The Story of Drinking Water
The Story of Drinking Water
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Table of Contents
The Story of Drinking Water 1. Water During Ancient Times………………….………….………….3 2. Water Throughout the Earth……………………….……..……...4
All Things Need Water 3. Human Body and Water………………………………..………………..7 4. Water in Food……………………………………………………………..8, 9 5. Water Uses in the Community (WKST) ………………………..10
Characteristics of Water 6. Water Molecule ……………………………………………………………..11 Other Properties of Water 7. Water’s Three Forms…………………………….…..12 8. Surface Tension of Water ………………….13, 14 9. Water pH………………………………………………….5, 16
Water on Earth 10. Salt of the Earth……………………………………….…………..…….17 11. Fresh Water Uses………………………………….…………….……...18 12. Groundwater and Contaminants………….…..……...…………19 Karst……………………………………………………………………....20, 21
Water and Ecosystems 13. Water’s Journey……………………………………………….…………22 14. Canadian Moose Populations…………………………..…………23 Moose Population Decline MN, Ontario…..…………..24 A Deepening Mystery……………………….………………25, 26
The Hydrologic Cycle 15. Water Cycle Words……………………………………………………28
Water and Weather 17. Extreme Weather………………………………………..……...29, 30 18. Reading a Weather Map………………………….…………31 - 37 19. Low-Pressure Clouds………………………………….………………40
Drinking Water Supply 20. Water Sources…………………………………………………..41 - 44 What is Water Pollution?...... 45 - 48 21. Water Transmission………………………………………….49 - 51 22. Groundwater and Land Subsidence……………....52, 53 23. Soil and Water Do Mix!...... 54 - 56
Drinking Water Treatment 24. Water Purification…………………………………..………….57, 58 25. Parts Per Million………………………………………………...……….59 Types of Drinking Water Contaminants……...….60, 61 Flint MI Water Crisis Fast Facts………………….62 - 66 26. Waterborne Diseases…………………………………...…..67 - 69 27. Water Still……………………………………………………………………70
Water Distribution 28. Water’s Way…………………………………………………………………71 29. Water Pressure……………………………………………………………72
Cost and Conservation 30. Water Works……………………………………………………………….73 31. Water Economics……………………………………………….………..74 32. Save the Water…………………………………………………………..75 33. The Value of Water…………………………………….……………..76
Appendix A. Organisms Found in Raw Water……………………………………..78 - 83 B. Water Treatment Around the World……………………………………..84 C. EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations…....85 - 87 D. CDC Water Borne Pathogens……………………………………………88 - 90
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1. Water During Ancient Times
The story of water begins thousands of years ago in prehistoric times. Even then people built their homes on lakeshores or along rivers so they had water to drink and wash in, and so they could travel easily from place to place. These waterways contained some contamination, but the water was probably cleaner because pollutants produced by industrialization and population growth had not yet affected water sources.
The ancient Asians were the first to record methods for purifying water. In about 2000 B.C., the Asians kept water in copper vessels, exposing it to sunlight, and filtering it through charcoal. Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived from 460-354 B.C., wrote about how to purify water. After boiling rain water, he made a "Hippocrates' sleeve," a cloth bag for straining the rain water. Egyptian records dating to 400 A.D. indicate that the most common ways of cleaning water were boiling it over a fire, heating it in the sun, or dipping a heated piece of iron into it. Filtering boiling water through sand and gravel and allowing it to cool was another common treatment method.
Other ancient people, including the Anasazi in North America, the Mayans in Central America, the Inca of South America, and the Romans in Europe, developed clever ways to capture and transport clean water to their communities. Through diversion dams and aqueducts, people found ways to ensure that they had adequate supplies of water for washing, drinking, and growing food (Staggs, 2011).
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2. Water Throughout the Earth
Most major North American cities, such as New Your, Chicago, Baltimore, Detroit, Ottawa, New Orleans, and Quebec City, were established on the banks of rivers or bays. This is because the major method of transportation in the 1700’s and 1800’s was by ship and boat.
As larger cities outgrew their local water sources, they began to create elaborate systems (such as canals, reservoirs, and aqueducts to store and move water from areas where there was more water to their cities and towns. The city of Los Angeles, for instance, built a 450-mile (724 km) canal to capture water from the mountains near Sacramento and bring it south to the city(Staggs, 2011).
Solve the Problem On the map of North American, identify the major rivers and lakes with a blue pencil. Add the names of the rivers. Locate the major cities of North America with a red X and name of city. How many cities are located near a major body of fresh water or a river? For those cities not located near fresh water, what are the city’s water sources? (Staggs, 2011)
NOTE: Consider ALL Information in this booklet a DIRECT QUOTE from indicated source. Page 4 of 92 NOTE : The Story of Drinking Water Name: ______Pd: _____ Solve the Problem On the map of North American, identify the major rivers and lakes with a blue pencil. Add the names of the rivers. Locate the major cities of North America with a red X and name of city. How many cities are located near a major body of fresh water or a river? For those cities not located near fresh water, what are the city’s water sources? (Staggs, 2011)
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3. Our Bodies Need Water Without water, the Earth would look like the moon, there wouldn’t be any trees ... or animals ... or humans. All life depends on water. Next to the air we breathe, water is our most essential element of life. (Staggs, 2011) The human body is more than 60% water dependent upon our age and sex. (Children 65%) (Women 55%, Men 60%) Every system in our body uses water. Water makes up 73% of our brain and our heart. Water makes up 83% of our blood and our lungs. (U.S. Department of Interior, 2016) Water transports body wastes. Water lubricates body joints. Water keeps body temperature stable (think sweat!). Water aids in digestion (think spit!).
Human beings can live several weeks without food but only four to seven days without water, depending on conditions. We must drink six to eight glasses of water each day to replace the water we lose from normal activity. Some water loss is visible through sweat and excretion. (Staggs, 2011) A person needs to drink enough water each day to replace the water lost through everyday activities and climate conditions. Generally, an adult male needs about 3 liters of water per day while and adult female needs about 2.2 liters per day. Babies’ and kids’ bodies have a larger percentage of water than adults so they need https://water.usgs.gov/edu/images/property-you.png to drink more water proportionately to be hydrated. Some of water is found in food (U.S. Department of Interior, 2016) .
Solve the Problem Calculate how much water you need to replace each day by filling answering the following questions on your paper: What is your weight in pounds? ______ Divide by 2 to determine how many ounces you should be drinking: ______ Add 8 ounces if you are active: ______ Add another 8 ounces if you live in a dry climate: ______
Take this number a divide by 8 to determine how many cups you need to drink a day? ______(Staggs, 2011)
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4. Water in Foods Drinking water or other liquids provides only part of the water we need. The other part comes from the foods we eat. Fresh fruit and vegetables contain much more water than cooked or processed food.
For Example: A cucumber is about 97% water. A tomato is about 95% water. An apple is about 80% water. A banana is about 75% water. A slice of cheese pizza is about 47% water. A slice of bread is about 37% water. Chicken nuggets contain about 47% water. Buttered popcorn is about 5% water. Potato Chips contain less than 1% water. Pretzels contain about 3% water. (Staggs, 2011)
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Water Content of Select Foods
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Ways You Use Water How Much Water Does this Require Each Day?
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Ways Other People Use Water Ways You Can Save Water
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List your Sources:
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6. The Water Molecule
Everything is made of atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an element, such as oxygen or hydrogen. Atoms join together to form molecules. A water molecule has three atoms: two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. That’s why water is sometimes referred to as H2O. A single drop of water contains billions of water molecules.
What is a solvent? A solvent is a liquid that can dissolve other substances (Staggs, 2011). Water is http://science.halleyhosting.com/sci/ibbio/chem/notes/chpt2/water.ht m the called the “universal solvent” because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid. This is important to every living thing on earth. It means that wherever water goes, whether through the ground or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients. Even when we cook, we use water as a solvent. How else do we take advantage of this ability of water to dissolve almost anything?
