sign in sign up
<<
Home , Ahmarian, An Nafud, Arabian Desert, Arabian Peninsula, Arabian Sands, Arrowhead

Evolutionary 21:113–125 (2012)

ARTICLE

The of the Arabian : , Dispersals, and Demography

HUW S. GROUCUTT AND D. PETRAGLIA

As a geographic connection between and the rest of , the Ara- the research potential of the , bian Peninsula occupies a central position in elucidating hominin evolution and as do increasingly detailed environ- dispersals. Arabia has been characterized by extreme environmental fluctuation mental records. in the , with profound evolutionary and demographic consequences. Early western explorers of Arabia Despite the importance of the region, Arabia remains understudied. Recent recognized stone , often in asso- 4 , however, have seen major developments in environmental studies and ar- ciation with ancient beds. These early findings were followed by the cheology, revealing that the region contains important records that should play a 5 significant role in paleoanthropological narratives.1–3 The emerging picture discoveries of archeologists, which of Arabia suggests that numerous dispersals of hominin populations into the significantly advanced from the 1970s region occurred. Populations subsequently followed autochthonous trajectories, onward, with large-scale surveys such as the Comprehensive Survey of the creating a distinctive regional archeological record. Debates continue on the re- Kingdom (1976-1981) in Saudi Ara- spective roles of regional hominin extinctions and population continuity, with the bia.6,7 Analogous developments took latter suggesting adaptation to arid conditions. place in southern Arabia.8–11 Over the last decade, systematic surveys and interdisciplinary excavations have has certainly played a role in greatly increased our understanding There exists a striking imbalance 2,3,12–14 between the clear importance of Ara- the lack of serious research. In some of prehistoric Arabia, as have developments in paleoenvironmental bia and what is actually known cases, cultural and political issues 15–17 about the region. The incorrect per- have hampered research, as, for studies. Research is now extend- ception of Arabia as an unchanging example, in contemporary . ing to the coastal waters around Ara- bia18 and to the use of remote sensing Numerous archeological surveys 19 have been conducted but, until techniques. recently, these have been unsyste- In the paleoanthropological litera- Huw Groucutt is a doctoral candidate matic. Most prehistoric sites consist ture, the often at the School of , University serves as a useful blank on the map of Oxford. His research focuses on the of scatters from surface con- Middle of Arabia and Late texts. As a result, knowledge of Ara- in which to draw hypothetical and hominin dispersals. He has rather abstract dispersal . This recently conducted excavations in Saudi bian prehistory often comes from sites potentially, but not necessarily, has particularly reflected patterns of Arabia and is undertaking a comparative 20,21 analysis of lithic in Africa and representing multiple phases of occu- global genetic variation. In such Southwestern . Email: huw.groucutt@ models, the specific paleoenviron- rlaha.ox.ac.uk pation, which lack absolute dates Michael Petraglia is Professor of and paleoenvironmental information. mental and biogeographical charac- Evolution and Prehistory, Senior Research Attribution to cultural phases has teristics of Arabia have little role, yet Fellow, and Co-Director of Centre for typically reflected typological analy- it is precisely such contexts that are Asian Archaeology, & Culture, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford. He ses of biased collections. The absence critical to defining patterns of homi- is also a Senior Research Fellow, Linacre of a pre- hominin re- nin dispersal and adaptation. As College (Oxford), and a member of the cord in Arabia precludes definitive genetic studies of Arabian popula- Human Origins Program, . Email: michael.petraglia@rla identification of the manufacturers tions have increased in scale, they 22–25 ha.ox.ac.uk of the widespread lithic industries. reveal a complex pattern. Such These problems must be recognized studies show that modern Arabian and used to guide future research. populations are mostly derived from Key words: Arabia; paleoenvironments; Nevertheless, the Arabian record , reflecting dispersals Paleolithic; ; hominins constitutes an important and under- since the studied dataset. The recent discovery (LGM). In some areas, however, VC 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. of stratified archeological sites in there are relatively high levels of DOI 10.1002/evan.21308 Published online in Wiley Online Library , Yemen, , and the ‘‘African’’ lineages, which have gener- (wileyonlinelibrary.com). United Arab demonstrates ally been attributed to historical 114 Groucutt and Petraglia ARTICLE

Figure 1. of the Arabian Peninsula. The locations of Pleistocene fossil localities and key sites for paleoenvironmental recon- struction are shown; note the southern and coastal concentration of the latter. lines depict major paleorivers.28 (Basemap cour- tesy of NASA’s Observatory.) [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.] processes such as .26,27 long, and an interior with numerous bridge since the ,33 but Genetic evidence, then, is poorly paleorivers and paleolakes (Fig. 1). during of low level the gap placed to elucidate the position of Understanding the variable topogra- would have been significantly Arabia in the dispersal of hominin phy, ecology, and geography of Ara- reduced. However, Arabia was con- populations. Likewise, the extinction bia is therefore a necessary back- cordantly arid during these times. of regional populations means they ground to elucidate changes in homi- Consequently, some have stressed not be represented in contempo- nin demography.28,29 temporal lag between environmental rary genetic structure. In this situa- To the north of Arabia there are no amelioration and sea level rise2; tion, archeology, in the context of fundamental barriers to hominin dis- others emphasize the hypothesis of a paleoenvironmental fluctuation, persal, given favorable paleoenviron- 34 offers a key way to elucidate the dis- significant role for ‘‘coastal oases.’’ mental conditions. The Sinai persal of hominin populations into Modern observers are familiar with Peninsula offered a connection to Arabia and their subsequent evolu- the dry side of Arabia, most iconi- Africa.30 On the eastern edge of Ara- tionary and cultural trajectories. cally demonstrated by the Rub’ al bia, the today is a shal- Khali, which, at 600,000 km2, low sea but, for most of the Pleisto- forms the ’s largest sandy de- cene, was a large river , leading sert. In the east, the Wahiba GEOGRAPHY AND some to suggest that it formed an im- area is of importance, having been 31 The vast size of Arabia, at more portant population refugia. The pos- studied in paleoenvironmental than 3 million km2, suggests that sibility of hominins crossing the Bab terms.35,36 Contemporary Arabia, hominin evolutionary processes have al Mandab has been much debated.32 however, has some areas, such as the been complex and regionally vari- Today the here is less than 30 Asir-Yemen highlands and Oman’s able. The land mass consists of a km wide with small , meaning Dhofar, that receive considerably range of topographical and environ- that the maximum single water cross- more precipitation, The landscape of mental settings, including highlands, ing is less than 18 km. Isotopic studies Arabia reveals numerous signs of lowlands, a coastline some 7,000 km suggest that there has not been a land more humid conditions in the past. ARTICLE Groucutt and Petraglia 115

