Calcium (Ca)

Plants contain high amount of Ca that may be their natural composition (Hussain et al., 2010). In present study Ca contents showed variation from 9.05ppm to 28.12 ppm in Achyranthes aspera and Lectuca serriola respectively. While in Chenopodium album and Olea ferruginea it ranged from 7.5 ppm to 14.51 ppm at vegetative and reproductive stage respectively (Table 29). The results revealed that calcium contents decreased with progressing phenological stages except Achyranthes aspera, where it increased by 9.05 ppmat vegetative stageand 13.7 ppm at reproductive stage. Calcium contents were invariably present in the tested plants. Similar results were reported by Zafar et al. (2010). The concentration of certain elements decreased with the maturity of plants (Hussain & Durrani, 2008). Generally Ca content increases with maturity of herb plants. Ashraf et al. (2005) and Khan & Shaukat (2005) reported significant increase in Ca towards maturity of investigated plants. Hanif et al. (2006) found high Ca content (76 ppm) in spinach; James et al. (2010) reported higher Ca level in Saba florida; Hussain et al. (2009) reported higher concentration of Ca in Hypericum perforatum and among the vegetables species.

Potassium (K)

Potassium plays significant role in activating enzymes which influence the plant growth and development (Sultan et al., 2007, 2008; Hussain and Durrani, 2007; Khan & Khatoon, 2007). Potassium varied from 3.06 ppm to 4.7 ppm in Withania somnifera and Lectuca serriola respectively at vegetative stage and 0.87 ppm to 1.62 ppm at fruiting stage. Overall average ranged from 1.96 ppm to 3.16 ppm in Withania somnifera and Lectuca serriolarespectively. The results showed that potassium contents decreased with progressing phenological stages. Our results are in line with the findings

169 of Ahmad et al. (2008) and Pareet al. (1995). Hussain & Durrani (2008) and Akhtar et al. (2007) reported that herbaceous plants are nutritionally rich in potassium at early growing stages. Sultan et al. (2008) also stated that potassium contents were higher at early stage than at maturity.

Magnesium (Mg)

Mg an important component of cell acts as enzyme cofactor. It constitutes about 0.05% of the body mass of living cell (Hameed et al., 2008). Mg contents exhibited variation at various phenological stages. It fluctuated from 12.32 ppm to 35.13 ppm in Withania somnifera and Carthamusoxycantha respectively at vegetative stage. The overall average ranged from 1.71ppm to 23.31ppm in Withania somnifera and Carthamus oxycantha repectively. Mg ranged from 8.96 ppm to 16.53 ppm at fruiting stage of Parthenium hysterophorus and Plantago lanceolata respectively. Mg contents showed a decreased trend toward maturity stage in all tested species. Akubugwo et al. (2007) reported the decreasing order of Mg> Fe> Ca> Na> Mn> Zn at fruiting stage of Solanum nigrum var. virginicum.

Sodium (Na)

Sodium contents varied at vegetative and fruiting stages in the tested species. At vegetative stage Carthamus and Chenopodium showed variation in Na from 23.89 ppm to 36.74 ppm respectively. At fruiting stage it varied from 32.53ppm to 48.86 ppm in Lectuca serriola and Parthenium hysterophorus respectively. The overall average of Na contents ranged from 28.22 ppm to 42.28 ppm in Lectuca serriola and Chenopodium album respectively. Na contents showed an increased trend towards plant maturity (Table 3.28). Hussain et al. (2009) recorded highest Na concentration (458 ppm) in Amaranthus viridis, followed by Chenopodium album (373 ppm). Highest Na contents were recorded at reproductive stages. Similar results were reported by Hussain & Durrani (2008). Na contants varied from 26.30 ppm and 9.10 ppm in Withania somnifera at vegetative and fruiting stage respectively. Na contents showed decreased trend toward plant maturity in Withania

170 somnifera.Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported highest Na contents (119.3 ppm) in flowers followed by leaves (98.50 ppm) of Withania somnifera.

Phosphorous (P)

In the bodies of living organisms a minimum level of 0.16% to 0.37% phosphorus is required for various metabolic reactions (Anonymous, 1991). Phosphorus contents showed fluctuation at vegetative stage from 0.20ppm to 0.36ppm in Carthamus oxycantha, Olea ferruginea and Lectuca serriola. At fruiting stage, it ranged from 0.08 ppm to 0.41 ppm in Carthamus and Plantago respectively while the overall average ranged from 0.14 ppm to 0.37 ppm in Carthamus and Olea respectively. The study showed no significant difference among herbs and woody plant species at different phenological stages (Table 3.28).

171 Table-3.28: Macronutrients of the selected plant species

Phenological Ca K Mg Na P S.No. Plant Name Stage (ppm) Average Average Average Average Average (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Vegetative stage 21.68 4.38 23.86 29.81 0.36 1 Olea ferruginea 18.09 2.68 19.90 31.71 0.37 Wall. ex G. Fruiting stage 14.51 0.99 15.95 33.62 0.39 Aitch. Vegetative 15.03 3.96 19.56 36.74 0.24 Chenopodium stage 2 9.76 2.53 15.39 42.28 0.25 album L. Fruiting stage 7.5 1.10 11.23 47.83 0.27

Vegetative 19.56 3.8 21.61 29.52 0.31 Plantago stage 3 16.40 2.39 19.07 32.1 0.36 lanceolata L. Fruiting stage 13.25 0.98 16.53 34.68 0.41 Vegetative 28.12 4.7 20.00 23.91 0.36 Lactuca serriola stage 4 20.82 3.16 15.75 28.22 0.27 L. Fruiting stage 13.53 1.62 11.51 32.53 0.19 Vegetative 24.37 3.90 26.58 31.67 0.27 Parthenium stage 5 19.09 2.44 17.77 40.26 0.20 hysterophorus L Fruiting stage 13.81 0.98 8.96 48.86 0.14 Continued…

172 Vegetative Carthamus 25.61 4.3 35.13 23.89 0.20 stage 6 oxycantha M.B 18.48 2.65 23.31 30.7 0.14 TH Mie Fruiting stage 11.35 1.0 11.50 37.51 0.08

Vegetative Chrozophora 17.01 4.50 22.01 28.39 0.21 stage 7 tinctoria (L.) 12.62 2.86 18.84 34.81 0.18 Raf. Fruiting stage 8.23 1.23 15.68 41.23 0.16

Vegetative 9.05 4.67 17.21 35.48 0.23 Achyranthes stage 8 11.38 2.92 13.53 41.59 0.2 aspera L. Fruiting stage 13.71 1.18 9.86 47.71 0.17

Vegetative Withania 18.32 3.06 12.32 26.30 0.34 stage 9 somnifera (L.) 13.98 1.96 10.71 32.40 0.27 Dunal Fruiting stage 9.65 0.87 9.10 9.10 0.20

Vegetative 16.81 4.00 17.83 33.30 0.31 Cichorium stage 10 12.35 2.66 14.54 39.94 0.23 intybus Linn. Fruiting stage 7.90 1.32 11.26 46.58 0.16

173

Figure-3.12: Macronutrients of selected plant species at vegetative stage

174

Figure-3.13: Macronutrients of selected plant species at fruiting stage

175 b) Micronutrients

Nickle (Ni)

Results showed fluctuation of Ni at different phenological stages. Lowest and highest values of Ni at vegetative stages ranged between 1.90 ppm and 5.01 ppm in Olea ferruginea and Lactuca serriola respectively (Table 3.29). At fruiting stage lowest and higest values were recorded as 0.86 ppm and 2.32 ppm in Olea ferruginea and Lactuca serriola respectively.