It is water's chemical composition and physical attributes that make it such an excellent solvent. Water molecules have a polar arrangement of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms—one side (hydrogen) has a positive electrical charge and the other side (oxygen) has a negative charge. This allows the water molecule to become attracted to many other different types of molecules. Water can become so heavily attracted to a different molecule, like salt (NaCl), that it can disrupt the attractive forces that hold the sodium and chloride in the salt molecule together and, thus, dissolve it (U.S. Department of Interior, 2016).
http://www.grandinetti.org/solution-chemistry
Other Properties of Water
Water can absorb heat. (Staggs, 2011) Water has a high specific heat capacity. This means that water can absorb a lot of heat before it begins to get hot. The high specific heat capacity of water is valuable to industries and in your car’s radiator as a coolant. The high specific heat capacity of water also helps regulate the rate at which air changes temperature, which is why the temperature change between seasons is gradual rather than sudden, especially near the oceans (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2010) . Water has very high surface tension. Water molecules naturally attract to each other bunching together tightly at the surface, so you can fill a water glass above the rim. Surface tension also helps things float. Pure water has a neutral pH of 7. Pure water is not an acid or base, which allows plants and animals to live and thrive in it. Water weighs 8.34 pounds per gallon and 1 liter of water weighs 1 kg (Staggs, 2011) . Specific Conductance of water is the measure of the ability of water to conduct an electric current and is dependent on the amount of dissolved solids in the water. Pure water, such as distilled water, will have a very low specific conductance and sea water will have a high specific conductance. Specific conductance is an important water-quality measurement because it gives a good idea of the amount of dissolved material in the water. Turbidity is the measure of cloudiness of water. It is measured by passing a beam of light through the water and seeing how much is reflected off particles. Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is actually dissolved in the water. This dissolved oxygen is breathed by fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to survive. Excess organic materials can cause an oxygen deficient saturation to occur. Dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low in the summer (hot weather). Hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water. Where the water is relatively hard, it is difficult to get a lather up when washing your hands or clothes and industries spend money to soften water as hard water can damage equipment (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2010) .
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7. Water’s Three Forms Water is unique in that it is the only substance that is found in all three states – liquid, solid and gas – at temperatures normally found on earth. Earth’s water is constantly interacting, changing and in movement (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2010) . Pure water is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. Water can occur in three states: solid (ice), liquid, or gas (vapor). Solid water – ice is frozen water. When water freezes, its molecules move farther apart, making ice less dense than water. This means that ice will be lighter than the same volume of water and so ice will float in water. Water freezes at 0oC (32oF). Liquid water – is wet and fluid. This is the form of water with which we are most familiar. We use liquid water in many ways, including washing and drinking. Water as a gas – vapor is always present in the air around us. You cannot see it. When you boil water, the water changes from a liquid to a gas or water vapor. As some of the water vapor cools, we see it as a small cloud called steam. This cloud of steam is a mini version of clouds we see in the sky. As sea level, steam is formed at 100oC (212oF). The water vapor attaches to small bits of dust in the air. It forms raindrops in warm temperatures. In cold temperatures, it freezes and forms snow or hail (American Water Works Association).
Water Facts Chemical Formula H2O Molecular Weight 18.015 g/mole Freezing Point 32oF, 0oC, 273.2K Boiling Point 212oF, 100oC, 373.2K Density of Ice 0.99987 g/cm3 Density of Liquid 1.00 g/cm3 Specific Heat Water 4.187 kJ/kgK Specific Heat Ice 2.108 kJ/kgK Specific Heat Vapor 1.966 kJ/kgK
Solve the Problem What do you think would happen if ice did not float? What would happen to the fish and plants in the water? How does the ice on top of a lake help the fish and plants that live underneath? (Staggs, 2011)
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8. Surface Tension of Water
One of the most easily observed properties of water is a drop’s ability to attract other drops, to hold on to each other in larger sets, and to connect to each other in streams. This is called surface tension. Water molecules at a surface try to hold on to the molecules next to them. This is called cohesion. This phenomenon is even more interesting when you attribute this property to our ability to suck a beverage through a straw or pump water up from a well, or water’s ability to flow downward in a stream.
http://www.studydroid.com/index.php?page=viewPack&packId=355026
Floating paper clip made of steel with copper plating. The high surface tension helps the paper clip - with much higher density - float on the water.
Surface tension -- The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules.
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at the surface of a glass of water do not have other water molecules on all sides of them and consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly associated with them (in this case, next to and below them, but not above). It is not really true that a "skin" forms on the water surface; the stronger cohesion between the water molecules as opposed to the attraction of the water molecules to the air makes it more difficult to move an object through the surface than to move it when it is completely submersed.
Cohesion and Surface Tension The cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid are shared with all neighboring molecules. Those on the surface have no neighboring molecules above and, thus, exhibit stronger attractive forces upon their nearest neighbors on and below the surface. Surface tension could be defined as the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
Surface tension at a molecular level Water molecules want to cling to each other. At the surface, however, there are fewer water molecules to cling to since there is air above (thus, no water molecules). This results in a stronger bond between those molecules that actually do come in contact with one another, and a layer of strongly bonded water (see diagram). This surface layer (held together by surface tension) creates a considerable barrier between the atmosphere and the water. In fact, other than mercury, water has the greatest surface tension of any liquid.
Within a body of a liquid, a molecule will not experience a net force because the forces by the neighboring molecules all cancel out (diagram). However for a molecule on the surface of the liquid, there will be a net inward force since there will be no attractive force acting from above. This inward net force causes the molecules on the surface to contract and to resist being stretched or broken. Thus the surface is under tension, which is probably where the name "surface tension" came from.
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Due to the surface tension, small objects will "float" on the surface of a fluid, as long as the object cannot break through and separate the top layer of water molecules. When an object is on the surface of the fluid, the surface under tension will behave like an elastic membrane.
Examples of surface tension Walking on water: Small insects such as the water strider can walk on water
because their weight is not enough to penetrate the surface.
Floating a needle: A carefully placed small needle can be made to float on the surface of water even though it is several times as dense as water. If the surface is agitated to break up the surface tension, then needle will quickly sink.
Don't touch the tent!: Common tent materials are somewhat rainproof in that the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the finely woven material. But if you touch the tent material with your finger, you break the surface tension and the rain will drip through.
Clinical test for jaundice: Normal urine has a surface tension of about 66 dynes/centimeter but if bile is present (a test for jaundice), it drops to about 55. In the Hay test, powdered sulfur is sprinkled on the urine surface. It will float on normal urine, but will sink if the surface tension is lowered by the bile.
Surface tension disinfectants: Disinfectants are usually solutions of low surface tension. This allow them to spread out on the cell walls of bacteria and disrupt them.
Soaps and detergents: These help the cleaning of clothes by lowering the surface tension of the water so that it more readily soaks into pores and soiled areas.
Washing with cold water: The major reason for using hot water for washing is that its surface tension is lower and it is a better wetting agent. But if the detergent lowers the surface tension, the heating may be unneccessary.
Why bubbles are round: The surface tension of water provides the necessary wall tension for the formation of bubbles with water. The tendency to minimize that wall tension pulls the bubbles into spherical shapes.
Surface Tension and Droplets: Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. (U.S. Department of Interior, 2016)
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9. Water pH The potential of hydrogen in a substance is called pH. pH is a measure of acid or alkaline. This is measured on a scale divided into 14 standard units, 0-14. Acids such as lemon juice and vinegar have pH values less than 7. Alkalis such as ammonia have pH values greater than 7. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. Soft drinks are pH 2.4 and milk has a pH of 6.3 – 6.6. Most natural water systems have a pH from 6 to 9.
As rain water runs through pollution in the air, small amounts of acid can be absorbed into the water. Detergents washed into streams add phosphates and nitrates, encouraging plant like and changing the chemistry of the water. The rock and soil composition of a watershed also affect the pH of water, adding alkalinity to the waterways.
Most aquatic life needs water within a pH within 6.5 – 9.0, although some water life, particularly algae and bacteria, thrives in high alkaline waters. pH that varies greatly or that is extremely low or high can destroy other plant and wildlife that depend on the waterways for survival.
