Impact of Rapid Tourism Growth on Water Scarcity in ,

Eva Mia Siska Yamamoto a,*, Takahiro Sayama a, Kaoru Takara b

a Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; Gokasho, Uji 611-0011, Japan *E-mail: [email protected]

b Graduate School of Advanced Integrated Studies in Human Survivability; 1 Nakaadachi-cho, Yoshida, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8306, Japan

Received 30 May 2021 Accepted 28 June 2021 Published 30 June 2021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.51264/inajl.v2i1.14 Abstract Despite Bali’s dependency on tourism, concerns over the impact of tourism on water scarcity are increasing. The objective of this study is to analyze the clean water demand related to tourism growth and compare them with the available clean water supply. This study suggested that tourism water demand has increased by 20.8 million m3 (295%) from 1988 to 2013. Sixty-eight percent of the increase was concentrated in , where the tourism water demand ratio has increased from 31% to 46%. The study also suggested that rapid population growth has caused an increase in domestic water demand by 48.3 million m3 (48%). This study also shows that the capacity of clean water supply in Bali has increased significantly to meet these demands and the water supply coverage of domestic water demand has increased significantly from 13% in 1988 to 53% in 2013. The water supply coverage of tourism demand varies from year to year with an average of 28% in the study period. The increasing issues over water scarcity despite the improvement in the coverage of domestic water demand suggest further investigations. Yet, despite the large gap between supply and demand in the tourism sector the industry still can have undisrupted clean water throughout the year. This indicates the use of alternative clean water which can be obtained locally such as groundwater. Wise water management through the sharing of scientific data, including in the tourism sector is imperative in solving water scarcity in Bali.

Keywords: Badung Regency, clean water demand, water scarcity

INTRODUCTION According to a report by the World Travel and Tourism Council (2016a), tourism is a rapidly Rapid development and growth have growing sector, and has outpaced growth in the predominantly positive impacts on people’s lives. wider global economy since 2009. The Southeast However, these also challenge society to better Asia region, in particular, has experienced the manage its resources in order to fulfill the needs of strongest growth in tourism, reaching 7.9% per current and future generations. Freshwater is year in 2015. In poorer countries, tourism is seen essential to sustaining life and ecosystems, and to as an opportunity for economic development many production activities, such as agriculture, opportunity because it is a labor-intensive industry tourism, and industry. The ability to manage that does not require many specialized skills freshwater resources in balance with development (Gössling et al., 2015). is necessary for sustainable growth (Grey & Sadoff, 2007).

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Tourism is well known for its over-use of by focusing on Bali as an example, this study freshwater, as well as being highly dependent on examines how a rapid increase in tourism demand freshwater resources. In order to maintain their and limitations in terms of the water infrastructure, contributions to local economies, tourism policies, and management lead to water scarcity industries need water for accommodation, gardens, for the local population and environmental swimming pools, spas, golf courses, snowmaking, degradation. and so on. However, tourism is often overlooked Study Area as a salient sector in global discussions, because water use in agriculture dwarfs that of tourism Located south of the equator, Bali Province is (Gössling et al., 2012). part of Indonesia and consists of two islands, Bali Island and Island, with a total area of Bali is an island in a developing country 5,634 km2 (Figure 1). (Indonesia) with high tourism growth. Therefore,