Nickel contents progressively increased at various phenological stages except Achyranthes aspera showed an increased level (3.01 pmm) from vegetative stage to fruiting stage (4.56ppm). Badshahet al. (2010) reported the highest Ni quantity in Calotropis procera.

Iron (Fe)

Among the micronutrients Iron plays pivotal role in metabolism of almost all living organisms. In humans, iron is an essential component of most proteins and enzymes.

Iron contents showed variation at different phonological stages. In Carthamus oxycantha and Achyranthes aspera it ranged from 51.62 ppm to 19.18 ppm at vegetative stage and from 18.53 ppm to 7.81 ppm at fruiting stage while overall average ranged from 35.07 ppm to 13.46 ppm in Carthamus oxycantha and Achyranthes aspera respectively. The results revealed that Fe contents progressively decreased with developing phenological stages. Plants which grow in polluted areas accumulate more iron in their leaves (Rehman & Iqbal, 2008). Adnan et al. 2010 stated that plant species and soil conditions influence iron level, as in Valeriana officinale higher level (2787 ppm) of iron has been reported from their research area.

176 Copper (Cu)

Copper is an essential trace element that exists in Cu2+ form. It takes part in redox reactions and is also scavenger of free radicals. In plants the permissible limit of Cu is 10 ppm (Khuda et al., 2012). Result revealed variation in Cu contants at different phonological stages of the selected plants. At vegetative stage, it varied from 1.28 ppm to 11.3 ppm in Withania somnifera and Olea ferruginearespectively while at fruiting stage; it fluctuated from 3.67 ppm to 13.5 ppm in W. somnifera and O. ferruginea respectively. The overall average value varied from 2.47 ppm to 12.4 ppm in W. somnifera and O. ferruginea (Table 3.29). Results revealed that copper contents showed an increased trend with progressing phenological stages. Badshah (2011) reported decreased copper contents toward plant maturity. Gonzalez et al. (2006) also reported a decrease trend in copper concentration towards maturity stage in legumes and grasses. Herbaceous plant species are generally copper deficient (Akhtar et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2006).

Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is the important component of approximately 200 enzymes. Zinc plays significant role in structure and function of protein and cell membrane. Loss of zinc from biological membranes increases their susceptibility to oxidative damage (Erukainure et al., 2011). The permissible limit of zinc is 50 ppm in medicinal plants (Khuda et al., 2012). At vegetative stage zinc varied from 27.61 ppm to 51.6 ppm in Parthenium hysterophorus and Chenopodium album respectively. At fruiting stage, it varied from 24.34 ppm to 60.0 ppm in Carthamus oxycantha and Chenopodium album. Results revealed that zinc contents varied at different phenological stages. In some cases it increased with increasing phenological stages while in some plants it showed a decreasing trend. In Olea ferruginea zinc contents increased from 34.9 ppm to 42.1 ppm at vegetative and fruiting stage respectively. Our findings are supported by Hussain & Durrani (2008), where significant increase in zinc contents of herbaceous and woody plants has been reported. Amjad & Hameed

177 (2012) reported the highest zinc contents (0.628 ppm) in stem of Solanum surattense, followed by Withania somnifera (0.245 ppm) at vegetative stage. Khan et al. (2006) investigated variable concentration of zinc towards progressive stage of plants.

Manganese (Mn)

Mn plays significant role in physiological processes of living organisms as enzyme activator. Its quantity showed variation in all the investigated plant species. At vegetative stage Mn exhibited variation from 7.53 ppm to 13.3 ppm in Withania somnifera and Olea ferruginea. At fruiting stage, it varied from 3.14 ppm to 7.33 ppm in Carthamus oxycantha and Lectuca serriola respectively. The overall average values ranged from 5.46 ppm to 10.87 ppm in C. oxycantha and O. ferruginea respectively. Mn contents showed a decreased trend with increasing phenological stages in all the tested plant species. Similar results were reported by Amjad & Hameed (2012). Garg et al. (2007) reported that Nordostachys jatamansi contained rich quantity of Co, Cr, Cu, Na, Mn, Fe, Rb, and Zinc. Present study showed that herbs contained more Mn contents than woody plants (Table 3.29). These findings are similar to the investigation of Hussain & Durrani (2008) who reported high concentration of Mn in herbs than woody plants.

Chromium (Cr)

Biologically active form of chromium participates in glucose metabolism. Results revealed that Cr contents varied at different phenological stages. In present finding Cr contents varied from 1.7 ppm to 18.5 ppm in Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somnifera at vegetative stage respectively. At fruiting stage, Cr varied from 1.9 ppm to 24.2 ppm in Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somniferarespectively. While as a whole average values ranged from 1.8 ppm to 21.35 ppm in P. hysterophorus and W. somniferarespectively. Result showed that Cr increased from vegetative stage towards reproductive stage except Chenopodium album where Cr decreased from 3.4 ppm (vegetative stage) to 2.1 ppm (reproductive stage)

178 and Cichorium intybus exhibited decreased trend from 11.01 ppm (vegetative stage) to 6.53ppm (fruiting stage). Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported increased Cr contents from vegetative to reproductive stage and then decreased contents at post- reproductive stage. Rehman & Iqbal (2008) evaluated accumulation of Cr contents in foliage of naturally growing plants of Prosopis juliflora, Abutilon indicum and Senna holosericea. Hameed & Hussain (2015) reported higher Cr contents (0.065 ppm) in leaves of Datura anoxia, followed by leaves of Withania coagulans (0.115 ppm). Narendhira et al. (2005) found low level of Cr in leaves of Murraya koenigii, Mentha piperita, Ocimum sanctum and Aegle marmelos. Rehman & Iqbal (2008) reported high concentration of Cr in Prosopis juliflora, Abutilon indicum and Senna holosericea.

179 Table-3.29: Micronutrients of the selected plant species

Phenological Fe Cr Mn Ni Zn Cu S.No. Plant Name Average Average Average Average Average Average Stage (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Vegetative stage 41.36 8.0 13.13 1.90 34.9 11.3 Olea 1 ferruginea 30.44 10.5 10.87 1.38 38.5 12.4 Wall. ex G. Fruiting stage 19.52 13.0 8.62 0.86 42.1 13.5 Aitch. Vegetative 38.71 3.4 12.53 3.56 51.0 6.8 Chenopodium stage 2 30.06 2.75 9.36 2.77 55.5 7.15 album L. Fruiting stage 21.42 2.1 6.20 1.98 60.0 7.5 Vegetative 39.11 7.0 10.51 2.35 38.0 8.1 Plantago stage 3 31.17 7.65 8.82 2.10 32.56 9.05 lanceolata L. Fruiting stage 23.24 8.3 7.13 1.86 27.13 10.0 Vegetative 43.81 2.0 11.61 5.01 39.94 6.3 Lactuca stage 4 32.02 3.5 9.47 3.66 32.58 6.65 serriola L. Fruiting stage 20.23 5.1 7.33 2.32 25.23 7.0 Vegetative Parthenium stage 29.91 1.7 8.65 3.50 27.61 8.0 5 hysterophorus 22.14 1.8 6.83 2.75 30.06 8.65 L Fruiting stage 14.37 1.9 5.02 2.0 32.51 9.31 Continued…