Aquatic Life Minimum Maximum pH value pH value Bacteria 10 13 Algae, rooted plants 6.5 12 Carp, suckers 6 9 Catfish 6 9 Insects 6 9 Bass, Crappie 6.5 8.5 Trout 5.5 7.5 Stonefly, Mayfly, Caddisfly 5.5 7.5 Perch 4.6 9.5 Mosquito larvae 3.3 4.7 Fish eggs 6 7.2 (Staggs, 2011)
http://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/what_is_ph.htm
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Pollution can change a water's pH, which in turn can harm animals and plants living in the water. For instance, water coming out of an abandoned coal mine can have a pH of 2, which is very acidic and would definitely affect any fish crazy enough to try to live in it! By using the logarithm scale, this mine-drainage water would be 100,000 times more acidic than neutral water -- so stay out of abandoned mines.
Variation of pH across the United States The pH of precipitation, and water bodies, vary widely across the United States. Natural and human processes determine the pH of water. The National Atmospheric Deposition Program has developed maps showing pH patterns, such as the one below showing the spatial pattern of the pH of precipitation at field sites for 2002. You should be aware that this contour map was developed using the pH measurements at the specific sampling locations; thus, the contours and isolines were created using interpolation between data points. You should not necessarily use the map to document the pH at other particular map locations, but rather, use the map as a general indicator of pH throughout the country.
(U.S. Department of Interior, 2016)
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10. Salt of the Earth
About 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water. Ninety-seven percent of water on Earth is salt water, mostly in the oceans. Salt water contains salt and other minerals, which humans cannot drink. New technology, however, can remove salt from ocean water to make it safe to drink, or potable. This technology, called desalination, is used increasingly around the world. Particularly in the Middle East and in coastal cities, where the nearest water supply is an ocean.
Two percent of the water on Earth is glacier ice at the North and South Poles. This ice is fresh water and could be melted; however, it is too far away from where people live to be usable. Because of the Earth’s changing temperatures, some glaciers are melting into the oceans. Perhaps someday there will be a way to capture this fresh water before it mixes with the salty ocean water.
Less than 1% of all the water on Earth is fresh water. We use this small amount of water for drinking and cleaning but also for agriculture, industry, and commercial operations. Most of this water must be treated to remove any pollutants before humans use it. Because fresh water is limited, many communities are finding ways to conserve this resource by using less water, reusing it, and installing water-saving devices.
This ruler has 100 spaces representing 100% of the water on Earth.
One space of Red is 1% of the spaces on the ruler. This shows the fresh water we can use. Two spaces of Green are 2% of the spaces on the ruler. This shows the water frozen in glaciers. Ninety-seven spaces of Yellow are 97% of the spaces on the ruler. These show the amount of salt water on Earth. (Staggs, 2011)
The total water supply of the world is 326 trillion cubic miles (a cubic mile is an imaginary cube measuring one mile on each side. A cubic mile of water equals more than one trillion gallons. About 3,100 cubic miles of water, mostly in the form of water vapor, is in the atmosphere at one time. If it all fell as precipitation at once, the earth would be covered with only about 1 inch of water. IF all of the world’s water was poured on the United States, it would cover the land to a depth of 90 miles. Of the freshwater on Earth, much more is stored in the ground than is available in lakes and rivers. More than 2,000,000 cubic miles of fresh water is stored in the Earth, most within one-half mile of the surface. Contrast that with the 60,000 cubic miles of water stored as fresh water in lakes, inland seas, and rivers. But if you really want to find fresh water, the most is stored in the 7,000,000 cubic miles of water found in glaciers and icecaps, mainly in the polar regions and in Greenland (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2010).
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/gw/compar.html http://flash.esva.net/bigthings.htm
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11. Fresh Water Uses In addition to home use, fresh water is used for transportation, agriculture, heating and cooling, industry, livestock, and many other purposes. That one percent of water is primarily used in eight different ways or categories as listed below. (mgd = million gallon /day) Public supply. Public and commercial buildings, such as schools and restaurants. 42,000 mgd Domestic. Residential indoor and outdoor used, such as drinking, cleaning and watering lawns. 3,600 mgd Irrigation. Systems for farms that grow food. 115,000 mgd Livestock. Systems for animals on ranches and farms. 2,000 mgd Aquaculture. Systems for fish farms and hatcheries. 9,420 mgd Industrial. Manufacturing products, including food, paper, and petroleum products. 15,9000 mgd Mining. Extraction natural resources, such as metals, minerals, natural gas and oil. 5,320 mgd http://www.water.ca.gov/education/wffcatalog.cfm Thermoelectric. Generating electricity using steam-driven generators. 161,000 mgd (Staggs, 2011) (PennState College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, 2017). NOTE: thermoelectric cooling was responsible for almost half of the water withdrawals in the U.S. in 2010, with irrigation very close behind. However, about 30% of thermoelectric water use was salt water, so irrigation is actually the biggest user of freshwater in the U.S. (PennState College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, 2017)
About 80 percent of all the water we use in everyday life comes from surface-water sources such as rivers, streams, lakes, and reservoirs. The other 20 percent comes from ground-water. Surface-water is a lot easier and cheaper to get than to drill a well and pump water out of the ground. Ground water is the part of precipitation that seeps down through the soil until it reaches rock material that is saturated with water. The rock below the Earth’s surface is the bedrock. If all bedrock consisted of a dense material like solid granite, then even gravity would have a hard time pumping water downward. But Earth’s bedrock consists of many types of rock, such as sandstone, granite, and limestone. Bedrocks have varying amounts of void spaces in them where ground water accumulates. Bedrock can also become broken and fractured, creating spaces that can fill with water And some bedrock, such as limestone, id dissolved by water – which results in large cavities that fill with water. Try as it might, gravity doesn’t pull water all the way to the center of the Earth. Deep in the bedrock there are layers made of dense material, such as granite or clay. These layers may be underneath the porous rock layers and act as a confining layer to retard the vertical movement of water. Since it is more difficult for the water to go any deeper, it tends to pool in the porous layers and flow in a more horizontal direction across the aquifer. Ground water slowly moves underground, generally at a downward angle (due to gravity) toward an exposed surface-water body (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2010).
Solve the Problem: According to the above information, what category uses the most fresh water? How
can we reduce this amount of water use? Which category is 2nd in freshwater use?
Make a bar graph of the above information.
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12. Groundwater and Contaminants
Groundwater is the part of precipitation that seeps down through the soil until it reaches rock material that is saturated with water. Groundwater slowly moves underground, generally at a downward angle (gravity), and may eventually seep into streams, lakes, and oceans.
A couple of important factors are responsible for the existence of ground water: Gravity and Bedrock. Gravity pulls water toward the center of the Earth – water on the surface will try to seep into the ground below it. The Earth’s bedrock consists of many types of rock, such as sandstone, granite, and limestone. Bedrocks have varying amounts of void spaces in them where ground water accumulates. Bedrock can also become broken and fractured; creating spaces that can fill with water. And some bedrock, such as limestone, is dissolved by water – which results in large cavities that fill with water. Try as it might, gravity doesn’t pull water all the way to the center of the Earth. Deep in the bedrock there are rock layers made of dense material, such as granite, or material that water has a hard time penetrating, such as clay. These layers may be underneath the porous rock layers and thus, act as a confining layer to retard the vertical movement of water. Since it is more difficult for the water to go any deeper, it tends to pool in the porous layers and flow in a more horizontal direction across the aquifer toward an exposed surface-water body, like a river. Bye the way, it’s a myth that all our ground-water supplies are really fivers flowing underground – except in the case of caves that exist in limestone rock. These caves can have flowing streams in them. Kentucky has many such caves.