Vast paleoriver systems cut across been particularly wet, with extensive periods also included short dry the Peninsula, most starting in the , calcrete, and lake forma- phases. Recent studies in Saudi Ara- western highlands and extending tion.13,17,43 A pronounced deteriora- bia and the east to the Persian Gulf (Fig. 1). For tion occurred with MIS 4; however, demonstrate a short-lived wet phase instance, the now dry al Batin few records are known for this pe- at 55 ka.39,54 Another short pluvial drained a large area of northern riod, so we are dealing primarily period occurred 14 ka, not long af- Saudi Arabia and left a huge alluvial with an absence of evidence (for ter the LGM.55,56 fan around modern , some example, of speleothem formation). Much progress has been made in 300 m deep and covering 190 by 130 MIS 3 has been labeled the ‘‘debated elucidating paleoenvironmental 15 km.28 Such paleorivers can clearly be pluvial.’’ Many radiocarbon dates change in Arabia, but many ques- seen in satellite images.37 Paleolakes had suggested a prolonged humid tions remain. A key question con- 44,45 of various sizes are found across Ara- period 30-25 ka, but this is not cerns the relative contributions of bia, from the relatively small to the the two weather systems. This has vast, such as the 2,000 km2 implications with regard to the open- Mudawwara paleolake on the border ing of dispersal routes. Within inter- 13,38,39 of Saudi Arabia and . The latitudinal glacial periods, what were the dry The environmental evolution of periods, such as MIS 5b and 5d, like? Arabia primarily reflects the varying movement of the Inter- And what was the impact of the contributions of precipitation from Tropical Convergence short, wet phases in terms of demog- two key weather systems: winter raphy and dispersals? Only recently from the Mediterranean and, Zone (ITCZ), and with it has the chronology of these short- most importantly, the summer rains the monsoonal rains, is term fluctuations begun to be under- of the Indian sys- stood. While records such as speleo- tem. The latitudinal movement of the the single most thems provide excellent overall Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone important environmental records, they seem to not be sensitive (ITCZ), and with it the monsoonal enough to detect short-term pluvial rains, is the single most important variable in Arabian episodes. environmental variable in Arabian prehistory. As the ITCZ prehistory. As the ITCZ moved north, FLORA AND FAUNA Arabia sprang to as refilled moved north, Arabia and rivers flowed. Paleoenvironmen- sprang to life as lakes Plants and animals provide infor- tal scientists have made considerable mation that is relevant to under- progress in elucidating this and refilled and rivers standing hominin occupations. The related processes.15–17,40 flowed. contemporary of Arabia Environmental oscillation between reflects its position as an interface wet and dry periods can be studied between biogeographical zones, par- at two levels, first at a broad ‘‘glacial’’ ticularly the Palearctic and Afrotropi- (generally dry) and ‘‘’’ reflected in records such as speleo- cal. Changing environmental condi- (with wet phases) level and second in thems and probably reflects prob- tions increased the influence of one terms of more short-term change. lems with the original radiocarbon or the other of these, with the result- Figure 2 gives an overview of envi- dates.15,46 A recent study of paleo- ing mix then filtered through arid ronmental change in Arabia and lakes demonstrated that some key phases that gave a distinctly Arabian related archeological evidence. At a examples previously dated to MIS 3 character to many taxa. One particu- broad level, evidence indicates signif- actually date to MIS 5.16 MIS 2, larly important example are the icant increases in precipitation in encompassing the LGM, seems to , Papio hamadryas, which each interglacial period back to MIS have been generally extremely are found in southwestern Arabia. 11.41 However, most of our knowl- arid.35,47 The most recent major These are the only wild baboons edge covers the last 350 kyr, and humid period dates to 10-6 ka. This found outside sub-Saharan Africa. primarily the younger half of this, as ‘‘Holocene wet phase’’48–51 is best The most recent genetic study to shown in Figure 2.15,17 Glacial peri- known from southern Arabia, where examine the timing of dis- ods were often characterized by arid most studies have been conducted, but persal into Arabia reported coales- conditions. There are, however, com- precipitation in northern Arabia was cence ages of 333 ka, 216 ka, and plications to this dichotomy. In MIS more than 300% greater than at pres- 105 ka.57 While such dates come 6, for instance, recent evidence dem- ent.52 A period of aridification followed, with rather wide error margins, they onstrates at least short phases of with evidence of abrupt drying.53 significantly coincide with intergla- increased precipitation,15 which con- Several recent studies have demon- cial periods (Fig. 2). It has been trast with traditional views of this as strated, within this broad pattern of claimed that the northerly Arabian a hyperarid period.42 MIS 5, particu- glacial-interglacial oscillation, the ex- populations are more genetically larly MIS 5e, 5c, and 5a, has been istence of short-term wet phases. similar to African populations,57 per- shown by various studies to have Presumably, some of the longer wet haps suggesting a Sinai dispersal 116 Groucutt and Petraglia ARTICLE

further into the western and north- western fringes of the Rub’ al Khali desert, perhaps indicating the occur- rence of more extended wet phases in the earlier Pleistocene. The paleo- environmental conditions of the are unclear, but presum- ably followed a pattern of oscillation similar to that seen more recently, but this was probably less extreme in its fluctuation. Unfortunately, few excava- tions have taken place, so that the chronology and internal variability of the is essentially unknown. Localities appear to be cor- related with hilltops, ridges, and terra- ces, and are often located in close proximity to raw material sources. Several claims have been made for ‘‘-like’’, or ‘‘Mode 1’’ assemb- lages in Arabia.64–69 For instance, at 201-49 near Shuwayhitiyah in north- ern Arabia, Whalen and colleagues collected lithics from 16 localities.66 Their collection was dominated by heavy-duty tools (choppers, polyhe- drons, and such), with a fairly small Figure 2. Arabian environmental, faunal, and archeological records over the last 150 kyr. Thick vertical lines represent key humid periods, thin grey lines represent short humid bifacial component (Fig. 3). Like- episodes. Note the correlation of archeological assemblages with periods of increased wise, claims for ‘‘pre-’’ sites rainfall, with the possible exception of Assemblage A at . Environmental infor- have been made in Yemen. From Al- mation and figure structure adapted from Rosenberg and coworkers16; chronology of Guza , Amirkhanov68 reports an 57 2,3,13,14,92 baboon dispersal after Fernandes ; key archeological sites. [Color figure can be Oldowan ‘‘pebble ’’ lacking a viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.] bifacial component. However, as with other purportedly Oldowan route. However, another study cating the potential survival of cer- assemblages, care needs to be taken 58 observed the opposite pattern, tain in dry periods. The to differentiate artifacts from geo- although issues with sample size are discoverers’ suggestion of an Early facts. Similarly, Jagher reports that notable. Through such research, the Pleistocene date must be taken with intensive efforts to relocate the doz- wider floral and faunal context of caution, as it was not based on abso- ens of purportedly Oldowan sites hominin dispersals into and occupa- lute dates; moreover, the three local- around Huqf, Oman,70 did not result tion of Arabia can be elucidated. ities need not be synchronous. in the discovery of any artifacts.71 62 Arabia has a rich Miocene fossil McClure reported of a vari- Chauhan67 reports the discovery of record,59 but few younger fossils are ety of species, including , hip- Oldowan-like lithics on Perim , known. Thomas and colleagues60 dis- popotamus, , , and buf- a small island on the Yemeni side of covered Pleistocene fossils (n ¼ 139) falo from the area of the Mundafan the Bab al Mandab. If confirmed, this at three paleolake contexts in the An paleolake, which was recently may suggest the crossing of the Bab al 16 Nafud desert. They suggested that redated to MIS 5. Many sites pre- Mandab in the Early Pleistocene. 63 the fauna had an Afro-tropical char- serve Holocene faunal remains. The presence of hominins using acter. Taxa represented include fish, Oldowan-like, or Mode 1, technology tortoise, (Crocuta crocuta, in Arabia is certainly possible, given THE LOWER PALEOLITHIC Panthera cf. gombaszoegensis, the findings at sites such as cf. vulpes), , , hippo Arabia has a rich Lower Paleolithic to the north. However, problems per- (Hexaprotodon sp.), and giant buffalo record (Figs. 3 and 4).7 Southwestern vade the Arabian finds. To take the ( cf. oldowayensis). The rep- Saudi Arabia seems to have a partic- example of the Shuwayhitiyah local- resented taxa and isotopic values ularly large number of Lower Paleo- ities, the assemblages include lithics from teeth indicate a savannah-like lithic sites, although it is unclear to that are clearly recent (probably Hol- environment around the lakes.60 The what extent this reflects survey and ocene); in addition, the collection oryx present at the An-Nafud fossil publication bias. In comparison to strategy of the discoverers is unclear, localities has been described as a younger Paleolithic sites, those of the and the use of as a raw specifically arid-adapted form,61 indi- Lower Paleolithic appear to extend material may be a significant factor ARTICLE Groucutt and Petraglia 117