180 Vegetative Carthamus stage 51.62 8.1 7.78 2.98 36.32 5.0 6 oxycantha Fruiting 35.07 8.56 5.46 2.05 30.33 6.1 M.B TH Mie stage 18.53 9.03 3.14 1.13 24.34 7.20 Vegetative Chrozophora stage 26.56 8.52 9.05 2.83 39.46 3.01 7 tinctoria (L.) Fruiting 18.93 9.06 7.94 2.06 35.73 4.12 Raf. stage 11.31 9.61 6.83 1.30 32.01 5.23 Vegetative 19.18 8.0 8.70 3.01 41.23 2.56 Achyranthes stage 8 13.49 8.55 7.01 3.78 38.88 3.62 aspera L. Fruiting stage 7.81 9.1 5.32 4.56 36.54 4.68 Vegetative Withania stage 25.98 18.5 7.53 2.67 48.60 1.28 9 somnifera Fruiting 16.17 21.35 6.38 2.32 45.65 2.47 (L.) Dunal stage 6.36 24.2 5.23 1.98 42.71 3.67 Vegetative 47.56 11.01 9.11 5.0 32.50 2.91 Cichorium stage 10 27.99 8.11 7.16 3.66 30.05 4.74 intybus Linn. Fruiting stage 8.42 6.53 5.22 2.33 27.61 6.57

181

Figure-3.14: Micronutrients of selected plant species at vegetative stage

182

Figure-3.15: Micronutrients of selcted plant species at fruiting stage

183 CONCLUSIONS

1. This study was conducted during 2013-2015 to investigate the floristic composition, vegetation structure, ethnobotanical usage, chemical compositions and the interaction of people with plants in district Nowshera.

2. The study revealed that flora is comprised of 221 species that belongs to 75 families, in which 184 species belongs to dicot and 34 species to monocot.

3. Seasonal variation of species diversity showed that the flora comprised of 172 species (77.92%) in spring, followed by 119 species (54.5%) in summer, 89 species (40.54%) in winter, and finally 83 species (37.83%) in autumn.

4. Based on number of species, Poaceae with 28 species was the leading family followed by Brassicaceae (15 spp.) and Papilionaceae (13 spp.).

5. Quantitatively, based on FIV, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae were important families.

6. Therophytes were dominant in the area and were represented by 109 species (50.1%), followed by microphanerophytes with 24 species (10.58%). Nanophylls were the leading leaf size spectra with 94 species (42.23%), followed by microphylls with 75 species (33.78%), leptophylls with 32 species (14.41%), mesophylls with 16 species (7.20%) and aphyllous with 04 species (2.25%).

7. As a whole, during the month of February, the major bulk of the flora (22.52%) was in vegetative phase. In March 23.87% plants blossomed and this number decreased towards the fall season. April was the peak fruiting stage. The dormant period remained from November to January.

184 8. The ethnobotanical data showed that there were 71 species that belong to 65 genera and 39 families. Family Asteraceae contributed the highest number of plant species (08). Leaves (50 spp; 70.42%) were the commonly used plant part by the local community followed by stems (44 spp; 61.16%), whole plant (16 spp; 23.22%), roots (11 spp; 15.17%) and fruits (10 spp; 14.27%). 45 species (63.38%) were used as fodder followed by 29 species (41.25%) as fuel, 10 species (14.69%) for furniture making, 08 species (11.95%) used for thatching purpose, 07 species (9.58%) used as vegetables, 04 species (5.84%) used in hedges, fruiting plant species were 04 (6.47%), and ornamental species were 3 (4.22%).

9. Twenty plant communities were established in five habitats during various seasons from 2013-2015. Among these Olea-Rydingia- Justicia, Prosopis-Justicia-Acacia, Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea, Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Microsisymbrium- Dodonaea-Olea, Lactuca-Salvia-Allium and Euphorbia-Pennisetum- Indigofera were the important communities.

10. The physico-chemical analysis of soil textural analysis showed thatsoil was mostly sandy and clay-loamy with 7.3 to 8.1 pH and 0.3 to 7.2 electrical conductivity. 11. The ethnomedicinal data revealed that there were 90 plant species belonging to 84 genera and 37 families. The plants used for treatment of diseases by the local community were as under: For fever 30 species, followed by diarrheaand stimulant (09 spp. each),dysentery (08 spp.) as anthelmintic (07 spp.), asthma (06 spp.), snake bite (04 spp.) and as emollient (02 spp.). Leaves were the most preferred plant part used in indigenous medicine (57.12 %).

12. Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites in selected plant species revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, sugars, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and anthraquinones. These chemicals were mostly found at post

185 reproductive stage as compared to vegetative stage. Methanolic fraction contained more secondary metabolites as compared to chloroform and n-hexane fractions.

13. The proximate composition of the selected plants showed varied result at two phenological stages.

14. Chemical analysis of forage plants, with a few exceptions, showed that sufficient levels of macro- and micro-minerals and nutrients were present in the investigated forage plants.

186 RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

1. Moderate and rotational grazing management needs to be enforced to enhance the regeneration of primary producers i.e. vegetation.

2. There is severe deforestation pressure on woody and shrubby species especially on Acacia nilotica, A. modesta, Dilbergia sissoo, Olea ferruginea and Dodonaea viscosa for timber and fuel purposes. Therefore, alternate sources of fuel/timber should be provided to the local people and the area must be protected.

3. There is a tremendous need to promote principles of preservation and development of natural vegetation which is indispensable for land management.

4. There should be more avenues, such as exploration of research activities for knowing the germination, seed production and growth pattern for successful propagation and reintroduction of fodder, timber, fuel wood and medicinal plants.

5. No marketing policies were prevalent in the investigated area; therefore, marketing for livestock and medicinal plants should be initiated and regulated.

6. Strong linkages among national, international, regional and sub- regional research and developmental programs are required for utilization of integrated management plans, so that ecological and socio-economic conditions could be addressed appropriately.

7. Eco-tourism could be introduced in the area. It would be an additional source of income for the local people and would uplift the overall socio-economic condition of the area.

8. The local people must be responsive about the collection, preservation and post-harvest loss of medicinal plants.

187 9. This is government responsibility to provide relief/aid to the local people for cultivation and conservation of the valuable medicinal flora.

10. Awareness should be created among the local people about the importance of vegetations and medicinal plants so as to reduce the pressure of grazing and cutting (deforestration).

11. Cooperation and participation of local people is essential to implement an effective management plan. It might become much easier with the help of the elders and prominent personalities of the local area to implement the effective management plan.

188 APPENDICES

Appendix-1: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea -Rydingia limbata -Justicia adhatoda community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. NP Mic Aitch. 0.19 19 100 10.34 30.48 30.61 71.43 2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.04 4 40 2.17 6.41 12.24 20.83 McP Lp Shrub layer 3 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) NP Np Scheen & V.A.Albert 0.484 12.1 60 26.35 19.41 18.36 64.13 4 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.368 9.2 30 20.03 14.75 9.18 43.97 NP Lp 5 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex NP Mic Lawson 0.344 8.6 30 18.72 13.79 9.18 41.71 6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) NP Np A.DC 0.244 6.1 20 13.28 9.78 6.12 29.19 Herb layer

7 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.0467 0.93 26.66 2.54 1.49 8.16 12.20 G Np 8 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 0.12 2.4 20 6.53 3.85 6.12 16.50 H Lp Total 1.8 62.33 326.67 100 100 100 300 - -