114°30'E 115°0'E 115°30'E

8°0'S

Buleleng Bangli Jembrana Karang Tabanan Asem 8°30'S

Elevation (m.a.s.l) Gianyar Klungkung Badung High : 3013

Low : -19 ± 0 12.5 25 km

Figure 1. Map of Bali with its regencies and city Administratively, the province consists of facilities, including accommodation, restaurants, eight regencies (Jembrana, Buleleng, Tabanan, spas, golf courses, and other tourist attractions, Badung, Gianyar, Klungkung, Bangli, and concentrated mainly in the south part of Bali Karangasem) and one city (Denpasar). With the Island. The period between 1983 and 2013 implementation of the decentralization laws in included the development of an additional 42,041 2001, the regencies/cities became autonomous, hotel rooms and an increase of 1.2 million tourist and now play an important role in the quality of visits per year (BPS Provinsi Bali (Statistics of public services, such as providing a clean water Bali Province), 1983, 2014). The industry has supply. provided 481,000 direct jobs, making up 25% of the workforce in Bali (BPS Provinsi Bali The Balinese were traditionally an agrarian (Statistics of Bali Province), 2009). society, with their economy supported mainly by agriculture (43.5% in 1987) (BPS Provinsi Bali Water resources, infrastructure, and policy (Statistics of Bali Province), 1994). However, the With varied rainfall, from below 1,500 mm tourism industry rapidly took over the economy, along the coastal zone to more than 3,000 mm in contributing 30.6% of the regional gross domestic the mountainous areas, the total freshwater product (RGDP) in 1994 (BPS Provinsi Bali resources potential in Bali Province amounts to (Statistics of Bali Province), 1994). Owing to the 6,587 million m3/year, of which 94% is surface popularity of its tourism industry, Bali’s RGDP water and 6% is groundwater. The freshwater is increased almost tenfold in 16 years (1997–2013) unevenly distributed across the island. The (BPS Provinsi Bali (Statistics of Bali Province), Buleleng and Tabanan Regencies contain 43% of 2000, 2014). Such rapid growth in the economy these resources, while Denpasar City and the involved massive development of tourism ©MLI 2021 2

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Klungkung Regency (including Nusa Penida achieve this objective, we perform the following Island) have only 6% of the total water resources steps: (JICA, Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd., & Nippon (1) Calculate the tourism water demand (inter- Koei Co. Ltd., 2006). annual, spatial, and seasonal) Traditionally, most Balinese would take clean (2) Calculate the domestic water demand (inter- water from shallow wells or springs and go to the annual and spatial) river to bathe and wash their clothes. Today, only (3) Compare the water supply and demand some people in the villages still use the river for before and after the rapid growth in tourism. bathing or washing. However, they are still highly This study reviews the overall water resources dependent on shallow wells for clean water as an condition in Bali, the significance of rapid tourism alternative water supply to the piped water (Cole, development and its demand, both in spatial- 2012). Clean water is supplied by nine PDAM (the temporal perspectives, in causing water scarcity regional drinking water company), which are among the local population, and what solutions owned and operated exclusively by the should be taken to address this issue strategically. regency/city government (JICA et al., 2006). Water scarcity METHODS Although the tourism industry has made a In order to understand the impact of the rapid significant contribution to the betterment of growth in tourism on the water scarcity in Bali, we livelihoods in Bali, increasing numbers of reports first compare the water supply and demand in the are blaming the industry for the water crisis and past (before the development of tourism) with the conflicts among water users in Bali (Cole, 2012; situation as it is now (after the development of Mulyadi, 2011; Suriyani, 2015; Tarigan et al., tourism). Before collecting data, we determined 2014; Trisnawati, 2012; Widiadana, 2012; when tourism began to develop so rapidly by Widyaswara, 2015). Local populations living in examining the increase in tourist visits using the vicinity of tourist areas have complained about secondary data from ‘Bali Dalam Angka’ (Bali in difficulties in accessing clean water on a daily Figures) periodicals, published by the Badan Pusat basis. The piped water, as the main clean water Statistik (BPS) Provinsi Bali (Statistics of Bali source of the community does not flow during Province). Periodicals collected are from the year certain hours of the day, or does not have 1979 to 2016, the years of 1981, 1984, 1991, and sufficient pressure (PDAM Badung, 2014; PDAM 1992 missing. Tirta Mangutama Kabupaten Badung, 2017). The After defining the period of rapid growth in alternative clean water source, mostly shallow tourism, secondary data were used from official wells, have become dry or, in some cases, salty publications to calculate the water supply and (Cole, 2012; Muhajir, 2015; Widyaswara, 2015). demand. Most of these publications are provided The uncontrolled and rapid growth of tourism is by the BPS Provinsi Bali. Some of the secondary blamed as the main cause of the water crisis in Bali. data are not available on a monthly basis or at the Concerns over the future water crisis in Bali regency/city level. In this section, we also explain were addressed as a negative impact of the rapid methods and assumptions used to fill in the gaps. growth in tourism. The media portrayal of the Calculation of tourism water demand water crisis in Bali may influence the popularity of Bali as a tourism destination, which will limit The calculation of tourism water demand uses: future economic growth. It is therefore important to clarify the increase in clean water demand in (1) the number of rooms available, based on Bali and to address the issues strategically. accommodation classification, (2) room occupancy rates, based on This study quantifies clean water demand and accommodation classification. compares it with the water supply for the local population surrounding the tourism industries. It These data were obtained through surveys aims to better understand the problems conducted by Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia underpinning the water scarcity in Bali. In order to (Statistics Indonesia) using the VHT-S ©MLI 2021 3