demonstrating eight different activ- ities. Six uranium-thorium dates for calcareous matter adhering to the artifacts produced minimal ages of 201-61 ka.75:22 The surface collection and excavation of these sites pro- duced thousands of lithics, but there have been no detailed technological comparisons of these lithics to assemblages from surrounding . An important factor at the Dawa¯dmi sites is the presence of abundant evidence of early reduction. Giant cores demonstrate procurement and reduction of raw material along the dykes.7,76 The 32 Acheulean sites identified near the Red Sea in Wadi appear,77,78 based on selective sur- face collections, to have a typological structure similar to those excavated at Dawa¯dmi and also are located close to sources of raw material. In both cases, flakes are the dominant type, with characteristic bifaces and cleavers making up around 1% of the assemblages (Fig. 3). Uranium-tho- rium dating of calcareous nodules at site 210-351 produced an ‘‘in the range of 200,000 years.’’78:78 The Dawa¯dmi and Wadi Fatimah sites share similarities in technology and landscape position, being close to raw material sources and associ- Figure 3. Above: view from the top of the jebel at Dawa¯dmi, looking west over Acheu- lean site 206-76 (where vehicles are located). This is the location of one of the first Paleo- ated with riverine systems, which lithic site excavations in Arabia. Acheulean sites and artifacts are distributed at the base presumably functioned as dispersal of the jebel (over a distance of ca. 10 km) and below the andesite dykes, which served corridors.76 The distinctive Acheu- as raw material sources for stone manufacture. Below: selected handaxes from lean bifaces and cleavers at these Dawa¯dmi, manufactured from andesite. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, sites are generally characterized by which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.] deep flake scars; only rarely are they in determining form. More the relationship of the Arabian highly symmetrical (Fig. 3). Measure- generally, arguments based solely on Lower Paleolithic to that of sur- ments of biface elongation (length to typology carry many inherent limita- rounding regions. Also, excavations width ratio) comfortably place Ara- tions. Care needs to be taken to dis- need to be done to clarify the demo- bian assemblages within the Acheu- tinguish geofacts from artifacts. Also, graphic processes of populations in lean, their mean elongations falling the Peninsula. between those of assemblages in excavations are required to recover 79 chronometrically datable assemb- We are on firmer ground with the Africa and . Whalen’s excava- lages that can be placed in a paleoen- Acheulean, as sites have been identi- tions revealed the presence of buried Lower Paleolithic sites in Arabia. vironmental context. If they are taken fied across Arabia. Spectacular Future excavations at these and at face value, it is significant that ‘‘Acheulean landscapes’’ are found at other localities are likely to be highly more Oldowan-like sites are known in Dawa¯dmi and Wadi Fatimah, in cen- informative. At present, the only Arabia than in , perhaps tral and western Saudi Arabia, absolute dates available reflect mini- respectively. At Dawa¯dmi, various indicating a significant role for Arabia mum ages.75,78 Comparative designa- in the early hominin colonization of Acheulean sites were identified in 72 tions, typically classifying the Arabian Eurasia. While Whalen and col- association with an andesite and rhy- 74,75,78 73 material as ‘‘Middle Acheulean,’’ leagues believed that the Shuwayhi- olite dyke. Two sites here, 206-76 are premature. Detailed statements on tiyah collection is strongly reminis- and 207-68, were subsequently exca- the spatial and temporal relationships 74,75 cent of the Developed Oldowan of vated. The discovers rather spec- of the Arabian assemblages to those of ,66 comparative technolog- ulatively suggested distinct ‘‘func- surrounding regions require consider- ical analysis is required to elucidate tional activity areas,’’ supposedly ably more research. 118 Groucutt and Petraglia ARTICLE

a Levantine and European perspec- tive, with sites often described as ‘‘.’’ This inappropriate framework, combined with the tradi- tional lack of stratified sites, made it difficult to address spatial and tem- poral variability and hampered the factoring of the Arabian record into debates such as that on Out-of-Africa dispersals. Nevertheless, important information was gathered at the hun- dreds of surface sites identified. These sites demonstrate the range of typo-technological variability found in the Arabian and give some insight into the way hominins related to the landscape, while stratified sites have the benefits of a stronger chance of assemblage contemporaneity and allow both absolute dating and paleoenviron- mental contextualization. The Arabian record demonstrates particular characteristics, including the often somewhat irregular, multi- platform character of cores, which is associated with features such as a general paucity of platform prepara- tion. A significant of the Arabian Middle Paleolithic is the widespread presence of a bifacial component, which was confirmed by the excavation of Jebel Faya (Fig. 5).2 Rose80 has stressed the significance of bifacial technology in Oman, suggesting that it implies population connec- tions with sub-Saharan Africa. Sur- veys have shown significant regional variation in Arabia. The production of points, for instance, seems to be variable, being common in Dhofar, among other sites,3 but seemingly rare 73 Figure 4. Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites of Arabia. Note that some points represent in other areas. Zarins and coworkers, groups of sites. (DEM data courtesy of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture37; for example, perhaps reflecting their basemap image courtesy of Nick Drake and Paul Breeze, Kings College, London.) [Color Levantine-oriented expectations, found figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.] the lack of points between and ‘‘disconcerting.’’ Similarly, the THE MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC desert areas. The widespread surface representation of Levallois technology record guided initial conceptions of appears to be variable in Arabia, This is the most well-represented Middle Paleolithic variability6 and although this, in part, reflects evolution Paleolithic phase in Arabia (Fig. 4), can now be anchored to stratified from typological to volumetric concep- and its study has seen significant sites excavated in the last five years. tions. For instance, as Crassard points recent advances. As in the Lower and colleagues’ systematic sur- out, the ‘‘polyhedrons’’ and ‘‘discoids’’ Paleolithic, sites are often associated vey in Oman’s Dhofar reveals the illustrated by Whalen and Schatte81,82 with raw material sources and lacus- rich density of Middle Paleolithic are in fact recurrent centripetal Leval- trine and riverine systems, and are sites found when modern survey lois cores. Various ‘‘industrial’’ designa- located at strategic positions in the techniques are applied.3 tions have been proposed,6 but these landscape. Sites are found across Traditionally, the Middle Paleo- are problematic. For instance, the pos- Arabia except within modern sandy lithic of Arabia has been viewed from sibility that at the single site of Bani ARTICLE Groucutt and Petraglia 119