189

Appendix-2: Phytosociological attributes of Justicia adhatoda - Ziziphus nummularia - Corchorus tridens community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. 0.272 27.2 80 7.1654373 17.83607 11.50527 36.5067761 NP Np f.)Wight &Arn. 2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.226 22.6 60 5.95363541 14.81967 8.628955 29.4022625 McP Lp 3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam 0.202 20.2 60 5.32139094 13.2459 8.628955 27.1962475 McP Np 4 Z. spinosa St. 0.122 12.2 40 3.21390938 8 5.752637 16.966546 McP Np Shrub layer 5 Justicia adhatoda L 1.1 27.5 100 28.9778714 18.03279 14.38159 61.3922499 NP Lp 6 Withania coagulans (Stocks) 0.544 13.6 70 14.3308746 8.918033 10.06711 33.3160215 Ch Mic Dunal 7 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.) 0.476 11.9 60 12.5395153 7.803279 8.628955 28.9717489 NP Np A.DC 8 Periploca aphylla Decne. 0.044 1.1 40 1.15911486 0.721311 5.752637 7.63306296 Ch Ap Herb layer 9 Corchorus tridens L 0.663333 13.2666667 66.66667 17.4745346 8.699454 9.587728 35.7617159 Ch Mic 10 Caryopteris odorata (D. 0.043333 0.86666667 33.33333 1.14155251 0.568306 4.795683 6.50554198 NP Mic Don) B.L. Rob 11 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.06 1.2 33.33333 1.58061117 0.786885 4.796 7.16349642 Th Np 12 Aristidamonantha Michx 0.02 0.4 26 0.52687039 0.262295 3.741007 4.53017267 Th Np 13 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 0.023333 0.46666667 26 0.61468212 0.306011 3.741 4.66169305 H Lp Total 3.8 152.5 695 100 100 100 300

190 Appendix-3: Phytosociological attributes of Opuntia dillenii - Ziziphus nummularia - Desmostachya bipinnata community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. 0.374 37.4 80 16.251 36.5593 14.11 66.92 NP Np f.)Wight &Arn. 2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.128 12.8 60 5.562 12.5123 10.58 28.66 McP Lp 3 Dalbergia sissoo DC. 0.13 13 60 5.6489 12.7078 11 29.36 McP Np Shrub layer 4 Opuntia dillenii Haw 1.08 27 100 46.929 26.393 17.64 90.96 NP Np 5 Calotropis procera Aiton 0.028 0.7 30 1.2167 0.68426 5.291 7.192 NP Mec 6 Rhazya stricta Decne. 0.028 0.7 30 1.2167 0.68426 5.3 7.201 Ch Np 7 Buddleja crispa Benth. 0.02 0.5 30 0.8691 0.48876 5.3 6.658 NP Np Herb layer 8 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) 0.37 7.4 33 16.078 7.23365 5.82 29.13 H Np Stapf 9 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.023333 0.466667 20 1.0139 0.45618 3.527 4.997 Th Np 10 Verbena officinalis L. 0.016667 0.333333 20 0.7242 0.32584 3.527 4.577 Th Np 11 Convolvulus arvensis L. 0.02 0.4 26 0.8691 0.39101 4.586 5.846 Th Np 12 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. 0.026667 0.533333 26 1.1587 0.52134 4.6 6.28 H Lp 13 Cyperus rotundus L. 0.026667 0.533 26 1.1587 0.52102 4.6 6.28 G Np 14 Amaranthus viridis L. 0.03 0.533333 26 1.3036 0.52134 4.6 6.425 Th Np Total 2.301 102.3 567 100 100 100 300

191 Appendix-4: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea -Rydingia limbata - Acacia modesta community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.498 49.8 100 23.62429 44.90667 17.27116 85.80212 NP Mic 2 Acacia modesta Wall 0.212 21.2 60 10.05693 19.1169 10.36269 39.53652 McP Lp 3 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. 0.044 4.4 40 2.087287 3.967658 6.908463 12.96341 McP Mic 4 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.028 2.8 40 1.328273 2.524873 6.908463 10.76161 McP Lp Shrub layer 5 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen & 0.66 16.5 100 31.3093 14.87872 17.27116 68.57 NP Np V.A.Albert 6 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms 0.356 8.9 60 16.88805 8.025489 10.36269 38.24 McP Mic 7 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) 0.18 4.5 40 8.538899 4.057832 6.908463 21.33 NP Np 8 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.02 0.5 30 0.948767 0.45087 5.181347 7.66 NP Np 9 Vitis jacquemontii Parker 0.02 0.5 30 0.948767 0.45087 5.1813 6.580937 NP Mic

Herb layer 10 Chenopodium album L. 0.0167 0.333 20 0.790639 0.30058 3.454231 4.54545 Th Np 11 Boerhavia diffusaL. 0.0167 0.33 13 0.790639 0.297574 2.24525 3.333464 H Np 12 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0.03 0.6 20 1.42315 0.541044 3.454231 5.418426 NP Mic 13 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. 0.0267 0.533 26 1.265022 0.480928 4.490501 6.236451 G Lp Total 2.1 111 579 100 100 100 300

192 Appendix-5: Phytosociological attributes of Prosopis juliflora -Justicia adhatoda - Acacia modesta community

S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.14 14 80 8.853288 23.58239 14.63424 47.06991 McP Lp 2 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 0.064 6.4 60 4.047218 10.78052 10.97568 25.80342 NP Mic Aitch. 3 Tecomela undulate 0.036 3.6 40 2.27656 6.064043 7.317118 15.65772 McP Mic 4 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. 0.032 3.2 40 2.023609 5.39026 7.317118 14.73099 NP Np f.)Wight &Arn Shrub layer 5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. 0.648 16.2 100 40.97808 27.28819 18.29279 86.55907 McP Lp 6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.532 13.3 70 33.6425 22.40327 12.80496 68.85072 NP Lp 7 Monotheca buxifolia 0.016 0.4 30 1.011804 0.673783 5.487838 7.173425 NP Np (Falc.)A.DC Herb layer 8 Celosia argentea L 0.01 0.2 13.33333 0.632378 0.336891 2.439039 3.408308 NP Lp 9 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.01 0.2 13.33 0.672 0.348 2.43843 3.45843 G Lp 10 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) 0.0166667 0.333333 20 1.053963 0.561485 3.658559 5.274007 Ch Lp Juss. 11 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.02 0.4 20 1.264755 0.673783 3.659 5.597538 Th Np 12 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. 0.0166667 0.333333 20 1.053963 0.561485 3.659 5.274448 Ch Np ex A.Rich. 0.0166667 0.333 20 1.053963 0.560924 3.659 5.273887 Total 1.581 59.4 547 100 100 100 300

193 Appendix-6: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea-Rydingia limbata -Justicia adhatoda community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 0.57 57.8 100% 34.05 59.46 20.57 114.09 NP Mic Aitch. 2 Salix tetrasperma 0.08 8 30% 4.713 8.23 6.17 19.11 McP Mic 3 Ficus carica L. 0.06 6 30% 3.53 6.17 6.17 15.88 NP Mic Shrub layer 4 Otostegi limbata (Benth.) 0.39 9.9 100% 23.33 10.18 20.57 54.09 NP Np Boiss 5 Maytenu sroyleanus Wall. 0.04 1.2 40% 2.82 1.23 8.23 12.29 NP Mic Ex Lawson 6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) 0.03 0.8 20% 1.88 0.82 4.11 6.82 NP Np A.DC 7 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.31 9.4 70% 18.46 9.67 14.40 42.53 NP Lp 8 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq 0.06 1.5 30% 3.53 1.54 6.17 11.25 NP Np Herb layer 9 Aristidamonantha Michx 0.08 1.66 40% 4.90 1.71 8.23 14.85 Th Np 10 Anisomeles indica (L.) 0.046 0.93 26% 2.74 0.96 5.34 9.05 NP Mic Kuntze Total 1.69 97.2 486% 100% 100% 100 300