Because water is such an excellent solvent it can contain lots of dissolved chemicals. And since ground water moves through rocks and subsurface soil, it has a lot of opportunity to dissolve substances as it moves. For that reason ground water will often have more dissolved substance than surface water. Even though the ground is an excellent mechanism for filtering out particulate matter, dissolved chemicals and gases can still occur in large enough concentrations in ground water to cause problems. Underground water can become contaminated from industrial, domestic, and agricultural chemicals from the surface. This includes chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides along with road salt used on roads to melt ice. The most common water- quality problem in rural water supplies is bacterial contamination from septic tanks(Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2010).
http://www.sswm.info/content/pathogens-contaminants
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According to Kentucky’s Division of Water, “...more than half of Kentucky is underlain by karst”. The rapid water movement makes any karst terrain sensitive to pollution, whether well-developed karst features are present or not. (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2016)
Karst Karst is a special type of landscape that is formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks, including limestone and dolomite (Karst Waters Institute). The term “karst” is derived from a Slavic word that means barren, stony ground. It is also the name of a region in Slovenia near the border with Italy that is well known for its sinkholes and springs. Geologists have adopted “karst” as the term for all such terrain. The term “karst” describes the whole landscape, not a single sinkhole or spring. A karst landscape most commonly develops on limestone, but can develop on several other types of rocks, such as dolostone (magnesium carbonate or the mineral dolomite), gypsum, and salt. Precipitation infiltrates into the soil and flows into the subsurface from higher elevations and generally toward a stream at a lower elevation. Weak acids found naturally in rain and soil water slowly dissolve the tiny fractures in the soluble bedrock, enlarging the joints and bedding planes. To the right is a generalized block diagram showing a typical karst landscape in Kentucky. Other types of karst features occur that are not illustrated (Kentucky Geological http://www.uky.edu/KGS/karst/index.php Survey, 2017) .
Karst regions contain aquifers that are capable of providing large supplies of water. More that 25 percent of the world’s population either lives on or obtains its water from karst aquifers. In the United States, 20 percent of the land surface is karst and 40 percent of the groundwater used for drinking comes from karst aquifers. Natural features of the landscape such as caves and springs are typical of karst regions. Common geological characteristics of karst regions that influence human use of its land and water resources include ground subsidence, sinkhole collapse, groundwater contamination, and unpredictable water supply (Karst Waters Institute). http://karstwaters.org/educational-resources/what-is-karst-and-why-is-it- important/ When groundwater is contained in karst areas, successful cleanup is very difficult. Because large openings in the subsurface – like caves and conduits – are often part of a karst aquifer, groundwater can travel long distances very rapidly with being filtered through soil or rock. Contaminants can remain in the water supply at distant locations. Volatile compounds can collect in underground streams and migrate upward into homes and schools. Special techniques must be applied to contain and remove contaminants in the water, soil, and rock of karst regions (Karst Waters Institute) .
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Everything we do with water adds something to it, and sometimes that causes pollution. The most worrisome pollutants are animal and chemical wastes. Livestock operations, industry, and mining operations must be extra sure that the water they use is clean before it is returned to the ecosystem. A law in the United States called the Clean Water Act puts limits on how much of any given substance can be discharged to open waterways.
(Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet, 1991)
After water is used, it goes down the drain, into sewer pipes that carry the used water to a wastewater treatment plant where it is treated (cleaned) before it is sent back to a natural water source such as a river. This protects everyone and everything that use the water downstream. Some water is sent back to a water treatment plant to be recycles and reused again for nonpotable (non-drinking) purposes such as irrigating parks and car washes.
In the United States, the Safe Drinking Water Act protects our drinking water. In Canada, safe drinking water is required by the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. These laws help make our drinking water safe by setting standards of how clean our water must be before we can drink it from our taps. The rules establish how much of a substance, be it a contaminant like bacteria or gasoline or an additive like fluoride, can be in our water and still be safe to drink. Your local water utility follows these standards when cleaning our water.
Everyone must do his or her part to keep our water sources clean. Fresh water in lakes and rivers are part of the drinking water supply, so it is important not to pollute these sources. Even deep underground aquifers can be polluted from the surface. For example, oil thrown on the ground can seep into the groundwater (Staggs,
2011).
According to many Susan Reiger in Kentucky Bourbon Country, “The water is a very important ingredient and is a key reason why the bourbon industry has flourished in Kentucky. The state’s limestone geology means that iron is filtered out of the water as it flows over the rock and becomes a sweet-tasting mineral water.” In fact, the same thing that makes Kentucky’s limestone filtered water superior for bourbon production is also one of the things that make Thoroughbreds flourish here. The calcium and other minerals in the water and bluegrass give horses strong bones (Kimberi, 2015).
The USGS Karst Website with interactive map of aquifers in US: https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/karst/
Interactive map of Kentucky wells and springs: http://kgs.uky.edu/kgsmap/KGSWater/viewer.asp
Information concerning Water Sources in Hardin County: http://www.uky.edu/KGS/water/library/gwatlas/Hardin/Foreword.htm
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13. Water’s Journey
Nature distributes its fresh water through a variety of land features, creating ecosystems that depend upon this water. For example, some ecosystems start in the Rocky Mountains, where winter snow melts into streams and rivers that nourish forests of spruce, willow, and aspen trees that are home to cougar, elk, moose, mountain goats, big horn sheep, beaver, marmots, and many other animals.
As the rivers flow down from the mountains and rush toward the oceans, they break down rock, soil, and minerals. This is called weathering. Smaller bits of rock and minerals are carried downstream. This is called erosion. Some sediment is deposited along the river banks, helping create riparian ecosystems that are the habitat of fish, frogs, waterfowl, and other migrating birds and wildlife. The runoff from snow- packed peaks provides shelter, food, and travel corridors for wildlife.
https://s-media-cache- Many cities and towns along the way also rely on these freshwater rivers ak0.pinimg.com/originals/01/3e/6b/013e6bc4bf995fb9cd04e3642a41172e.jp g for their community drinking water. As the rivers flow into the bays and straits that line the coast, they deposit eroded sand, mud, and silt, which create new land and habitat called deltas. Deltas create ecosystems such as mudflats, marshes, and peat bogs. Millions of migrating birds, including sandpipers, yellowlegs, and black-bellied plovers, rely on this water ecosystem being clean and healthy. People also depend on clean water in the deltas for sail boarding, boating, fishing, and other activities.
Finally the rivers empty into the ocean, forming nutrient-rich ocean ecosystem. Kelp forests are nurseries for smaller marine life which become food for schools of larger fish, sea birds, and marine animals such as harbor seals, killer whales, octopodes, and sea stars (Staggs, 2011).
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14. Canadian Moose Populations As water flows from the Canadian Rockies, along rivers and deltas, and finally to lakes or even the ocean, it creates areas of prime ecosystem habitat for a variety of animals. Wherever bogs, wetlands, marshes, streams, and ponds occur, the moose of Canada and the northern United States may be found. They like areas that mix meadows, mixed coniferous forest (taigas), and ample amounts of willow and aspen to eat. Many Canadian provinces have healthy and large moose populations. In Nova Scotia, however, populations are on the decline with less than 1,000 on the mainland. Nova Scotia officially listed moose as an endangered in 2003. The province’s moose management program asks citizens to officially report any moose sighting so an accurate count of the current moose population can be determined (Staggs, 2011).
Solve the Problem Citing evidence found in the chart above and the articles “Moose Populations Decline in Minnesota, Ontario” & A Deepening Mystery: Of the nine Canadian provinces in the above graph, which three provinces have the most successful water- related ecosystems for moose populations? Which problems with moose populations are caused by humans? What problems with moose populations are caused by nature? How do water resources affect the success of moose populations? (Staggs, 2011) With a partner, brainstorm some ideas to improve moose populations?
Create a graph of the above data. Make sure to have all parts of a science graph.