at earlier connections with the or may reflect convergent evolution in a similar habitat.11,81,86 At the site of Jebel Faya (FAY- NE1), excavations uncovered strati- fied Paleolithic assemblages.2 Pub- lished information addresses the top three Paleolithic assemblages (la- beled A to C with increasing depth). Assemblage C (500 lithics, see Fig. 5) is dated by optically stimulated lu- minescence (OSL) to 95 6 13 ka, 123 6 10 ka, and 127 6 16 ka, although the authors indicate that the latter date may be problematic.2 This last interglacial assemblage demonstrates a variety of reduction strategies. These include the production of volu- metric blades and Levallois , as well as bifaces, and a variety of retouched forms. Similar assemb- lages have been discovered nearby in surface contexts,87,88 showing that this technological package character- izes the Middle Paleolithic of the Arabian side of the eastern Persian Gulf, at least during MIS 5. While the closest technological parallels are found with northeast Africa, it is not impossible that assemblage C repre- sents an autochthonous develop- ment, or indeed a dispersal from, for instance, the .89 Figure 5. Selected Arabian Middle Paleolithic artifacts. 1) Levallois core from RASA 2004- In the overlying assemblages (A and 81 13 149-1, Yemen ; 2) and 3) Levallois cores from Jubbah, Saudi Arabia ; 4) unifacially B), bifacial and Levallois reduction is 13 retouched point from Jubbah, Saudi Arabia ; 5) Levallois flake from assemblage C, FAY- apparently absent except for a few NE1, UAE2; 6) Levallois point from Aybyt Thania, Oman3; 7) Levallois point from Aybut Auwal, Oman3; 8) bifacial foliate from FAY-NE1, UAE.2 convergent flakes in B, which are sim- ilar to Levallois points.2 Neither backed nor microlithic Khatmah, an assemblage dominated the site was occupied during rela- are represented. Assemblage B is by tanged points and scrapers from the tively arid conditions. The timing of undated, but on stratigraphic grounds western fringe of the Rub’ al Khali occupation correlates with the short was deposited between 90 and 40 ka, relates to the otherwise North African wet phase previously mentioned at while A is dated to 40.2 6 4.0 ka and needs to be tested by excava- 55 ka (Fig. 2), which occurred 38.6 6 3.1 ka, confirming hominin tions and comparative technological between more arid periods on either occupation of in MIS analysis.83 A reanalysis of the Bani side. The lithic technology reflects a 3. Both assemblages B and A are char- Khatmah lithics suggests that the Arabian variety of reduction schemes for the acterized by diverse reduction strat- ‘‘Aterian’’ may date to the Holocene.84 production of flakes, blades, and egies, centered on the production of A report on the Middle Paleolithic points. Levallois technology is pres- flakes. In assemblage B, core types site of Shi’ Dihya 1 and others in ent, but not common. No immediate include Kombewa and radial, which the Wadi Surdud of western Yemen parallels are found with contempo- are also found in assemblage A, which is to be published shortly.14 A key de- rary African or Levantine assemb- is dominated by orthogonal multiplat- velopment is that this site is now lages. Other sites in Wadi Surdud are form cores. Neither A nor B has a sub- dated to 55 ka, in contrast to initial dated to younger periods of MIS 3. stantial retouched component. estimates of 80-70 ka.12,85 More The overall picture is of a distinctive A third spatially and temporally than 5,000 lithics having lengths regional variant, an autochthonous specific Middle Paleolithic industry is greater than 2-cm, as well as faunal development from a presently found in Dhofar, Oman. Rose and remains, were excavated from a sin- unknown ancestral population. Else- colleagues3 identified 110 sites with gle thin layer covering 21 m2. Isotopic where in Yemen, more Levallois-ori- technology very similar to that of the and paleobotanical data indicate that ented point production perhaps hints MIS 5 Nubian Complex in northeast- 120 Groucutt and Petraglia ARTICLE ern Africa. Previously rare examples 1970s.90 At the site of Jebel Qattar 1, seen most clearly at Jebel Faya and of Nubian-like cores had been identi- we identified a lithic assemblage Wadi Surdud, and perhaps with other fied,86 but the new discoveries consti- characterized by centripetal Levallois examples such as the large tute a widespread and seemingly ho- and discoidal reduction, in associa- assemblages of Oman, the outlines of mogenous industry. The sites are tion with a calcrete dated by OSL to post-MIS 5 regional autochthonous found exclusively on the Nejd 75 6 5.0 ka. As well as notches, den- trends are coming into focus. So far, and have not been identified near the ticulates, and scrapers, we found an evidence of assemblages similar to the . All of the sites take the form of invasively retouched unifacial point and other precocious surface assemblages, with the excep- (Fig. 5). Field work in 2011 led to the facies of the MSA is absent in Arabia, tion of Aybut Auwal. Here a small identification of several stratified while the predominantly unidirectional- number of artifacts, including a diag- Middle Paleolithic sites around the convergent production of Levallois nostic Type 1 Nubian core, were paleolake. Our analysis is ongoing points similar to that in the early and found in situ, while many other and promises to cast light on the late phases of the Levantine Middle lithics appear to have eroded from character of the Middle Paleolithic in Paleolithic is known only from Yemen. the same onto the surface. interior northern Arabia. Two OSL samples from the same THE LATE PALEOLITHIC stratigraphic unit as the excavated lithics produced age estimates of Pre-Holocene evolutionary and cul- 106 6 9 ka and 107 6 9 ka, correlat- As research gathers tural trajectories are poorly under- ing with MIS 5c. Lithics from Aybut stood in Arabia. The character of the Auwal and three other sites were ana- pace in Arabia, we are Late Paleolithic, by which we mean lyzed in detail. At all of the sites, Nu- now beginning to be the period 40-10 ka, which else- bian Type 1 cores are dominant. The where is typically associated with core technology of the Dhofar Nubian able to correlate blade-dominated or microlithic is remarkably similar to the diagnos- paleoenvironmental and assemblages and frequent evidence of tic cores of the Nubian Complex in archeological records symbolism and other complex behav- North Africa. Debitage is dominated iors, is one of the great mysteries of by flakes, although blades are also for the Middle Paleolithic Arabian archeology. As discussed in a common. Aside from points, side- and move toward recent review,91 such evidence is scrapers are the most numerous tool. ephemeral in Arabia. With the usual A bifacial component was not identi- comparisons with caveats in , such as a general fied at any site. surrounding regions. reliance on surface sites, a generous In Oman, another industry, which interpretation suggests a possible Rose10 labeled the ‘‘Nejd Leptolithic,’’ Late Paleolithic component at a small is widespread. This is characterized number of sites focused in northwest- by the production of large blades As research gathers pace in Arabia, ern Arabia (Fig. 6). It must be from unidirectional cores with little we are now beginning to be able to stressed that such attributions are platform preparation. Blanks were correlate paleoenvironmental and ar- problematic. The only excavated and rarely retouched. An interesting fea- cheological records for the Middle dated Late Paleolithic site, Al Hatab, ture of this industry is the frequent Paleolithic and move toward compari- has lithics unlike those of the Epipa- presence of lipped platforms, which sons with surrounding regions. At a leolithic/ elsewhere, are often taken as an indication of broad level, features such as the pres- and again appears to reflect an au- the use of a soft . Rose and ence of a bifacial component at many tochthonous southern Arabian devel- colleagues3 suggest, on geomorpho- Arabian Middle Paleolithic sites argu- opment (Fig. 7).92 logical grounds, that the Nejd Lepto- ably the Peninsula toward ‘‘Upper Paleolithic’’ sites have been lithic is younger than at least some Africa, where a fac¸onnage component defined by some on primarily typolog- of the MIS 5 Nubian sites. These was frequent in the Middle ical grounds, emphasizing the pres- assemblages appear similar to some (MSA).80 In contrast, the Levantine ence of types such as burins and from Oman described by Jagher.71 Middle Paleolithic seems to lack any blades64,73; others stress ‘‘interme- We might see these large-blade evidence of fac¸onnage technology. diary’’ levels of ‘‘patination, materials, assemblages as a distinctive regional This regional divergence took place and workmanship.’’ In Yemen, Amir- post-MIS 5 development in Oman. more than 200 kyr ago. The increasing khanov9 used both of these perspec- The situation in Saudi Arabia is evidence of variability in the Arabian tives to define a number of ‘‘Upper less clear than that in southern Ara- Middle Paleolithic suggests that Paleolithic’’ sites. These sites need bia, where most recent research has multiple dispersals into the area more study, particularly absolute dat- focused. The authors of this paper occurred, followed by regional autoch- ing and technological analysis. Super- are conducting research at the thonous trajectories. Where enough ficially, many appear actually to be Jubbah paleolake in northern Saudi data are available, the Arabian compatible with a Middle Paleolithic Arabia,13 an area highlighted by an assemblages suggest connections to designation. One interesting assem- initial reconnaissance survey in the Africa in MIS 5.2,3 Subsequently, as blage is the material from Faw Well ARTICLE Groucutt and Petraglia 121