194 Appendix-7: Phytosociological attributes of Justicia adhatoda-Ziziphus nummularia- Acacia modesta community S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Ziziphus nummularia 0.168 16.8 100% 13.49036 27.3022752 16.83502 57.62766 NP Np (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. 2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.124 12.4 100% 9.957173 20.1516793 16.83502 46.94387 McP Lp 3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.07 7 30% 5.620985 11.375948 5.050505 22.04744 McP Np 4 Z. spinusa 0.062 6.2 30% 4.978587 10.0758397 5.05051 20.10494 McP Np Shrubs layer 5 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.54 13.5 100% 43.36188 21.9393283 16.835 82.13621 NP Lp 6 Withania coagulans 0.064 1.6 50% 5.139186 2.60021668 8.417508 16.15691 Ch Mic (Stocks) Dunal 7 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) 0.044 1.1 40% 3.533191 1.78764897 6.734007 12.05485 NP Np A.DC Herb layer 8 Aristida monantha Michx 0.07 1.4 46% 5.620985 2.2751896 7.744108 15.64028 Th Np 9 Caryopteris odorata (D. 0.05 1 46% 4.014989 1.62513543 7.74411 13.38423 NP Mic Don) B.L. Rob. 10 Mentha longifolia (L.) 0.03 0.266667 26% 2.408994 0.43336945 4.377104 7.219467 NP Mic 11 Medicago laciniata (L.) 0.023333 0.266667 26% 1.873662 0.43336945 4.377104 6.684135 Th Np Mill. Total 1.24533 61.533 594% 100% 100% 100% 300

195 Appendix-8: Phytosociological attributes of Opuntia dillenii-Ziziphus nummularia- Acacia nilotica community

S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. 0.14 14 40% 12.26636 27.25503 8.032129 47.55351 NP Np f.) Wight &Arn. 2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild. ex 0.1 10 40% 8.761682 19.46788 8.03213 36.26169 McP Lp Delile 3 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 0.052 5.2 30% 4.556075 10.1233 6.024096 20.70347 McP Np 4 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) 0.028 2.8 40% 2.453271 5.451006 8.032129 15.93641 McP Mic Swingle Shrub layer 5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.456 11.4 100% 39.95327 22.19338 20.08032 82.22697 NP Np 6 Cannabis sativa L. 0.084 2.1 50% 7.359813 4.088254 10.04016 21.48823 McP Np 7 Capparis decidua (Forssk.) 0.048 1.2 40% 4.205607 2.336145 8.03213 14.57388 NP Ap Edgew Herb layer 8 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.093333 1.866667 60% 8.17757 3.634004 12.04819 23.85977 G Lp 9 Chenopodium album L. 0.07 1.4 46% 6.133178 2.725503 9.236948 18.09563 Th Np 10 Cynodon dactylon 0.043333 0.866667 26% 3.796729 1.687216 5.220884 10.70483 H Lp 11 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.336449 1.038287 5.022088 8.396823 NP Mic Total 1.14133 51.36 498% 100 100 99.80121 299.8012

196 Appendix-9: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea- Acacia modesta-Rydingia limbata community

S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 0.18 18 100% 18.6593 34.3949 15.92357 68.97777 NP Mic Aitch. 2 Acacia modesta Wall 0.156 15.6 30% 16.17139 29.80892 4.77707 50.75738 McP Lp 3 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) 0.052 5.2 30% 5.390463 9.936306 4.77707 20.10384 McP Mic Swingle Shrub layer 4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) 0.184 4.6 100% 19.07395 8.789809 15.9236 43.78736 NP Np Scheen & V.A.Albert 5 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. & 0.04 1 50% 4.14651 1.910828 7.961783 14.01912 McP Mic Thoms 6 Isodon rugosus Benth. 0.052 1.3 50% 5.390463 2.484076 7.96178 15.83632 NP Np 7 Berberis lycium Royle 0.056 1.4 50% 5.805114 2.675159 7.96178 16.44205 NP Np 8 Monotheca buxifolia 0.068 1.7 60% 7.049067 3.248408 9.55414 19.85161 NP Np (Falc.)A.DC Herb layer 9 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) 0.07 1.4 53% 7.256393 2.675159 8.43949 18.37104 H Np Stapf. 10 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0.05 1 53% 5.183138 1.910828 8.43949 15.53346 NP Mic 11 Rumex hestatus L. 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.76434 1.019108 4.140127 7.923576 NP Mec 12 Polygonum plebeium R. Br. 0.03 0.6 26% 3.1098 1.146497 4.1401 8.39650 G Mec Total 0.96466 52.33 628% 100 100 100 300

197 Appendix-10: Phytosociological attributes of Prosopis juliflora -Justicia adhatoda - Acacia modesta community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.08 8 80% 7.697242 19.01743 10.88435 37.59903 McP Lp 2 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 0.06 6 60% 5.772931 14.26307 8.163265 28.19927 NP Mic Aitch. 3 Tecomela undulate 0.036 3.6 40% 3.463759 8.557845 5.442177 17.46378 McP Mic 4 Albezia lebbeck 0.06 6 60% 5.772931 14.26307 8.163265 28.19927 McP Np Shrub layer 5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. 0.264 6.6 100% 25.4009 15.68938 13.60544 54.69572 McP Lp 6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.212 5.3 80% 20.39769 12.59905 10.88435 43.88109 NP Lp 7 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) 0.044 1.1 40% 4.233483 2.614897 5.442177 12.29056 NP Np A.DC Herb layer 8 Aristida monantha Michx 0.05 1 46% 4.810776 2.377179 6.258503 13.44646 Th Np 9 Celosia argentea L 0.046667 0.933333 46% 4.490058 2.2187 6.258503 12.96726 NP Lp 10 Anisomeles indica (L.) 0.053333 1.066667 46% 5.131495 2.535658 6.258503 13.92566 NP Mic Kuntze 11 Abutilon bidentatum 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.565747 1.267829 3.537415 7.370991 Ch Np Hochst. ex A.Rich. 12 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex 0.036667 0.733333 33% 3.527903 1.743265 4.489796 9.760963 Th Mic Benth 13 Coronopus didymus (L.) 0.02 0.4 26% 1.92431 0.950872 3.537415 6.412597 Th Mic Smith 14 Asparagus asiaticus L. 0.023333 0.466667 26% 2.245029 1.10935 3.537415 6.891794 G Np 15 Poa annua L. 0.026667 0.333333 26% 2.565747 0.792393 3.537415 6.895555 Th Lp Total 1.039333 42.06667 735% 100 100 100 300