Yamamoto et al. / Indonesian Journal of Limnology 2021, 2 (1): 1 -16 questionnaire (monthly basis) and the VHT-L The calculation results are 2,808 figures (312 questionnaire (annual basis) (BPS Provinsi Bali, months in 9 regency/cities) thus calculated forms 2017). the base calculation for the inter-annual, spatial, and seasonal tourism water demand. Tourism water demand is calculated based on hotel/accommodation classifications because the We calculated the monthly and yearly/inter- consumption of water increases with the size of annual TWD at regency/city level (spatial water the hotel/accommodation (Gössling, 2001; JICA demand) and at the provincial level (inter-annual et al., 2006; Wiranatha, 2001). Furthermore, to water demand). The monthly TWD is used to understand the distribution of water demand calculate the seasonal water demand described according to spatial and temporal bases, we below. calculate the monthly tourism water demand for Calculation of seasonal water demand each regency. The demand for water is based on the number of occupied rooms in tourists’ The seasonal water demand is calculated to see accommodations were calculated using the whether there is a significant difference in touristic following equation. water demand between high touristic and low 푇푊퐷(푚, 푐, 푟) = 푂푅(푚, 푐) × 푁퐻푅(푚, 푐, 푟) × touristic seasons at both provincial and 푅푊퐷(푐) (1) regency/city levels. We also wish to understand whether the magnitude of difference has changed where TWD denotes tourism water demand, OR is over time, i.e. in the early years of tourism the occupancy rate, NHR is the number of hotel development and in the recent years. For this rooms, RWD is the water demand per room, m purpose, we calculate the average monthly denotes the month, c is the classification, and r is tourism water demand for the first ten years (1988- the regency. 1997) and in the last ten years (2004-2013) for The result is the amount of water used by each month (January to December). Therefore, we tourist accommodations from January 1988 to know the average value of tourism water of every December 2013. Note that the monthly OR data regency/city for twelve months in a year for two sets are only available at the provincial level and periods of tourism development. To calculate the not for each regency. Thus, we assume that the seasonal tourism water demand for the whole Bali occupancy rate at a particular month for all Province, we add up the value of all regencies. regencies is the same. Then, RWD is a constant Calculation of domestic water demand representing the amount of water required for each occupied room, based on their accommodation Although the focus of this study is the impact classification. As described earlier, these of rapid tourism growth on the water situation in constants were obtained based on previously Bali, in order to understand its significance and its published research on Bali. We compared research share in domestic water supply, we also calculate carried out by Wiranatha (2001) and JICA et al. water demand required by the local population (2006) to define the RWD. Although the constants (domestic water demand). provided in both studies were quite similar, we The Bali Province Statistical Agency provides ultimately selected the constants based on three types of population data sets: the population Wiranatha (2001) because the constants are census (conducted by the central government available for 3 categories (Non-classified (NC) every 10 years), the intercensal population survey accommodations, 1-3 stars hotels, and 4-5 stars (conducted by the central government every five hotels) while JICA et al. (2006) provided years), and civil registration (obtained from constants only for 2 categories (Non-classified and administrative records of village authorities for classified accommodations). The constants based each year). However, there are some discrepancies on Wiranatha (2001) are as follows: between the data sets of the central government (1) 4–5-star hotel = 1,424 m3/room/year and those obtained from the civil registration at the village level. This study views the data sets 3 (2) 1–3-star hotel = 949 m /room/year provided by the central government (i.e. the (3) Non-classified hotel = 548 m3/room/year. population census and intercensal population survey) as reliable. However, they are available ©MLI 2021 4