an autochthonous development of laminar technologies extending back to perhaps MIS 4.92 The assemblage includes hard hammer blades, bifa- cial foliates, burins, and endscrapers. The Arabian record seems to lack specific features relating to lithic technology and other features of the African . There are possible hints at occasional contacts with the laminar industries of the Levantine Upper Paleolithic but, in the absence of detailed technological analyses, these are broad-scale com- parisons. These features, such as the assemblage from Faw Well, perhaps suggest that dispersals from the Le- vant occurred during the short wet phases of MIS 3. It is possible that such populations survived through the LGM in southern Arabia. This is perhaps supported by the distinc- tively Arabian character of assemb- lages at sites like Al-Hatab, indicat- ing regional autochthonous develop- ments.92 It is possible that the sites in southern Arabia represent a con- tinuation of occupation from MIS 5. Surface sites in the north and west are poorly studied, and indeed may even date to the Holocene.

INTO THE HOLOCENE The early to middle Holocene of Arabia has implications for general patterns of occupation and dispersals in Arabia, as well as adaptation to arid environments. Considerably more detailed archeological and envi- ronmental records are available for the Holocene than are for the Pleis- tocene. Many absolute dates are Figure 6. Late Paleolithic and Early/Middle Holocene sites of Arabia. Note that some points available and at least 28 sites pre- represent groups of sites. (DEM data courtesy of the International Centre for Tropical Agricul- 63 37 serve faunal remains. Widespread ture ; basemap image courtesy of Nick Drake and Paul Breeze, Kings College, London.) art provides new insights into [Colorfigurecanbeviewedintheonlineissue,whichisavailableatwileyonlinelibrary.com.] human behavior, although its study would be helped by an evolution in southwestern Saudi Arabia. This convincing examples are located in from the stylistic to more systematic assemblage, which seems to be unlike the of the Arabian Penin- and geographic information system any other in Arabia, but lacks any sula, perhaps indicating brief incur- (GIS)-based analyses. In addition, absolute dates, is characterized by sions from the Levant.64,94 many of the key themes we have dis- blade and microblade production. The excavations at Al-Hatab in cussed in relation to the Paleolithic Edens93 studied part of the assem- Oman uncovered a lithic assemblage also characterize debates such as blage and suggests possible similar- dating to 13 ka and possibly that about the origins of the ‘‘Neo- ities with the Upper Paleolithic extending into the earliest Holocene. lithic’’ in Arabia. industry in the Levant. That assemblage has typo-technolog- The large number of early to mid- More classically ‘‘Epipaleolithic-like’’ ical similarities to material from the dle Holocene sites probably demon- sites have a position similar to those sites of Ras Aı¨n Noor and Dhanaqr, strates a substantial demographic of the ‘‘Upper Paleolithic.’’ The more which the discoverers suggest reflects increase, associated in particular with 122 Groucutt and Petraglia ARTICLE

remarkably poorly understood. How- ever, newly emerging information cor- relates the human and environmental stories (Fig. 2). We hypothesize that much of Arabian population is cyclical; that is, with increased precip- itation, hominin populations repeat- edly expanded into the area. They sub- sequently followed autochthonous trajectories before becoming extinct, at least until the Late Pleistocene/Hol- ocene, when adaptations to arid con- ditions developed. Given the severity of environmen- tal fluctuation, which, as Figure 2 shows, is increasingly well under- stood, it is reasonable to assume that there has not been long-term popula- tion continuity in Arabia at an evolu- tionary scale. This emphasizes the need to understand the Arabian re- cord in an interregional context. For the Lower Paleolithic it is too early Figure 7. Selected Arabian Late Paleolithic artifacts. 1) backed blade; 2) double platform to make definitive statements in this core; 3) single platform core, Faw Well, Saudi Arabia93; 4) blade; 5) blade core, Al Hatab, regard, but heidelbergensis and 92 Oman. probably played a role, as possibly did early Homo. There the Holocene wet phase (Fig. 6). A perspective.99 This may be a rather has been little focus on this phase in number of autochthonous develop- abstract dichotomy, as numerous de- recent years, as attention has focused ments can clearly be seen in Holocene mographic scenarios are possible, on modern , but there is Arabia (Fig. 8). These include the de- including both population continuity clearly great potential to elucidate velopment of new reduction strat- and population dispersals into the the Lower Paleolithic in Arabia. egies such as the ‘‘Wa’sha method’’ in area. In fact, genetic evidence seems The key development in recent Yemen11,95 and the development of now to demonstrate clearly some years has been the demonstration, other forms of points in population continuity from the ter- 96 particularly in Dhofar and at Jebel the , including ‘‘Fasad minal Pleistocene into the Holocene, 2,3 97 Faya, that Arabia contains African- points.’’ Nonlithic developments with additional dispersals from the like Middle Paleolithic assemblages 22 include the of animals Levant at 10 ka. The Neolithic in dating to MIS 5. This strongly sug- 98 and the development of seafaring. Arabia has a distinctive character gests that dispersals took place at Debate continues on whether the that reflects adaptations to the arid this , although fossil evidence Holocene occupation of Arabia environment. The use of domesti- would help to substantiate this hy- reflects population dispersal into the cated animals seems to have been of pothesis. For example, the archeolog- 63,97 area, probably from the Levant, considerably greater importance ical evidence from Dhofar suggests or was a primarily indigenous devel- than domesticated plants. Sometime population dispersal from northeast 31 opment. In terms of lithic technol- later, perhaps around the third mil- Africa by MIS 5c,3 a time when ogy, for instance, the distinctive lennium BCE, the domestication of baboons also seem to have dispersed Fasad points of southern Arabia have occurred in Arabia. Through into Arabia,57 and when paleoenvir- been seen as a derivation from Le- such adaptations to arid environ- onmental evidence demonstrates a 97 vantine early Neolithic technology ments, people were able to survive in wet phase. This shows how an inter- or as an autochthonous development extreme areas and began to tran- disciplinary perspective can elucidate from Arabian terminal Pleistocene scend the ancient correlation the Paleolithic occupation of Arabia 92 traditions. The discovery of a single between demography and environ- (Fig. 2). Further excavations are Fasad point dating to 13 ka at Al mental amelioration. needed to distinguish between differ- Hatab can be taken as supporting ent hypotheses. For instance, does 92 the latter position, but it is debata- the occupation at Jebel Faya repre- DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ble how much a single, unique exam- sent a continuous occupation of the ple of anything can show. The pres- In recent years there has been a pro- Persian Gulf area between 125 and ence of apparently closely pre-Neo- nounced acceleration in the pace of 40 ka, as the discoverers suggest,2 or lithic sites in Yemen is intriguing archeological research and discovery does it rather indicate repeated dis- and again may also support the latter in Arabia, yet the region remains persals into the area? ARTICLE Groucutt and Petraglia 123