198 Appendix-11: Phytosociological attributes of Microsisymbrium-Torularia afghanica- Dodonaea viscosa community Life Leaf S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV form size Tree layer 1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 0.052 5.2 60 0.001265207 14.3185 7.2874789 21.60723883 NP Mic Aitch. 2 Ficus carica L. 0.036 3.6 40 0.000875912 9.9128 4.85831926 14.77199922 NP Mic Shrub layer 3 Maytenus royleanusWall. Ex 0.435 0.15 60 1.04 0.41303 7.2874789 8.740512398 NP Mic Lawson 4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) 0.805 0.29 100 1.95 0.99828 12.1457982 15.09407699 NP Np Scheen & V.A.Albert 5 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.476 11.9 80 1.36 32.7673 9.71663853 43.84396299 NP Np 6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) 0.335 0.12 60 0.815085158 0.41308 7.2874789 8.51564495 NP Np A.DC 7 Justicia adhatoda L 0.635 0.19 60 1.54 0.65404 7.2874789 9.481523647 NP Lp Herb layer 8 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz 18 2.38 80 45 6.55346 9.71663853 61.27010342 Th Mic 9 Oxalis corniculata L. 1.53 3.17 33.33 3.12 8.72877 4.04819453 15.89696919 Th Np 10 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) 18.2 2.05 60 44.28223844 5.64479 7.2874789 57.21450853 Th Mic Hedge 11 Tulipa clusiana DC. 0.236667 4.733333333 86 0.579109639 13.0335 10.4453864 24.05 Th Mic 12 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. 0.026667 0.533333333 26 0.06525179 1.46856 3.15790752 4.691722874 NP Mic 13 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. 0.036667 0.733333333 26 0.089721212 2.01927 3.15790752 5.26690363 Th Mp 14 Cymbopogon jwarancusa 0.03 0.6 26 0.073408264 1.65213 3.15790752 4.88 H Np (Jones) Schult. Total 40.9 36.3167 823.33 99.9985 100 100 300

199 Appendix-12: Phytosociological attributes of Sedum hispanicum-Geranium rotundifolium- Indigofera linifolia community

S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Ziziphus nummularia 0.06 6 60 2.667457024 9.972299 6.9364162 19.57617238 NP Np (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. 2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.07 7 60 3.112033195 11.63435 6.9364162 21.68279841 McP Lp 3 Ziziphus mauritiana 0.044 4.4 60 1.956135151 7.313019 6.9364162 16.20557073 McP Np Lam. Shrub layer 4 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) 0.052 1.3 60 2.311796088 2.160665 6.9364162 11.40887709 NP Np Jacq. 5 Withania coagulans 0.056 1.4 50 2.489626556 2.32687 5.7803 10.59679636 Ch Mic (Stocks) Dunal 6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.044 1.1 60 1.956135151 1.828255 6.9364162 10.72080618 NP Lp 7 Capparis spinosa L 0.048 1.2 50 2.133965619 1.99446 5.7803468 9.908772274 McP Mic 8 Periploca aphylla 0.052 1.3 40 2.311796088 2.160665 4.6242775 9.096738364 Ch Ap Decne. Herb layer 9 Sedum hispanicum L. 0.596666667 11.9333 100 26.52637819 19.8338 11.560694 57.92086684 Th Lp 10 Geranium rotundifolium 0.47 9.4 80 20.89508002 15.62327 9.2485549 45.76690364 Th Mic L. 11 Indigofera linifolia 0.433333333 8.666667 73 19.2649674 14.40443 8.4393064 42.10870589 Th Np (Linn.f.) Retz Continued…

200 12 Linum corymbulosum 0.136666667 2.733333 60 6.075874333 4.542936 6.9364162 17.55522681 Th Np Rchb. 13 Erodium ciconium L. 0.093333333 1.866667 26 4.149377593 3.102493 3.0058 10.25767067 Th Mic 14 Galium tricornutum 0.05 1 40 2.222880854 1.66205 4.6243 8.509230715 Th Lp Dandy. 15 Alyssum desertorum 0.023333333 0.466667 26 1.037344398 0.775623 3.0057803 4.818748014 Th Lp Stapf. 16 Coronopus didymus (L.) 0.02 0.4 20 0.889152341 0.66482 2.3121387 3.866111014 Th Mic Smith. Total 2.2493 60.2 865 100 100 100 300

201 Appendix-13: Phytosociological attributes of Lactuca dissecta-Salvia moorcroftiana- Allium griffithianum community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size

Tree layer 1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. NP Np f.) Wight & Arn. 0.052 5.2 60 1.4964 9.48774324 6.603081486 17.5872276 2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild. Ex Mcp Lp Delile 0.064 6.4 60 1.84173 11.6772225 6.603081486 20.12203056 3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.06 6 60 1.72662 10.947396 6.603081486 19.27709624 Mcp Np Shrub layer 4 Cannabis sativa L. 0.6 0.089 80 17.2662 0.16238637 8.804108649 26.23268207 Mcp Np 5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.432 0.063 60 12.4317 0.11494766 6.603081486 19.14968382 NP Np Herb layer 6 Lactuca dissecta D. Don 0.64 12.8 100 18.4173 23.3544449 11.00513581 52.77 Th Mic 7 Allium griffithianum Boiss. 0.496667 9.933333 100 14.2926 18.1240223 11.00513581 43.42 Th Np 8 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Th Mic Benth. 0.523333 10.46667 100 15.06 19.0971242 11.00513581 45.16 9 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. 0.296667 0.488888 40 8.53717 0.89200843 4.402054324 13.83123301 Th Lp 10 Oxytropis campestris (L.) Th Np DC. 0.103333 0.111111 33.33333 2.97362 0.20272935 3.668378237 6.844728694 11 Verbascum thapsus L. 0.04 0.055555 33.33333 1.15108 0.10136376 3.668378237 4.920821138 Th Mic 12 NP Mic Eruca sativa Mill. 0.02 0.4 26 0.57554 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.165652 Continued…

202 13 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. NP Mic Gomez 0.02 0.4 26 0.57554 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.165652 14 Stellaria media L. 0.027 0.466667 26 0.77698 0.85146414 2.860286029 4.488728583 Th Np 15 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Ch Mic Desf. 0.026667 0.466667 26 0.78 0.85146 2.860286029 4.491746029 16 Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. 0.02 0.4 26 0.58 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.170112432 Th Mic 17 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. 0.03 0.6 26 0.86331 1.0947396 2.860286029 4.818334986 Th Np 18 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.67146 0.85146414 2.860286029 4.383212995 Th Lp Total 3.48 54.8 909 100 100 99.99 299.9

203 Appendix-14: Phytosociological attributes of Phagnalon niveum-Torularia afghanica-Kickxia ramosissima community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size

Tree layer Olea ferruginea 1 0.066 6.6 60 2.52165053 9.99689296 7.731958763 20.25050226 NP Mic Wall. ex G. Aitch. Acacia modesta 2 0.06 6 40 2.29240958 9.08808451 5.154639175 16.53513326 McP Lp Wall. Shrub layer Rydingia limbata 3 (Benth.) Scheen & 0.512 12.8 60 19.5618951 19.3879136 7.731958763 46.68176745 NP Np V.A.Albert Lonicera griffithii 4 0.068 1.7 60 2.59806419 2.57495728 7.73196 12.90498147 McP Mic Hook. f. &Thoms Maytenus royleanus 5 0.108 1.8 30 4.12633724 2.72642535 3.865979381 10.71874197 NP Mic Wall. Ex Lawson Berberis lycium 6 0.02 0.5 30 0.76413653 0.75734038 3.86598 5.387456902 NP Np Royle Herb layer Phagnalon niveum 7 0.603333333 12.06667 100 23.0514519 18.2771477 12.88659794 54.21519754 Th Lp Edgew. Torularia afghanica 8 0.42 8.4 93 16.046867 12.7233183 11.98453608 40.75472144 Th Mic (Gilli) Hedge Continued…