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Moose Populations Decline in Minnesota, Ontario By Rachael Leason From Great Lakes Echo March 15, 2010 Warmer temperatures may be the cause of declining moose populations in northeast Minnesota. A model by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources shows moose numbers dropping by 15 percent each year over the long-term, according to an aerial survey. The agency estimates that there were 7,600 moose in January 2009. That number dropped to 5,500 this year. There are also fewer baby moose — numbers fell to a record low of 28 calves per 100 cows. Ontario is experiencing a similar decline in reproduction rates, according to the province’s Ministry of Natural Resources. Minnesota moose are dying for a number of reasons, said Mark Lenarz, group leader for the department in Grand Rapids, Minn. The ultimate cause is climate change, but parasites and collisions with vehicles are also killing off individual animals. Nearly 70 percent of 150 adult moose with radio collars have died since 2002 because of diseases and parasites, according the department. The most common parasite is brain worm, Lenarz said. Virtually all white-tailed deer carry the long, threadlike worm. “It does not affect deer, but it’s invariably fatal to moose,” he said. Winter ticks, which attach to moose and feed from their blood, are found throughout Minnesota, Ontario, Alberta and Manitoba. Lenarz found one animal infested with more than 70,000 to 80,000 ticks. “Needless to say, it’s very irritating,” he said. “Moose tend to rub up against tree and rocks in attempt to dislodge ticks. Consequently, they rub off extensive areas of hair.” Some moose lose up to 80 percent of their body hair. Death can result from loss of blood or insulation, Lenarz said. Moose mortality is also caused in part by collisions with vehicles and wolf predation. In Minnesota, approximately 15 percent of 150 collared moose died from fender benders since 2002, according to the department. Six deaths were the result of wolf attacks in northeast Minnesota. The opposite is true in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, where moose have increased slowly due to wolf predation. That’s because the wolves keep deer populations low; thus reducing the chance for moose to contract deadly parasites. “ Wolf predation is a very effective control on deer density in such deep snow areas, so essentially there is a deer- free area in winter where moose density is highest,” said Rolf Peterson, wildlife ecology research professor at Michigan Technological University, in an e-mail. “It is possible that this reduces the rate at which moose acquire brain worm, which most moose biologists think is an important reason for the moose decline in Minnesota.” Moose were re-introduced to Michigan in 1985 and now number in the hundreds, Peterson said. Peterson studies the wolves and moose on Isle Royale and published a book on the relationship. He’s also chair of the Minnesota Moose Advisory Committee. The ultimate cause of moose decline in northeast Minnesota is climate change, Lenarz said. Moose aren’t adapted to warm weather and prefer the cold. When temperatures exceed 57 degrees in the summer and 23 degrees in the winter, moose have to increase their metabolic rate, Lenarz said. This impairs the animal’s immune system and increases its respiration rate. “Warmer temperatures from climate change are making ideal conditions for diseases and parasites to become fatal to moose,” he said. Lenarz isn’t sure what will happen to Minnesota moose. Peterson expects deer populations to increase if moose levels get too low. The species will likely persist in the foreseeable future, according to a report by the Moose Advisory committee. But monitoring is critical. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources conducts aerial surveys every January to observe moose numbers and uses models to estimate the entire population. The committee also makes yearly recommendations, like keeping white-tailed deer populations low to reduce parasite-related deaths. “At this point, all we can do it watch,” Lenarz said. “We can manage habitat to make sure we’re not losing it. That may simply delay declining populations. “There’s no way we can control climate, so there’s not an awful lot we can do,” he said. (Gleason, 2010)
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ON A WINTER DAY IN EARLY MARCH, biologist Michelle Carstensen got a text message from a moose. “He was a five-year-old bull moose in his prime,” Carstensen says. “He should have been fat and happy, loving life.” He wasn’t. The text message said he was dead.
Carstensen and her team at the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources had captured the animal a year earlier and outfitted him, and scores of other moose, with high- tech GPS collars and mortality sensors in an effort to solve a pressing wildlife mystery: During roughly the past decade, the moose population in northwestern Minnesota has plunged from 4,000 animals to just 100. Moose numbers are declining fast in northeastern Minnesota, too, and as far away as central and southern New Hampshire. The text message meant that another piece of the puzzle was lying in the snow in the North Woods—if the wildlife biologists could get there before the dead moose rotted or was eaten. So Carstensen gathered up the equipment needed to drag a 1,000-pound carcass out of the forest— snowmobiles and winches—and raced up the highway from her office in Forest Lake toward the moose’s GPS location some 240 miles away near Grand Marais.
In the woods, the snow was too deep for snowmobiles, so Carstensen and her colleague snowshoed in from the nearest road. They had suspected that wolves might already be dining, since the motion-sensitive mortality detector kept going on and off, as if something were tugging at the corpse. Sure enough, when Carstensen got close and gave a wolf howl, “the wolves all howled back,” she says.
By the time the team reached the moose, the wolf pack had moved away. The kill proved to be an enigma. “A bull like that should be able to fight wolves off,” Carstensen says. A rank smell was one clue as to why it couldn’t. The bull had a rotted liver, caused by a secondary infection and a parasite called a liver fluke. The biologists’ notes also showed that the animal had been behaving abnormally—walking in circles—when the team radio-collared it, strong evidence of an infection from a parasitic brain worm that can weaken and kill moose.
The Tiny Taking Down the Mighty Of course, parasites and wolves have always been around. So “something must have changed in the last decade and a half that makes the moose more susceptible,” Carstensen says. Climate change is a prime suspect, since Minnesota has experienced a series of warmer winters—but many scientists don’t think temperatures have warmed fast enough to cause such a steep decline. Adding to the perplexity is the fact that moose are doing just fine in Quebec, Ontario, Alaska and Maine. The thriving population in Maine is especially important, because the state is home to an estimated 60,000 to 70,000 moose, more than the other lower 48 states combined. “It’s a really mixed bag across Canada and the U.S.,” says Lee Kantar, the moose biologist for Maine. “You can’t have Quebec right next to us with increasing moose populations and have this talk about doom and gloom.”
Studies spawned by alarm over the U.S. declines are seeking answers to the problem. In early 2013, Minnesota biologists outfitted 110 adult moose with GPS collars and mortality sensors—and a year later added 36 more to replace those that already had died. They also put collars on 34 calves in May 2013. In a similar effort, New Hampshire and Maine biologist radio-collared 103 moose, half of them calves, in January 2014. The devices not only track locations, they also send messages to researchers when an animal may be dead, making it possible for the biologists to race in to collect carcasses or samples for analysis. Other studies are examining moose habitat to figure out if the animals are finding sufficient food and cover. “The great thing is that moose are finally getting the attention that they needed,” says Peter Pekins, professor of wildlife ecology at the University of New Hampshire.
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By March 2014, only 9 of the 34 Minnesota radio-collared calves were still alive. “That was a surprise,” says Glenn DelGiudice, moose researcher for the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. “The mortality rate was much higher than we expected.” Wolves got most of them, while bears killed a few. The adults in the study haven’t fared well either, with more than a fifth dying in just the first year. Half succumbed to infections and other ills. The others were brought down by wolves, but like the five-year old bull, many probably had underlying health problems. “To me, it seems to be a shotgun of causes,” Carstensen says.
To some researchers, however, one cause looms largest—Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, or brain worm. This tiny parasite coexists happily with white-tailed deer, living in the connective tissue around the brain and spinal cord (or the meninges). In a complex life cycle, the worms spew out eggs that hatch in the deer’s lungs. The deer coughs up, swallows and excretes the worm larvae, which find homes in snails and slugs. Other deer get infected eating the snails accidently while nibbling on forest-floor greenery. “Nearly 90 percent of deer get infected in their first two years of life,” explains Murray Lankester, retired biologist from Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, who has studied the effects of P. tenuis extensively. In areas with lots of deer, moose pick up the worm, too.
That’s a big problem for the moose. “The brain worm just travels around looking for a white-tail deer brain,” says Rolf Peterson, who has been studying moose and wolves on Michigan’s Isle Royale for more than 40 years. Some moose seem able to fight off the parasite, but others start walking in circles or just stand around until they become prey or die.
Historically, deep winter snow kept deer out of moose country, so the animals didn’t mix much. But a series of warm winters, like those the Northeast and Midwest have experienced recently, can allow deer—and brain worms—to move north into the boreal forest. It has happened before, Lankester believes, causing moose populations to crash in the 1940s and 1950s in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Minnesota. And it could be happening now. “We think the current moose die-off is just what we would predict,” he says. Consider that on Lake Superior’s Isle Royale, which has no deer (and thus no brain worm), the trend is in the opposite direction. Moose numbers are soaring, after the collapse of the local wolf population from inbreeding, so much so that island moose threaten to wipe out their main food source, the balsam fir, demonstrating why healthy wolves are crucial to holding prey in check. Where brain worm is a major culprit, there is a way to protect moose, as a moose- management advisory committee that Peterson co-chaired described. “We recommended hammering deer as much as possible, through any means possible,” Peterson says. However, brain worm is clearly not the only danger, especially outside of Minnesota. New Hampshire has lots of deer, for instance, but moose avoid overlap by retreating to higher elevations. Moreover, acid rain on soils with little buffering capacity seems to have taken a severe toll on the snails that harbor the worm. “I was astonished at how their numbers have dropped,” says Kristine Rines, moose project leader for New Hampshire’s Fish and Game Department. “That could be a factor in moose hanging on in southern New Hampshire.”
