288b  Morphology studies the structure or forms of , by decomposing words in to smaller units called .  Words are units of expression intuitively Morphology 1 recognizable by native speakers, e.g.

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Words Words dog dogs  words are the building blocks of dogged doggedly phrases and sentences dog-food *dog-foods  but each contains one or more dog-food box dog-food boxes elements called morphemes

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Morphemes Morphemes

 morphemes are the smallest units of 1 book play sad board that can be associated with meaning or grammatical function 2 books played sadness blackboard morphemes

3 bookstores activate morphemes

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1 Morphemes Words

 simple words contain only one  Recognizing words: how do we know morpheme what constitutes a word?  complex words contain more than one  provide several clues to morpheme word-hood

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A. Stress patterns B.

1. black `board = 2 words ( +  in English, inflection cannot be ) = a phrase inserted inside a word 2. `black board = 1 word (1 noun)  e.g. bookcase (1 word) + inflection = a {s}  the phrase means ‘a board that is – inside the word: *bookscase black’ – outside the word: bookcases  the compound means ‘a type of board on which one writes’

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C. Use of modifiers Other tests

 e.g. adverb very modifies ,  stand alone not – What are the students doing? Listening. – a very black board = adjective + noun – What are the students doing? *Ing. – *a very black board = 1 noun (a  movement compound) – Are the students listening? – *Ing the students are listen?

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2 Roots vs. Roots vs. Affixes

 Roots:  affixes (e.g. , , ): – every word contains at least one – affixes modify the meaning of the root or morpheme; e.g. book (1 root), books (1 add meaning to it root + 1 ), bookstores (2 roots + 1 affix) a) cat (1 cat) cats (more than 1 cat): add – the root expresses the fundamental meaning of the word b) happy () unhappy (not happy): modify – the root usually belongs to a lexical category (Noun, Verb, Adjective or • affixes do not belong to lexical categories Preposition)

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Affixes Infixes

 Three types of affixes:  Infixation is generally not a property of 1. (before a root): redo, unhappy European languages (e.g. English, French, Spanish). However, it is 2. (after a root): cats, happiness commonly found in Asian, American 3. (within a root): Indian and African languages Tagalog: gulay ‘greenish vegetables’  NB: hopefulness has two suffixes, not ginulay ‘greenish blue’ an infix plus a suffix

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Derivational and inflectional Derivational and inflectional affixes affixes

 derivational affixes: usually modify the  inflectional affixes: add meaning and meaning and usually change the do not change the category of the category of the original roots - e.g. original root (tense, number, aspect, unhappy, socialize etc.) - e.g. played, socializes  NB: All English prefixes are derivational even though they do not change the lexical category.

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3 Affix vs. word Affix vs. word

 Concepts that are expressed by certain  Past in English: an affix (e.g. ‘-ed’) affixes in English do not necessarily have the  Past in Mandarin Chinese: a free word same status in other languages: (i.e. le) Mandarin Chinese: Ta chi fan le (Also: Ta chi le fan) he eat meal past ‘He ate the meal.’

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Free vs. bound morphemes Bound morphemes

 Free morphemes: can occur as 1. Affixes (i.e. prefixes, suffixes and infixes) independent words. E.g. house, play, 2. Bound roots (even though they express happy. the fundamental meaning of the word, their “free” status is lost). E.g. inept  Bound morphemes: cannot occur as 3. : morphemes with word-like independent words and must be properties (e.g. belonging to a lexical attached (i.e. bound) to a base. E.g. category) but must be attached to another houses, played, unhappy. word.

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Clitics Bound roots

 English: Mary’s sick.  In many languages, roots referring to  French: je le vois body parts, family members and I him see ‘I see him.’ intimate possessions are bound.

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4 Ojibwa Root vs. base ni-doon ‘my mouth’ ni-gwis ‘my son’  Root: the smallest form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total gi-doon ‘your mouth’ gi-gwis ‘your son’ loss of identity (e.g. ‘man’ - ‘-an’?). It is also that part of the word left when all o-doon ‘his/her mouth’ o-gwis ‘his/her son’ the affixes are removed.

*doon ‘mouth’ *gwis ‘son’

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Root vs. base Root vs. base

 Base: the form to which an affix is  In ‘bookstores’, the word contains the attached. In ‘unkind’, the base is ‘kind’; roots ‘book’ and ‘store’, which form the the base may also be the root. In base ‘bookstore’, to which the ‘unhappiness’, the affix ‘ness’ is inflectional morpheme ‘-s’ is attached. attached to ‘unhappy’; the base is a Note that the form ‘bookstore’ is also a combination of a root and an affix. stem. The base to which an inflectional affix is attached is sometimes called a stem.

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Morpheme identification Quick homework

 Similarity in form is not sufficient Morpheme identification – teach-er vs. bigg-er 1. For each of the following words,  Similarity in meaning is not sufficient identify the number of morphemes. • eraser – pur-ity vs. kind-ness • invalid (Adj) Similarity in both form and meaning ⇒ • Jack’s is required. • denationalize • optionality

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5 Quick homework Brazilian Portuguese

2. Examine the following Brazilian ãdu I walk kãtu I sing Portuguese (BP) data, given in phonetic transcription. Try to identify ãdamu we walk kãtamu we sing all the morphemes in the data, and state the meaning or function of each. gu I play falu I speak

gamu we play falamu we speak

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Brazilian Portuguese Brazilian Portuguese

A. What are the BP morphemes for: B. What is the BP morpheme for the first • walk person singular (i.e. ‘I’)? • play • sing C. What is the BP morpheme for the first • speak person plural (i.e. ‘we’)?

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