204 Kickxia ramosissima 9 0.31 7.153846 93 11.8441161 10.8357931 11.98453608 34.6644453 Th Np (Wall.) Janch. 10 Rubus fruticosus L. 0.126666667 2.533333 26 4.83953133 3.83719124 3.350515464 12.02723803 McP Mic Artemisia scoparia 11 0.103333333 2.066667 26 3.94803872 3.13034022 3.350515464 10.4288944 NP Np L. Digera muricata (L.) 12 0.1 2 26 3.82068263 3.0293615 3.35052 10.20056413 Th Mic Mart. Valeriana wallichii 13 0.016666667 0.333333 20 0.63678044 0.50489358 2.577319588 3.71899361 Th Mec DC. Setaria pumila 14 (Poir.) Roem. & 0.02 0.4 26 0.76413653 0.60606061 3.350515464 4.720712596 Th Mic Schult. Oenanthe javanica 15 0.02 0.4 20 0.76414 0.60606061 2.577319588 3.947520194 Th Np (Blume) DC 16 Bidens tripartite L. 0.02 0.4 26 0.76414 0.60606061 3.350515464 4.72071607 Th Np Indigofera lignifolia 17 0.023333333 0.466667 20 0.89149261 0.70685102 2.577319588 4.175663219 Th Np (Linn.f.) Retz Polygonum plebeium 18 0.02 0.4 20 0.76414 0.60606061 2.577319588 3.947520194 G Mec R. Br. Total 2.61 66 776 100 100 100 300

205 Appendix-15: Phytosociological attributes of Euphorbia pilulifera-Pennisetum orientale-Indigofera lignifolia community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size

Tree layer 1 Mcp Lp Acacia modesta Wall. 0.052 5.2 60 0.7585335 3.550295777 8.31793 12.3 2 Olea ferruginea Wall. NP Mic ex G. Aitch. 0.06 6 60 0.875231 4.096495128 8.31793 13.3 Shrub layer 3 Prosopis juliflora Mcp Lp Swartz. 0.08 2 60 1.1669746 1.365498376 8.31793 10.85040275 Herb layer 4 Euphorbia pilulifera Th Np L. 2.566667 51.33333 100 37.440436 35.04779165 13 85.48822732 5 Indigofera linifolia Th Np (Linn.f.) Retz 1.486667 29.73333 60 21.686278 20.3 8.31793 50.30420808 6 Pennisetum orientale Th Np Rich. 1.936667 38.73333 86 28.250511 26.44515188 11.8 66.49566243 7 Th Np Trifolium repens L. 0.083333 1.666667 40 1.2155986 1.137915313 5.545287 7.89880038 8 Th Np Vicia monantha Retz. 0.396667 7.933333 40 5.7862491 5.416476891 5.545287 16.74801255 9 Silene vulgaris Th Np (Moench) Garcke 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.3403676 0.318616288 3.66886 4.32784387 Continued…

206 10 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) H Np Schult. 0.02 0.4 20 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316 11 Papaver pavoninum Th Np Schrenk 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.3403676 0.318616288 3.66886 4.327843871 12 Cynodon dactylon H Lp (L.) Pers. 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316 13 Bromus Th Mic pectinatus Thunb. 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316 14 NP Np Artemisia vulgaris L. 0.023333 0.46667 26 0.3403676 0.318618564 3.66886 4.327846147 15 Rorippa palustris (L.) Th Np Besser 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316 16 Misopates orontium Th Lp (L.) Raf 0.03 0.6 26 0.4376155 0.409649513 3.66886 4.516124981 17 Ch Mic Polygonum aviculerL. 0.013333 0.266667 13.33333333 0.1944958 0.18206645 1.802219 2.178781167 Total 6.86 146 721.33 100 100 100 299.9

207 Appendix-16: Phytosociological attributes of Dodonaea viscosa-Rydingia limbata-Olea ferruginea community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.09 9 60 20.0905 12.44395 16.97793 49.51237 NP Mic 2 Salix tetrasperma 0.036 3.6 40 4.886878 12.10762 6.791171 23.78567 Mcp Mic 3 Ficus carica L 0.032 3.2 40 4.343891 10.76233 6.791171 21.89739 NP Mic Shrub layer 4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen 0.148 3.7 100 12.21719 30.26906 10.18676 52.67301 NP Np & V.A.Albert 5 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.028 0.7 50 3.800905 2.35426 8.488964 14.64413 NP Np 6 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex 0.02 0.5 40 2.714932 1.681614 6.791171 11.18772 NP Mic Lawson 7 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.028 0.7 40 3.800905 2.35426 6.791171 12.94634 NP Lp 8 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.248 6.2 100 33.66516 20.85202 16.97793 71.49511 NP Np Herb layer 9 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.01 0.2 13 1.357466 0.672646 2.207131 4.237243 G Np 10 Chenopodium album L. 0.02 0.4 20 2.714932 1.345291 3.395586 7.455809 Th Np 11 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L. 0.02 0.4 20 2.714932 1.345291 3.395586 7.455809 NP Mic Rob. 12 Apluda mutica L. 0.026667 0.533333 33 3.61991 1.793722 5.602716 11.01635 Th Np

13 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. 0.03 0.6 33 4.072398 2.017937 5.60272 11.69306 NP Mic Total 0.736667 29.73333 589 100 100 100 300

208 Appendix-17: Phytosociological attributes of Dodonaea viscosa-Withania coagulans-Justicia adhatoda community S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.036 3.6 40 3.105233 8.918249 6.486487 18.50997 McP Lp 2 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. NP Np f.)Wight &Arn. 0.04 4 40 3.450259 9.909166 6.486487 19.84591 3 Z. Spinosa 0.046 4.6 40 3.967798 11.39554 6.486487 21.84983 McP Np 4 Z. mauritiana Lam. 0.04 4 40 3.450259 9.909166 6.486487 19.84591 McP Np Shrub layer 5 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.344 8.6 100 29.67223 21.30471 16.21622 67.19315 NP Np 6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.224 5.6 70 19.32145 13.87283 11.35135 44.54563 NP Lp 7 Withania coagulans (Stocks ) Ch Mic Dunal 0.256 6.4 90 22.08166 15.85467 14.59459 52.53092 8 Periploca aphylla Decne. 0.02 0.5 30 1.725129 1.238646 4.864865 7.82864 Ch Ap Herb layer 9 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl 0.02 0.4 26.66667 1.725129 0.990917 4.324324 7.04037 G Np 10 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) H Np Stapf 0.023333 0.466667 20 2.012651 1.156069 3.243243 6.411964 11 Lactuca serriola L. 0.023333 0.466667 26.66667 2.012651 1.15607 4.324324 7.493045 Th Mec 12 Carthamus oxycantha M.B Th Mic TH Mie 0.026667 0.533333 26.66667 2.300173 1.321222 4.324324 7.945719 13 Astragalus amherstianus Th Np Benth. 0.03 0.6 33.33333 2.587694 1.486375 5.405405 9.479474 14 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Ch Mic Spreng 0.03 0.6 33.33333 2.587694 1.486375 5.405405 9.479474 Total 1.15933 40.36667 616.6667 100% 100% 100% 300