after dispersals into the area, envi- ronmental deterioration divided pop- ulations into refugia. These include the Yemeni highlands and the Per- sian Gulf. The combination of regionalization, an arid environmen- tal setting, and small population sizes will have all played a significant role in determining the character of human adaptations. To take the lithic evidence, variability will express demographic, raw material, functional, and cultural factors. The balance between these remains to be understood. Hence, relations to sur- rounding areas and between regions within Arabia remain obscure. The key point is that advances in empiri- cal data need to be complemented by theoretical developments such as those of behavioral ecology, rather than by a simplistic or ‘‘empiricist’’ perspective that merely compares the basic morphology of lithic artifacts, for instance, while ignoring their context. To conclude, we highlight the sig- nificance of the Arabian record in casting light on the development of adaptations to extreme environ- ments. The Arabian record is, in fact, uniquely positioned to elucidate such developments, as populations dis- persed into the Arabian Peninsula from neighboring ‘‘hot spots’’ such as East Africa and were trapped by the desiccation of the routes they had originally followed. Given wide- spread public and scholarly interest in and concern about contemporary , the long-term Figure 8. Selected Arabian Early/Middle Holocene artifacts. 1) Neolithic from records of human occupations and 11 Jubbah, Saudi Arabia; 2) fluted point from Manayzah, Yemen ; 3) Fasad point from Nad environmental change in Arabia are al-Thamam, UAE97; 4) Fasad point from FAY-NE1, UAE97; 5) Wa’shah core from HDOR 538, Yemen95; 6) bifacial foliate from HDOR 538, Yemen11; 7-10) Neolithic points from Khuz- of great importance. With recent mum, Yemen11; 11) Wa’shah point from HDOR 538, Yemen.95 advances, archeologists and our col- leagues in related disciplines have begun to outline the chapters of the In general, indications of possible connections to the Levant. The mod- Arabian story. Now it is time to fill population connections to surround- ern Arabian genomic structure is in the pages. ing regions remain rather specula- dominated by lineages reflecting tive, and this is compounded by the post-LGM population movements absence of fossil evidence. We sug- from the north.22,23 These dispersing ACKNOWLEDGMENTS gest, however, that the emerging pic- populations mixed with existing pop- We thank HRH Prince bin ture suggests a general lack of con- ulations in a manner that remains to bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud, nections between Africa and Arabia be firmly understood. The Middle President of the Saudi Commission after MIS 5, the last interglacial. Paleolithic record is increasingly for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA), Instead, there are perhaps indica- demonstrating, probably in common and Professor Al-Ghabban, Vice tions that Arabia sometimes saw with other prehistoric phases, that President of SCTA, for permission to 124 Groucutt and Petraglia ARTICLE conduct research in the Kingdom of 14 Delagnes A, Brenet M, Crassard R, et al. n.d. 33 Fernandes CA, Rohling EJ, Siddall M. 2006. The Middle Paleolithic assemblage of Shi-bat Absence of post-Miocene Red Sea land bridges: Saudi Arabia. We acknowledge Abdul- Dihya 1 (Wadi Surdud site complex, Yemen). J biogeographic implications. J Biogeogr 33:961– lah Alsharekh for his unwavering sup- Hum Evol. In review. 966. port of our research, as well as Re´my 15 Parker AG. 2009. Pleistocene climate change 34 Faure H, Walter RC, Grant DR. 2002. The Crassard and Adrian Parker for dis- in Arabia: developing a framework for hominin coastal : Age springs on emerged con- dispersal over the last 350 ka. In: Petraglia MD, tinental shelves. Global Planet Change 33:47– cussions on the Arabian evidence, and Rose JI, editors. The evolution of human popula- 56. tions in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehistory James Blinkhorn for commenting on 35 Preusser F, Radies D, Matter AA. 2002. and genetics. : Springer. p 39–49. a draft of this paper. We acknowledge 160,000- record of development and 16 Rosenberg TM, Preusser F, Fleitmann D, atmospheric circulation in southern Arabia. the financial support of the Leakey et al. 2011. Humid periods in southern Arabia: Science 296:2018–2020. Foundation, the National Geographic windows of opportunity for modern human dis- persal. Geology 39:1115–1118. 36 Radies D, Preusser F, Matter A, et al. 2004. Society, and the and Humanities Eustatic and climatic controls on the develop- 17 Fleitmann D, Burns SJ, Pekala M, et al. Research Council (UK, doctoral stu- ment of the Wahiba Sea, Sultanate of 2011. Holocene and Pleistocene pluvial periods Oman. Sedimentology 51:1359–1385. dentship to H.G.). We appreciate the in Yemen, southern Arabia. Quaternary Sci Rev 30:783–787. 37 Jarvis A, Reuter HI, Nelson A, et al. 2008. constructive comments of John Flea- Hole-filled seamless SRTM data V4, Interna- gle, John Shea, Frank Preusser, and 18 Bailey GN, Flemming NC, King GCP, et al. tional Centre for Tropical (CIAT). 2007. Coastlines, submerged landscapes and Available online at http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org. three anonymous reviewers. : the Red Sea Basin and the Far- asan Islands. J Island Coastal Archeol 2:127–160. 38 Petit-Maire N, Carbonel P, Reyss JL, et al. 2010. A vast palaeolake in southern Jor- 19 Kenney D. 2011. The ‘‘works of the old men’’ (298N). Global Planet Change 72:368–373. in Arabia: remote sensing in interior Arabia. J REFERENCES Archaeol Sci 38:3185–3203. 39 Parton A, Parker AG, Farrant AR, et al. 20 Quintana-Murci L, Semino O, Bandelt, HJ, 2010. An early MIS3 wet phase at palaeolake 1 Petraglia MD, Rose JI, editors. 2009. The evo- et al. 1999. Genetic evidence of an early exit of Aqabah: preliminary interpretation of the lution of human populations in Arabia: paleo- Homo sapiens sapiens from Africa through east- multi-proxy record. Proc Sem Arabian Studies environments prehistory and genetics. Nether- ern Africa. Nat 23:437–44. 