The leading threat in New Hampshire, where the moose population has declined as much as 40 percent in some areas during the past three years, seems to be the winter tick. Warmer winters and less snow cover mean that more ticks survive to lay eggs when they finish feeding on a moose and drop to the ground. As a result, tick numbers are up. “The ticks are literally carpeting these animals’ bodies like shingles on a roof,” Rines says. “It’s enough to make you run screaming through the woods.”
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Larval ticks climb onto moose as the animals brush by bushes and trees in the fall and then feed through the winter while growing into adults. Rines, Pekins and others have counted more than 100,000 ticks on a single moose. With that many insects, the moose can’t eat enough to keep replacing the blood the ticks suck out and end up cannibalizing their own muscles for protein before dying. When the researchers find the carcasses, “these animals all have full stomachs of what we would describe as good browse,” Pekins says. “We believe they simply run out of gas, or in this case, the protein required to counteract blood loss. The tick loads seem like they couldn’t be much higher. It’s a very, very sad story.”
It could get even sadder. Both the brain worm and the tick problems are expected to get worse as global climate continues to warm. Milder winters with less snow cover enable more deer to move into moose habitat. And little or no snow in spring, when engorged adult ticks fall off moose to lay eggs, boosts tick survival. Ticks, though, are unlikely to wipe out moose entirely, because the insects prey on few other hosts. As moose numbers drop, so will tick numbers, giving moose a chance to bounce back.
Giving Moose a Boost Wildlife managers also have other levers to pull to give moose a boost. They can reduce the white-tailed deer population in some areas or create more browse and prime moose habitat by cutting openings in the forest. In the late 1970s, for instance, the spruce budworm, a native species that experiences periodic outbreaks as part of a natural cycle, cut a devastating swath through Maine’s forest, and timber companies stepped up logging to salvage the timber. “That created moose nirvana,” Pekins says. “A population explosion of moose swept out of Maine into New Hampshire, Vermont and even a little bit of Massachusetts.” It could happen again. Another spruce budworm infestation is knocking on Maine’s northern door. “Maybe this is how we will grow more moose again,” Pekins says.
And so the mystery of the disappearing moose will not come to a simple conclusion. The moose’s prospects depend on complex and interacting ecological factors and relationships, and the animal’s numbers will rise and fall as those factors evolve. With climate change bringing increasingly mild winters, the species could disappear in some regions, wiped out by a triple whammy of parasites, pests and predators. But this massive symbol of the North Woods likely will continue to survive, even thrive, in other regions—and the new research will lay the groundwork for making that happen.
(Carey, 2014)
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15. Water Cycle Words Would you believe that a dinosaur could have once used your last drink of water? Water on Earth today has been here for millions of years. Because of the hydrologic cycle (water cycle), water moves from Earth to the air to Earth again. It changes from solid to liquid to gas, over and over again.
https://www.fcwa.org/story_of_water/html/story .htm Hydrologic cycle (water cycle) vocabulary Aquifer – An underground water source Condensation – Water vapor cooling and becoming a liquid Evaporation – Liquid water hearting and becoming a gas Groundwater—Water under the ground that supplies springs and sells Hydrologic – Relating to water Percolation – Water moving downward through opening in the soil Precipitation – Rain, snow, sleet, or hail Transpiration – Process of water vapor transferring from living plants to the atmosphere Surface runoff – Storm water that runs along Earth’s surface into lakes and rivers Water vapor – Water as a gas in the air Water evaporates. It travels into the air and becomes part of a cloud. It falls to Earth as precipitation. Then it evaporates again. This repeats in a never-ending cycle. https://www.fcwa.org/story_of_water/html/story.htm
Precipitation creates runoff that travels over Earth’s surface and helps to fill lakes and rivers. It also percolates or moves downward through openings in the soil to replenish aquifers under the ground. Some places receive more precipitation that others. These areas may be close to large bodies of water that allow more water to evaporate and form clouds. Other areas receive less precipitation. Often these areas are far from water or near mountains. As clouds move up and over mountains, the water vapor condenses to form precipitation and freezes. Snow falls on the https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html
peaks. When the snow melts, it flows into the rivers and lakes or seeps into the ground (Staggs, 2011).
Solve the Problem: Create a model of the hydrologic cycle, identifying each part of the cycle.
What role does the sun play in the water cycle? How do you think the hydrologic cycle will be affected by global warming? (Staggs, 2011)
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17. Extreme Weather
The hydrologic cycle plays a major role in weather patterns around the world. Extreme weather conditions almost always involve water. Consider thunderstorms, hurricanes, and floods (Staggs, 2011).
Thunderstorms result from unstable air masses. An unstable air mass results when the air in the lowest layers of an air mass are unusually warm and humid or the upper layers of an air mass are unusually cool or both conditions occur simultaneously. Pockets of rising near- surface air in an unstable air mass expand and cool, and as some of the water vapor present condenses into a cloud it releases heat, which then makes the air parcel even warmer, forcing it to rise still higher in the atmosphere. This convection process continues until a tall convective cloud, a thunderstorm, is http://www.weatherquestions.com/What_causes_thunderstorms.htm formed (WeatherStreet.com, 2013) . Thunderstorms produce a large amount of rainfall over a particular area, replenishing water sources and nourishing ecosystems (Staggs, 2011) . Thunderstorms are most common in the afternoon over land, when daytime heating of the land by the sun causes the lower part of the troposphere to become unstable from higher temperatures and more water vapor in the air. The approach of an upper air disturbance can result in thunderstorms any time of the day. The fuel for a thunderstorm is water vapor. A thunderstorm stabilizes the atmosphere by using up the excess water vapor (WeatherStreet.com, 2013) .
Hurricanes develop in warm, tropical regions where the water is at https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html least 27oC. The storms also require moist air and converging equatorial winds. The fuel for a hurricane is water vapor. Most Atlantic hurricanes begin off the west coast of Africa, starting as thunderstorms that move out over the warm equatorial ocean waters
(Hurricane Management Group, LLC, 2014). When massive amounts of warm, moist ocean air evaporates into the troposphere, the part of the upper atmosphere where weather is created, a low-pressure system is
created nearer the ocean’s surface (Staggs, 2011). A hurricane’s low-
pressure center of relative calm is called the eye (Hurricane Management http://hurricanemanagementgroup.com/how-hurricanes-form-what- Group, LLC, 2014). This low-pressure is fed by more high-pressure air that causes-hurricane-models/ tries to displace and equalize it, creating a rotating wind that spirals air inward. The air in the upper atmosphere continues to twist and gather energy, producing higher and higher winds. When the winds reach
74 miles per hour (119 Kilometers per hour), the storm is classified as a hurricane (Staggs, 2011) . The area surrounding the eye is called the eye wall, where the storm’s most violent winds occur. The bands of thunderstorms that circulate outward from the eye are called rain bands. The rotation of a hurricane is a product of the Coriolis effect. Due to this effect, hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere rotate counterclockwise and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The effect bends hurricanes to the right in the Northern Hemisphere (toward the North Pole) and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere (toward the
South Pole) (Hurricane Management Group, LLC, 2014). In Asia and Australia these storms are referred to as typhoons,
while those occurring in the Indian Ocean are called cyclones. (Mrs. Booker)
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Floods occur when excess water overflows banks of a river, stream, reservoir, or drainage area and spreads across nearby land. Extreme rainfall or snowmelt, storm surges from hurricanes, or breaks in human-made retaining walls such as dams or levies can cause flooding. The Mississippi River has flooded many times. In 1993, intense rainfall and snowmelt during the spring and summer drained into the Mississippi from tributaries flowing from 13 states and Canada. This surge of water lasted for 144 days and left the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers at record high levels. Many drinking water sources were contaminated and some water treatment plants were flooded. Many drinking water sources were contaminated and some water treatment plants were flooded. Many people had to boil their water before drinking it to kill the germs until the flood waters receded.