209 Appendix-18: Phytosociological attributes of Cannabis sativa-Alternanthera pungens- Ageratum conyzoide community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer 1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.036 3.6 40 2.428058 8.269525 5.312085 16.00967 McP Lp 2 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) 0.04 4 40 2.697842 9.188361 5.312085 17.19829 NP Np Wight & Arn 3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh 0.056 5.6 60 3.776978 12.86371 7.968128 24.60881 McP Np Shrubs layer 4 Cannabis sativa L. 0.564 14.1 100 38.03957 32.38897 13.28021 83.70875 Th Mic 5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.04 1 50 2.697842 2.29709 6.640106 11.63504 McP Lp 6 Sorgham halepense (Linn) Bres 0.036 0.9 50 2.428058 2.067381 6.64011 11.13555 Th Np 7 Cotoneaster Microphyllsus Wall. 0.024 0.6 30 1.618705 1.378254 3.984064 6.981023 Th Mic Ex Lindl. Herb layer 8 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. 0.293333 5.8666667 66 19.78417 13.47626 8.76494 42.02538 Th Mic 9 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. 0.02 0.4 40 1.348921 0.918836 5.312085 7.579842 Th Np 10 Serratula pallida DC. 0.016667 0.3333333 26 1.124101 0.765697 3.452855 5.342653 Th Mic 11 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.17 3.4 73 11.46583 7.810107 9.694555 28.97049 Th Mic 12 Boerhavia diffusa L 0.043333 0.8666667 26 2.922662 1.990812 3.452855 8.366329 H Np 13 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.333333 1.798561 1.225115 4.426738 7.450414 Th Mic 14 Lepidium ruderaleL. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.33333 1.798561 1.225115 4.426737 7.450413 Th Np 15 Cyperus rotundus L. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.33333 1.798561 1.225115 4.42674 7.450416 G Np 16 Cirsium arvense L. Scop 0.03 0.6 26 2.023381 1.378254 3.452855 6.854491 Th Mic 17 Cucumus melo vari aragratis 0.033333 0.6666667 26 2.248201 1.531394 3.452855 7.23245 Th Mic Total 1.48266 43.5333 752.99999 100 100 100 300

210 Appendix-19: Phytosociological attributes of Euphorbia heterophylla-Delphinium kohatense-Olea ferruginea community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size Tree layer Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. 1 0.052 5.2 60 4.4801838 15.3694581 8.823529412 28.67317 NP Mic Aitch. 2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.03 3 40 2.58472142 8.86699507 5.882352941 17.33407 McP Lp Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex 3 0.036 3.6 40 3.10166571 10.6403941 5.882352941 19.62441 McP Mic Roxb. Shrub layer Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. & 4 0.048 1.2 60 4.13555428 3.54679803 8.823529412 16.50588 McP Mic Thoms Rydingia limbata (Benth.) 5 0.044 1.1 40 3.79092476 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.92451 NP Np Scheen & V.A.Albert Maytenus royleanusWall. Ex 6 0.036 1.1 40 3.10166571 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.23525 NP Mic Lawson 7 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) 0.044 1.1 40 3.79092476 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.92451 NP Np 8 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.024 0.6 30 2.06777714 1.77339901 4.411764706 8.252941 NP Np Herb layer 9 Rubus fruticosus L. 0.03666667 0.733333 40 3.15910396 2.16748768 5.882352941 11.20894 McP Mic 10 Euphorbia heterophylla L. 0.44666667 8.933333 100 38.4836301 26.4039409 14.70588235 79.59345 Th Mic 11 Delphinium kohatense Munz. 0.23666667 4.733333 86 20.3905801 13.9901478 12.64705882 47.02779 Th Mec 12 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.03333333 0.666667 26 2.87191269 1.97044335 3.823529412 8.665885 Th Mic 13 Ammannia baccifera L. 0.02666667 0.533333 26 2.29753016 1.57635468 3.823529412 7.697414 Ch Np 14 Boerhavia diffusa L 0.03666667 0.733333 26 3.15910396 2.16748768 3.823529412 9.150121 H Np 15 Poa infirma Kunth 0.03 0.6 26 2.58472142 1.77339901 3.823529412 8.18165 Ch Lp Total 1.16066 33.83 680 100% 100% 100% 300%

211 Appendix-20: Phytosociological attributes of Delphinium kohatense - Dittrichia graveolens - Prosopis juliflora community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size

Tree layer 1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.056 5.6 60 3.46820809 11.9828816 7.880910683 23.332 McP Lp Olea ferruginea Wall. 2 0.046 4.6 40 2.84888522 9.84308131 5.253940455 17.94591 McP Mic ex G. Aitch. 3 Tecomela undulata 0.052 5.2 60 3.22047894 11.1269615 7.880910683 22.22835 McP Mic Ziziphus nummularia 4 0.056 5.6 60 3.46820809 11.9828816 7.880910683 23.332 NP Np (Burm. f.)Wight &Arn. Shrub layer Prosopis juliflora 5 0.3 7.5 100 18.5796862 16.0485021 13.13485114 47.76304 McP Lp Swartz 6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.048 1.2 50 2.97274979 2.56776034 6.567425569 12.10794 NP Lp Monotheca Buxifolia 7 0.036 0.9 40 2.22956235 1.92582026 5.253940455 9.409323 NP Np (Falc.) A.DC Cotoneaster 8 Microphyllsus Wall. Ex 0.04 1 40 2.47729149 2.13980029 5.253940455 9.871032 NP Np Lindl. Herb layer Delphinium kohatense 9 0.45666667 9.133333 100 28.2824112 19.5435093 13.13485114 60.96077 Th Mec Munz. Dittrichia graveolens 10 0.37666667 7.533333 80 23.3278282 16.1198288 10.50788091 49.95554 Th Np (L.) Greuter Continued…

212 11 Asparagus asiaticus L. 0.04 0.8 26.66667 2.47729149 1.71184023 3.50262697 7.691759 G Np 12 Cichorium intybus Linn. 0.03 0.6 20 1.85796862 1.28388017 2.626970228 5.768819 NP Mic 13 Digera muricata (L.) 0.02 0.4 20 1.23864575 0.85592011 2.626970228 4.721536 Th Mic Mart. 14 Chrozophora tinctoria 0.02666667 0.533333 26.66667 1.65152766 1.14122682 3.50262697 6.295381 Th Mic (L.) Raf. 15 Chenopodium 0.02 0.4 20 1.23864575 0.85592011 2.626970228 4.721536 Th Lp ambrosioides L. 16 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. 0.02333333 0.466667 26 1.44508671 0.99857347 3.415062791 5.858723 Th Lp 17 Sorgham 0.02333333 0.466667 26 1.44508671 0.99857347 3.415062791 5.858723 Th Mic halepense (Linn) Bres 18 Lepidium sativum Linn. 0.02 0.4 26 1.23864575 0.85592011 3.415062791 5.509629 Th Np Total 1.61466667 46.73333 761.3333 100% 100% 100% 300%

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248 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY

Date ______Name

Age ______Gender______

Education______Locality______

Information about potential plant species used in the area

Local name of the plant species Habit of plant ______

Uses in the area

Quantities harvested each year

Who collected the plant? (Women/Men/Children)

Why collected?

Which part is collected?

How the plant is collected

Is it sold? To whom is it sold?

Whether the plant material is stored? Why?

For how long is it stored and why?

Local price per Kg. (Rs) Quantity sold each year

Availability status of the plant in last 10 years (Increased/ Decreased)

Which part is used and how is it used?

Any other observation.

249 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ETHNOMEDICINAL SURVEY

Date ______Name

Age ______Gender______

Education______Locality______

Information about potential plant species used in the area

Local name of the plant species. Habit of plant ______

Local uses in the area.

Disease name for which it is used

Method how to use the plant

Quantities harvested each year

Who collected the plant? (Womaen/Men/Children)

Why collected?

Which part is collected?

How the plant is collected

Is it sold? To whom is it sold?

Whether the plant material is stored why?

For how long it is stored and why?

Local price per Kg. (Rs) Quantity sold each year

Availability status of the plant in last 10 years (Increased/ Decreased)

Which part is used and how it is used.

Any other observation.

250