40:267–276. lands: Springer. 21 Macaulay V, Hill C, Achilli A, et al. 2005. 40 Preusser F. 2009. Chronology of the impact 2 Armitage SJ, Jasim , Marks AE, et al. 2011. Single, rapid coastal settlement of Asia revealed of Quaternary climate change on continental The southern route ‘‘out of Africa’’: evidence for by analysis of complete mitochondrial environments in the Arabian Peninsula. C R an early expansion of modern humans into Ara- genomes. Science 308:1034–1036. Geosci 341:621–632. bia. Science 331:453–456. 22 Cˇ erny´ V, Mulligan CJ, Fernandes V, et al. 41 Blechschmidt I, Matter A, Preusser F, et al. 3 Rose JI, Usik VI, Marks AE, et al. 2011. The 2011. Internal diversification of Mitochondrial 2009. Monsoon triggered formation of Quater- Nubian complex of Dhofar, Oman: an African Haplogroup R0a reveals post-Last Glacial Maxi- nary alluvial megafans in the interior of Oman. industry in southern Arabia. mum demographic expansions in . Geomorphology 110:128–139. PLoS ONE 6:e28239. Mol Biol Evol 28:71–78. 42 Anton D. 1984 Aspects of geomorphological 4 Philby HSJ. 1933. Rub’ Al Khali: an account 23 Abu-Amero K, Ali H, Gonzalez A, et al. evolution: and dunes in Saudi Arabia. of in the Great South Desert of Ara- 2009. Saudi Arabian Y-chromosome diversity In: Jado AR, Zo¨ tl JG, editors. Quaternary Period bia under the auspices and patronage of his and its relationship with nearby regions. BMC in Saudi Arabia. II. Sedimentological, hydro- Majesty ‘Abdul’Aziz ibn Sa’ud, King of the Genet 10:59. geological, hydrochemical, geomorphological, and climatological investigations of western and Nejd and its dependencies. Geogr J 24 Abu-Amero KK, Larruga JM, Cabrera VM, 81:1–21. et al. 2008. Mitochondrial DNA structure in the Saudi Arabia. Vienna: Springer Verlag. p 275– 296. 5 Caton-Thompson G, Gardner EW. 1939. Cli- Arabian Peninsula. BMC Evol Biol 8:45. mate, , and early man in the Hadhra- 25 Rı´dl J, Edens CM, Cˇ erny´ V. 2009. Mitochon- 43 Rosenberg TM, Preusser F, Blechschmidt I, maut. Geogr J 93:18–35. drial DNA structure of Yemeni population: re- et al. 2012. Late Pleistocene palaeolake in the interior of Oman: a potential key area for the 6 Petraglia MD, Alsharekh AM. 2003. The Mid- gional differences and the implications for dif- dle Palaeolithic of Arabia: implications for ferent migratory contributions. In: Petraglia dispersal of anatomically modern humans out- modern human origins, behaviour and disper- MD, Rose JI, editors. The evolution of human of-Africa? J Quaternary Sci 27:13–16. sals. Antiquity 77:671–684. populations in Arabia: paleoenvironments, pre- 44 McClure HA. 1976. Radiocarbon chronology 7 Petraglia MD. 2003. The Lower Paleolithic of history and genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p of late Quaternary lakes in the . the Arabian Peninsula: occupations, adaptations, 69–78. 263:755–756 and dispersals. J World Prehist 17:141–179. 26 Abu-Amero KK, Gonzalez AM, Larruga JM, 45 Schulz E, Whitney JW. 1986. Upper Pleisto- 8 de Maigret A. 1986. Archaeological activities in et al. 2007. Eurasian and African mitochondrial cene and Holocene lakes in the , the , 1986, East West DNA influences in the Saudi Arabian popula- Saudi Arabia. Hydrobiologia 3:175–190. 36:376–470. tion. BMC Evol Biol 7:32. 46 Immenhauser A, Dublyansky YV, Verwer K, 9 Amirkhanov H. 2006. Stone age of south Ara- 27 Richards M, Rengo C, Cruciani F, et al. et al. 2007. Textural, elemental, and isotopic bia. : Nauka. 2003. Extensive female-mediated gene flow characteristics of Pleistocene phreatic cave from sub-Saharan Africa into near eastern Arab deposits (Jabal Madar, Oman). J Res 10 Rose JI. 2006. Among : defin- populations. Am J Hum Genet 72:1058–1064. 77:68–88. ing the Paleolithic of southern Arabia. Ph.D. dissertation. Dallas:. Southern Methodist Uni- 28 Edgell HS. 2006. Arabian deserts: nature ori- 47 Clark ID, Fontes JC. 1990. Paleoclimatic versity. gin and evolution. Netherlands: Springer. reconstruction in northern Oman based on car- bonates from hyperalkaline groundwaters. Qua- 11 Crassard R. 2008. La pre´histoire du Ye´men: 29 Vincent P. 2008. Saudi Arabia: an environ- ternary Res 33:320–336. diffusions et diversite´s locales a` travers l’e´tude mental overview. London: Taylor and Francis. d’industries lithiques du Hadramawt. BAR, 30 Waldmann N, Torfstein A, Stein M. 2010. 48 Radies D, Hasiotis ST, Preusser F, et al. 1842. Oxford: Archaeopress. Northward intrusions of low- and mid-latitude 2005. Paleoclimatic significance of Early Holo- 12 Delagnes A, Macchiarelli R, Jaubert J. 2008. storms across the Saharo-Arabian belt during cene faunal assemblages in wet interdune Middle Paleolithic settlement in Arabia: first past . Geology 38:567–570. deposits of the Wahiba Sand Sea, Sultanate of evidence from a complex of stratified archaeo- 31 Rose JI. 2010. New light on human prehis- Oman. J Arid Environ 62:109–125. logical sites in western Yemen. Presented at the tory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis. Curr 49 Neff U, Burns SJ, Mangini A, et al. 2001. Annual Meeting of the Palaeoanthropology, Anthropol 51:849–883. Strong coherence between solar variability and Vancouver. 32 Bailey G. 2009. The Red Sea, coastal land- the monsoon in Oman between 9 and 6 kyr 13 Petraglia MD, Alsharekh AM, Crassard R, scapes, and hominin dispersals. In: Petraglia ago. Nature 411:290–293. et al. 2011. Middle Paleolithic occupation on a MD, Rose JI, editors. The evolution of human 50 Fleitmann D, Burns SJ, Mudelsee M, et al. Marine Stage 5 lakeshore in the Nefud populations in Arabia: paleoenvironments, pre- 2003. Holocene forcing of the Indian monsoon Desert, Saudi Arabia. Quaternary Sci Rev history and genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p recorded in a stalagmite from southern Oman. 30:1555–1559. 15–138. Science 300:1737–1739. ARTICLE Groucutt and Petraglia 125