Dry weather over a long period of time causes drought, when the lack of water depletes water supplies and prevents ecosystems from thriving. When surface water sources are depleted, the sun’s heat can no longer create enough evaporation for clouds to form and the land dries out instead. Water utilities may ask everyone to conserve water and require homeowners to minimize lawn watering. Agricultural crops are damaged because farmers can’t irrigate their fields. Lightning can spark wildfires in arid areas. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors areas that may experience extreme droughts by measuring precipitation, soil moisture, stream flows, and reservoir levels (Staggs, 2011).
Solve the Problem: If your area were experiencing a drought, what measures could you take to conserve water? (Staggs, 2011)
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18. Reading A Weather Map – Wind
Wind is simply air in motion. Usually in meteorology, when we are talking about the wind it is the horizontal speed and direction we are concerned about. For example, if you hear a report of a west wind at 15 mph (24 km/h) that means the horizontal winds will be coming FROM the west at that speed.
High and low pressure indicated by lines of equal pressure called isobars. Although we cannot actually see the air moving we can measure its motion by the force that it applies on objects. We use a wind vane to indicate the wind's direction and an anemometer to measure the wind's speed. But even without those instruments we can determine the direction.
The vertical direction of wind motion is typically very small (except in thunderstorm updrafts) compared to the horizontal component, but is very important for determining the day to day weather. Rising air will cool, often to saturation, and can lead to clouds and precipitation. Sinking air warms causing evaporation of clouds and thus fair weather.
You have probably seen weather maps marked with H's and L's which indicate high and low pressure centers. Usually surrounding these "highs" and "lows" are lines called isobars. "Iso" means "equal" and a "bar" is a unit of pressure so an isobar means "equal pressure". So everywhere along each line is the pressure has the same value. Pressure gradient force extends from high pressure to low pressure With high pressure systems, the value of air pressure along each isobar increases toward the center with each concentric line. The opposite is true for low pressure systems in that with each concentric line toward the center represents lower pressure. Isobars maybe be close together or far apart.
The closer the isobars are drawn together the quicker the air pressure changes. This change in air pressure is called the "pressure gradient". Pressure gradient is just the difference in pressure between high and low pressure areas.
The speed of the wind is directly proportional to the pressure gradient meaning that as the change in pressure increases (i.e. pressure gradient increases) the speed of the wind also increases at that location. Also, notice that the wind direction (yellow arrows) is clockwise around the high pressure system and counter-clockwise around the low pressure system. In addition, the direction of the wind is across the isobars slightly, away from the center of the high pressure system and toward the center of the low pressure system.
Why does this happen? To understand we need to examine the forces that govern the wind. There are three forces that cause the wind to move as it does. All three forces work together at the same time. The pressure gradient force (Pgf) is a force that tries to equalize pressure differences. This is the force that causes high pressure to push air toward low pressure. Thus air would flow from high to low pressure if the pressure gradient force was the only force acting on it.
An air mass is a large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity. The area over which an air mass originates is what provides it's characteristics. The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire the properties of the surface below. As such, air masses are associated with high pressure systems. There are two broad overarching divisions of air masses based upon the moisture content. Continental air masses, designated by the lowercase letter 'c', originate over continents are therefore dry air masses. Maritime air masses, designated by the letter 'm', originate over the oceans and are therefore moist air masses (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).
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Each of the two divisions are then divided based upon the temperature content of the surface over which they originate. Arctic air masses, designated by the letter 'A', are very cold as they originate over the Arctic or Antarctic regions. Polar air masses, designated by the letter 'P', are not as cold as Arctic air masses as they originate over the higher latitudes of both land and sea. Tropical air masses, designated by the letter 'T', are warm/hot as they originate over the lower latitudes of both land and sea. Putting both designations together, we have, for example, a "continental arctic" air mass designated by 'cA', which source is http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/synoptic/airmass.html over the poles and therefore very cold and dry. Continental polar (cP) is not as cold as the Arctic air mass but is also very dry. Martime polar (mP) is also cold but moist due to its origination over the oceans. The desert region air masses (hot and dry) are designated by 'cT' for 'continental tropical'. As these air masses move around the earth they can begin to acquire additional attributes. For example, in winter an arctic air mass (very cold and dry air) can move over the ocean, picking up some warmth and moisture from the warmer ocean and becoming a maritime polar air mass (mP) - one that is still fairly cold but contains moisture. If that same polar air mass moves south from Canada into the southern U.S. it will pick up some of the warmth of the ground, but due to lack of moisture it remains very dry. This is called a continental polar air mass (cP).
Air mass boundaries The motion of air mass motion is usually based upon the air flow in the upper atmosphere. As the jet stream changes intensity and position, it affects the motion and strength of air masses. Where air masses converge, they form boundaries called "fronts". Fronts are identified by change of temperature based upon their motion. With a cold front, a colder air mass is replacing a warmer air mass. A warm front is the opposite affect in that warm air replaces cold air. There is also a stationary front, which, as the name implies, http://www.srh. noaa.gov/jetstre means the boundary between two air masses does not move. am/synoptic/air The motion of air masses also affects where a good portion of precipitation mass.html occurs. The air of cold air masses is more dense than warmer air masses. Therefore, as these cold air masses move, the dense air undercuts the warmer air masses forcing the warm air up and over the colder air causing it to rise into the atmosphere.
So fronts just don't appear at the surface of the earth, they have a vertical structure or slope to them as well. Warm fronts typically have a gentle slope so the air rising along the frontal surface is gradual. With warm fronts, the gentle slope favors a broad area of rising air so there is typically widespread layered or stratiform cloudiness and precipitation along and to the north of the front. The slope of cold fronts, being much more steep forces air upward more abruptly. This can lead to a fairly narrow band of showers and thunderstorms along or just ahead of the front. http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/synoptic/airmass.html
There is another boundary that exists except this boundary divides moist air from dry air. Called a dry line this boundary will separate moist air from the Gulf of Mexico (to the east) and dry desert air from the southwestern states (to the west). It typically lies north-south across the central and southern high Plains states during the spring and early summer. The dry line typically advances eastward during the afternoon and retreats westward at night. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
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18. Reading A Weather Map – Fronts Fronts are usually detectable at the surface in a number of ways. Winds often "converge" or come together at the fronts. Also, temperature differences can be quite noticeable from one side of a front to the other side. Finally, the pressure on either side of a front can vary significantly.
Cold Front Cold fronts are depicted by blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of motion. Cold fronts demarcate the leading edge of a cold air mass displacing a warmer air mass. Phrases like "ahead of the front" and "behind of the front" refer to its motion. So being "ahead of the cold front" is being in the "warm" air mass and "behind of the cold front" is in the cold air mass. Also remember however, the terms "cold" and "warm" are relative. So, it is still called a cold front even in summer if the temperature only lowers from, for example, 95°F (35°C) ahead of the front to near 90°F (32°C) behind the front. Cold fronts nearly always extend anywhere from a south direction to a west direction from the center of low pressure areas and never from the center of high pressure systems.
Warm Front A warm front is the leading edge of a relatively warmer air mass replacing a colder air mass. A warm front are depicted by a red line with half-moons located on the side of the direction of its motion. Like cold front, warm fronts also extend from the center of low pressure areas but on nearly always on the east side of the low. Here is an example of a location that experiences typical warm frontal passage followed by a cold frontal passage: Clouds lower and thicken as the warm front approaches with several hours of light to moderate rain. Temperatures are in the 50s with winds from the east. As the warm front passes, the rain ends, skies become partly cloudy and temperatures warm into the mid 70s. Winds become gusty from the south. A few hours later, a line of thunderstorms sweeps across the area just ahead of the cold front. After the rain ends and the front passes, winds shift to the northwest and temperatures fall into the 40s and skies clear.
Stationary Front If the front is essentially not moving (i.e. the two air masses on either side are not moving perpendicular to the front) it is called a stationary front. Stationary front are depicted by an alternating red and blue line with a triangle on the blue portion and half moon on the opposite side of the red portion of the line. A cold front (or warm front) that stops moving becomes a stationary front. The difference in temperature and wind direction from one side of a stationary front to the other is generally not large but there can be times where the difference is stark.