Yamamoto et al. / Indonesian Journal of Limnology 2021, 2 (1): 1 -16 only in five-year increments, while we require social/public, government institutions, and others. yearly data. Thus, to estimate the yearly The clean water supply datasets for Bali Province population we interpolated the five-year records for each category are available from 1988 to 2013, into yearly records using trends identified from the while at regency/city level are only available for civil registration data sets. the year 1988, 2011, 2012, and 2013. We calculate the annual domestic water The total water supply in this study refers to the demand per regency from 1988 to 2013 using the amount of water supplied to all categories of following equation: customers. The tourism water supply refers to the amount of water supplied to “tourism object and ( ) ( ) 퐷푊퐷 푦, 푟 = 푃 푦, 푟 × 푊퐷퐶 (2) hotel” category and domestic water supply refers where DWD is domestic water demand, P is the to the amount of water supplied to “households” population, WDC is water demand per capita, y is category. year, and r is regency. These primary data were This study compares calculated demand obtained through surveys conducted by Badan explained above i.e. inter-annual Pusat Statistik using the VHT-S questionnaire tourism/domestic water demand and spatial (monthly) and the VHT-L questionnaire tourism/domestic water demand. The comparison (annually) (BPS Provinsi Bali, 2017). was carried out at the provincial level and The value of DWD is calculated on a yearly regency/city level for year 1988 to 2013. In basis (y) per regency (r) in Bali Province. addition, the study compares the total domestic- tourism water demand with total water supply, Water demand per capita is a constant, used to domestic water demand with domestic water define the amount of water required per person. supply and tourism water demand with tourism The calculation uses values provided by Standar water supply. Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian National Standard) for domestic water use, which is 100 RESULTS liters per capita per day (for areas with fewer than 1 million people) (BSN, 2002). Similar to TWD, we also calculated the inter- annual water demand for regency/city level and for provincial level. However, since we do not consider the change in water use per capita due to seasonal changes, we do not calculate the seasonal water demand for DWD. Clean water supply data sets As mentioned in the study context, clean water Figure 2. A rapid increase in tourism in Bali is supplied by the Regional Water Supply development (BPS Provinsi Bali Company (PDAM). Each sub-provincial level (Statistics of Bali Province), 1979- (regencies or city) established its own water 2016). supply company and built the infrastructure. The Figure 2 shows the number of foreign tourist capacity of water supply infrastructures was based visits to Bali. Based on Figure 2, we determined on the varying demand and financial strength of that the rapid development of tourism in Bali each regency or city. began in 1988. Therefore, this year is the base year Datasets used in this study is the amount of we use to compare the current situation to that water which were supplied to the customers by before the rapid growth of tourism. water supply companies. These datasets were Inter-annual water supply and demand in Bali obtained from Bali dalam Angka periodicals. These customers are categorized as trade company, The inter-annual tourism and domestic water households, tourist object and hotel (from year demand are showed in Figure 3. It shows that 2011, this category was renamed as “industry”), tourism water demand increased from 7.0 million

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Yamamoto et al. / Indonesian Journal of Limnology 2021, 2 (1): 1 -16 m3 in 1988 to 27.8 million m3 in 2013 (295% from 1990 to 2001 and decreased by 40% in 2002 increase), with an annual average increase of 0.8 due to Bali Bombing in October 2002. The million m3 (8.1% average increase every year). On demand further decreased in 2003 by 52%. On the the other hand, domestic water demand increased other hand, the domestic water demand increased from 99.7 million m3 in 1988 to 148.0 million m3 constantly from 1988 to 2013. in 2013 (48% increase), with an annual average increase of 2.1 million m3 (1.8% average increase every year). Thus, the demands of these two sectors increased from 106.7 million m3 to 175.8 million m3, at an average of 3 million m3 per year. Of the increase of 69.1 million m3 of water demand in 26 years, 30% resulted from tourism and 70% resulted from domestic water use. Figure 3 also shows that at the provincial level, Figure 4. Water supply and demand for tourism the domestic water demand is much larger than the and domestic in Bali (in m3) tourism water demand, even after the rapid growth The water supply for tourism varied throughout of tourism. This fact suggests that in general, the the years from 0.58 million m3 (in 1993) to 11.33 larger portion