51 Parker AG, Preston G, Walkington H, et al. 69 Whalen N, Davis P, Pease D. 1989. Early 86 Inizan ML, Ortlieb L. 1987. Pre´histoire dans 2006. Developing a framework of Holocene cli- Pleistocene migrations into Saudi Arabia. Atlal la re´gion de au Yemen du Sud (R.D.P. matic change and landscape archaeology for 12:59–75. Yemen). Pale´ 13:5–22. southeastern Arabia. Arab Archaeol Epigr 70 Whalen N, Zoboroski M, Schubert K. 2002. 87 McBrearty S. 1999. Earliest stone tools from 17:125–130. The Lower Palaeolithic in southwestern Oman. the of , United Arab Emi- 52 Engel M, Bru¨ ckner H, Pint A, et al. n.d. The Adumatu 5:27–34. rates. In: Whybrow PJ, Hill A, editors. Fossil early Holocene humid period in NW Saudi Ara- 71 Jagher R. 2009. The Central Oman Paleo- of Arabia. New Haven: Yale Univer- bia: sediments, and palaeo-hydro- lithic Survey: recent research in southern Ara- sity Press. p 373–388. logical modelling. Quatern Int. In press. bia and reflection on the prehistoric evidence. 88 Rose JI, Petraglia MD. 2009. Tracking the 53 Arz HW, Lamy F, Patzold J. 2006. A pro- In: Petraglia MD, Rose JI, editors. The evolu- origin and evolution of human populations in nounced dry event recorded around 4.2 ka in tion of human populations in Arabia: paleoen- Arabia. In: Petraglia MD, Rose JI, editors. The brine sediments from the northern Red Sea. vironments, prehistory and genetics. Nether- Quaternary Res 66:432–441. evolution of human populations in Arabia: pale- lands: Springer. p 139–150. oenvironments, prehistory and genetics. Nether- 54 McLaren SJ, Al-Juaidi F, Bateman MD, et al. 72 Lahr MM. 2010. Saharan corridors and their lands: Springer. p 1–12. 2009. First evidence for episodic flooding events role in the evolutionary geography of ‘‘Out of in the arid interior of central Saudi Arabia over 89 Petraglia MD. 2011. Trailblazers across Ara- Africa 1.’’ In: Fleagle JJ, Shea JJ, Grine FE, bia. Nature 470:50–51. the last 60 ka. J Quaternary Sci 24:198–207. Baden AL, Leakey RE, editors. Out of Africa 1: 55 Goudie AS, Colls A, Stokes S, et al. 2000. Latest the first hominin colonization of Eurasia. New 90 Garrard A, Harvey CPD, Switsur VR. 1981. Pleistocene and Holocene dune construction at York: Springer. p 27–46. Environment and settlement during the Upper the north-eastern edge of the Rub Al Khali, United Pleistocene and Holocene at Jubba in the 73 Zarins J, Whalen N, Ibrahim M, et al. Arab Emirates. Sedimentology 47:1011–1021. Great Nefud, Northern Arabia. Atlal 5:137– 1980. Comprehensive archaeological survey 148. 56 Ivanochko TS, Ganeshram RS, Brummer GJA, program: preliminary report on the central et al. 2005. Variations in tropical convection as an and southwestern provinces survey, 1979 Atlal 91 Maher LA. 2009. The Late Pleistocene of amplifier of global climate change at the millen- 4:9–36. Arabia in relation to the Levant. In: Petraglia MD, nial scale. Earth Planet Sci Lett 235:302–314. 74 Whalen N, Sindhi H, Wahida G, et al. 1983. Rose JI, editors. The evolution of human popula- 57 Fernandes CA. 2009. Bayesian coalescent infer- Excavation of Acheulean sites near Saffaqah in tions in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehistory ence from mitochondrial DNA variation of the col- and genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p 187–202. onization time of Arabia by the hamadryas ba- al-Dawadami (1402/1982). Atlal 7:9–21. 92 Rose JI, Usik VI. 2009. The ‘‘Upper Paleo- boon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas). In: Petraglia 75 Whalen N, Siraj- Ali J, Davies W. 1984. MD, Rose JI, editors. The evolution of human pop- Excavations of Acheulean sites near Saffaqah, lithic’’ of south Arabia. In: Petraglia MD, Rose ulations in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehistory Saudi Arabia. Atlal 8:43–58. JI, editors. The evolution of human populations and genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p 89–102. in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehistory and 76 Petraglia MD, Drake N, Alsharekh A. 2009. genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p 169–185. 58 Winney BJ, Hammond RL, Macasero W, Acheulean landscapes and large cutting tool et al. 2004. : phylogeogra- assemblages in the Arabian Peninsula. In: Pet- 93 Edens CA. 2001. A bladelet industry in phy of the , Papio hamadryas raglia MD, Rose JI, editors. The evolution of southwestern Saudi Arabia. Arab Archaeol hamadryas. Mol Ecol 13:2819–2827. human populations in Arabia: paleoenviron- Epigr 12:137–142 59 Whybrow PJ, Hill A, editors. 1999. Fossil verte- ments, prehistory and genetics. Netherlands: 94 Adams RM, Parr PJ, Ibrahim M, et al. 1977. brates of Arabia. New Haven: Yale University Press. Springer. p 103–116. Saudi Arabian archaeological reconnaissance, 60 Thomas H, Geraads D, Janjou D, et al. 1998. 77 Whalen N, Killick A, James N, et al. 1981. 1976: preliminary report on the first phase of First Pleistocene faunas from the Arabian Pen- Saudi Arabian archaeological reconnaissance the comprehensive archaeological survey pro- insula: An Nafud Desert, Saudi Arabia. CR Acad 1980: preliminary report on the western prov- gram. Atlal 1:21–40. Sci IIA 326:145–152. ince survey. Atlal 5:43–58. 95 Crassard R. 2008. The ‘‘Wa’shah method’’: 61 O’Regan HJ, Turner A, Bishop LC, et al. 78 Whalen N, Siraj-Ali J, Sindhi H, et al. 1988. An original laminar debitage from Hadra- 2011. Hominins without fellow travellers? First A complex of sites in the Jeddah-Wadi Fatima mawt, Yemen. Proc Sem Arabian Studies appearances and inferred dispersals of Afro- Area. Atlal 11:77–87. 38:3–14. Eurasian large-mammals in the Plio-Pleisto- 79 Shipton C, Petraglia MD. 2010 Inter-conti- 96 Charpentier V, Inizan ML. 2002. Fluting in cene. Quaternary Sci Rev 30:1343–1352. nental variation in Acheulean bifaces. In: Nor- the : the Neolithic projectile points of 62 McClure HA. 1984. Late Quaternary paleo- ton C, Braun R, editors. Asian palaeoanthropol- Arabia. Lithic Tech 27:39–46. environments of the Rub al Khali. Ph.D. disser- ogy. London: Springer. p 49–56. 97 Uerpmann HP, Potts DT, Uerpmann M. tation. London: University College London. 80 Rose JI. 2004. The question of Upper Pleis- 2009. Holocene (re-)occupation of eastern 63 Drechsler P. 2009. The dispersal of the Neo- tocene connections between East Africa and Arabia. In: Petraglia MD, Rose JI, editors. The lithic over the Arabian Peninsula. BAR 1969. South Arabia. Curr Anthropol 45:551–555. evolution of human populations in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehistory and genetics. Oxford: Archaeopress. 81 Crassard R. 2009. The Middle Paleolithic of Netherlands: Springer. p 205–214. 64 Parr PJ, Zarins J, Ibrahim M, et al. 1978. Pre- Arabia: the view from the Hadramawt region, liminary report on the second phase of the North- Yemen. In: Petraglia MD, Rose JI, editors. The 98 Boivin N, Blench R, Fuller DQ. 2009. ern Province survey 1397/1977. Atlal 2:29–30. evolution of human populations in Arabia: pale- Archaeological, linguistic and historical sources 65 Zarins J, Murad AJ, Al-Yish KS. 1981. The oenvironments, prehistory and genetics. Nether- on ancient seafaring: a multidisciplinary approach comprehensive archaeological survey program. lands: Springer. p 151–168. to the study of early maritime contact and exchange in the Arabian Peninsula. In: Petraglia The second preliminary report on the south- 82 Whalen N, Schatte K. 1997. Pleistocene sites MD, Rose JI, editors. The evolution of human pop- western province. Atlal 5:9–42. in southern Yemen. Arab Archaeol Epigr 8:1–10. ulations in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehistory 66 Whalen N, Ali J, Sindhi H, et al. 1986. A 83 McClure HA. 1994. A new Arabian and genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p 251–278. Lower Pleistocene site near Shuwayhitiyah in assemblage and notes on the Aterian industry 99 Fedele FG. 2009. Early Holocene in the northern Saudi Arabia. Atlal 10:94–101. of North Africa. Arab Archaeol Epigr 5:1–16. highlands: data on the peopling of the East- 67 Chauhan PR. 2009. Early Homo occupation 84 Scerri E. n.d. The Aterian in Arabia: a re- ern Yemen plateau, with a note on the near the Gate of Tears: examining the paleoanthro- analysis of the evidence. Proc Sem Arabian Pleistocene evidence. In: Petraglia MD, Rose pological records of and Yemen. In: Hovers Studies. In press. JI, editors. The evolution of human popula- E, Braun DR, editors. Interdisciplinary approaches 85 Macchiarelli R. 2008. From Africa to Asia tions in Arabia: paleoenvironments, prehis- to the Oldowan. Netherlands: Springer. p 49–59. through Arabia: models, predictions and wit- tory and genetics. Netherlands: Springer. p 68 Amirkhanov H. 2008. Cave al-Guza the multi- nesses of first phases of human settlement. Pre- 215–236. layer site of Oldowan in South Arabia. Moscow: sented at the Conference on the First Great TAUS. Migrations of Peoples, UNESCO, Paris. VC 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.