Occluded Front The cold air mass is moving faster than the cool air mass. As the two fronts converge the cold air undercuts the cooler air mass. Cold fronts typically move faster than warm fronts, so in time they can "catch up" to warm fronts. As they do the warm air mass is forced up forming an occlusion. The surface location of the occluded front is directly below the convergence point of the warm, cool and cold air masses. Occluded fronts points to a decrease in intensity of the parent weather system and are indicated by a purple line with alternating triangles and half-moons on the side of its motion.
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
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While there is no difference in how they are depicted on a weather map, there are two types of occlusions; cold and warm.
The cool air mass is out running the cold air mass. But the because the cold air mass is more dense, the cool (less dense) air is forced up. Cold occlusions are the most common where the cold front over takes the warm front and also undercuts the cooler air mass ahead of the warm front.
Warm occlusions occur when the air associated with the "cold" front is actually not a cold as the air mass associated with the warm front. The warm air is forced up as before but the colder, more dense, air mass ahead of the warm front remains at the surface forcing the air mass associated with the cold front up as well.
Other Boundaries Dry Line
Dry air, being more dense undercuts the light moist air forcing it up. A dryline marks the boundary between a moist air mass and dry air mass. It typically lies north- south across the central and southern high Plains states during the spring and early summer, where it separates moist air from the Gulf of Mexico (to the east) and dry desert air from the southwestern states (to the west). The dry line typically advances eastward during the afternoon and retreats westward at night. However, a strong storm system can sweep the dry line eastward into the Mississippi Valley, or even further east, regardless of the time of day. A typical dry line passage results in a sharp drop in humidity, a rise in temperatures, clearing skies, and a wind shift from south or southeasterly to west or southwesterly. (Blowing dust and rising temperatures also may follow, especially if the dry line passes during the daytime.) These changes occur in reverse order when the dry line retreats westward. Since drier air is more dense than moist air, as the dryline moves east it forces moist air up into the atmosphere. Therefore, severe and sometimes tornadic thunderstorms can develop along a dry line or in the moist air just to the east of it.
Squall Line This is a line of thunderstorms that generally form along a front but the storms move ahead of the front. As the rain cooled air under the thunderstorms begins to surge forward new thunderstorms form on the leading edge of the outflow. The outflow acts like a cold front with an increase of forward speed and therefore an increase in forward speed of the line of thunderstorms. Squall lines are most notably seen in derechos. Other Symbols Trough A trough is not a boundary but an elongated area of lower air pressure. There are changes in wind direction across a trough but there is no change in air mass. While not specificity a surface boundary, troughs reflect the change in atmospheric conditions in the upper atmosphere. As such, troughs can be areas where showers and thunderstorms can form.
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
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18. Reading A Weather Map – Norwegian Cyclone Model If you track low pressure areas and fronts you will often notice a particular cycle these systems undergo. The Norwegian cyclone model, so named to honor the Norwegian meteorologists who first conceptualized the typical life cycle of cyclones in the 1910s and 1920s. Initial Condition In this model, there will initially be a boundary, or front, separating warm air to the south from cold air to the north. The front is often stationary.
Norwegian cyclone model initial stage - weather map view
Norwegian cyclone model initial stage - 3D view
Beginning Stage A wave develops on the front as an upper level low pressure system, embedded in the jet stream moves, over the front. The front develops a "kink" where the wave is developing. The stationary front changes into a cold front and warm front as the air masses begin to move. Precipitation will begin to develop with the heaviest occurrence along the front (dark green).
Wave forms on front - weather map view Wave forms on front - 3D view
Intensification As the wave intensifies, both cold and warm fronts become better organized.
Wave intensifies - overhead view Wave intensifies - 3D view
Mature Stage The wave becomes a mature low pressure system, while the cold front, moving faster than the warm front, "catches up" with the warm front. As the cold front overtakes the warm front, an occluded front forms.
A mature low pressure system - 3D view A mature low pressure system - overhead view Dissipation As the cold front continues advancing on the warm front, the occlusion increases and eventually cuts off the supply of warm moist air, causing the low pressure system to gradually dissipate.
Dissipating stage of cyclone - overhead view Dissipating stage of cyclone – 3D view
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
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18. Reading A Weather Map – Fronts Continued
https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-the-main-types-of-fronts
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http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/synoptic/synoptic_review.html
Weather fronts are -- The point where two air masses meet. There are four types of fronts: warm, cold, stationary and occluded. cold fronts: Cold fronts form when dense masses of cold air advance into a mass of warm air and push the lighter warm air up out of its way. As the warm air rises, it often forms cumuli or cumulonimbi clouds. These clouds are responsible for thunderstorms, which is why thunderstorms are often seen along the leading edge of a cold front. rain, snow and cold weather are typically associated with cold fronts. warm fronts: Warm fronts form When a warm air mass runs into a cold air mass, the warm air is forced to rise above the cold air. The transition zone where a warm air mass collides with and is replacing a dense cold air mass is called a warm front. This collision causes slowly rising clouds. Generally, along the trailing edge of the warm front, nimbostratus clouds are formed, which bring a drizzle or slow, steady rain to the area. sunny, warm weather is associated with warm fronts. stationary fronts: A stationary front forms when a cold or warm front stops moving, which happens when two masses of air are pushing against each other but neither is powerful enough to move the other and Winds blowing parallel to the front. A stationary front can last for days. If the wind direction changes the front will start moving again, becoming either a cold or warm front, Or the front may break apart. Because a stationary front marks the differences between two air masses, there are often changes in air temperature and wind on opposite sides of it. cloudy weather and rain or snow are often associated with this type of front. occluded fronts: a occluded front forms when a cold front overtakes a warm front. A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Precipitations and clouds are associated with this front http://figurskiweather.weebly.com/weather-fronts.html
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18. Reading A Weather Map Check your Understanding 1) The force that results from the rotation of the earth is called the ______. a. ) Divergence b. ) Coriolis c. ) Pressure gradient d. ) Frictional
2) A mid-level cloud deck that has a heap-like appearance would be called? a. ) Stratocumulus b. ) Cumulus c. ) Altostratus d. ) Altocumulus
3) An east wind means that the air is moving from west to east. True / False
4) The force that results from roughness of the earth’s surface is called the ___ force. a. ) Divergence b. ) Coriolis c. ) Pressure gradient d. ) Frictional
5) Sleet will typically occur to the north of a warm front? True / False
6) A high level cloud that forms in a layer would be called? a. ) Cirrostratus b. ) Altostratus c. ) Cirrocumulus d. ) Cirrus
7) The temperature at the station in the weather plot below is
8) The air pressure at the station in the above weather plot is
9) The dewpoint temperature at the above weather plot is
10) The wind direction and speed at the station in the weather plot above is a. ) Northwest at 10 knots c. ) Southeast at 15 knots b. ) Northwest at 15 knots d. ) Southeast at 20 knots
11) The force that results from equalizing pressure differences is called the ___ force. a. ) Divergence b. ) Coriolis c. ) Pressure gradient d. ) Frictional
12) Sleet and freezing rain are caused by a cold layer aloft with temperatures at or below freezing. True / False
13) Which of the following is not required for precipitation? a. ) A source of lift c. ) Condensation nuclei b. ) Southerly winds d. ) Moisture
14) Which one of these clouds can produce moderate to heavy precipitation? a. ) Stratocumulus b. ) Cumulonimbus c. ) Altostratus d. ) Nimbostratus
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(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
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19. Clouds
https://www.thinglink.com/scene/716006590028709889
Cirrus Cloud – These are high up in the troposphere and are made of ice crystals creating a wispy shape. Stratus Cloud – Thick layer of high cloud that covers most of the sky. Cumulus – Puffy clouds with small low bases. These clouds indicate good weather. https://www.thinglink.com/scene/716006590028709889
http://figurskiweather.weebly.com/weather-fronts.html
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20. Water Sources
Almost every body of fresh water is a potential source of drinking water supplies. Surface water in particular is subject to a wide variety of pollutants, from direct dumping of industrial waste spills, surface runoff, activities in the water such as boating, and more recently, contaminants that come from what people ingest, such as prescription drugs, and products they use, such as cleaning fluids, that survive the wastewater treatment process and are released back into the ecosystem. Water supplies in North America, particularly in towns and cities, are usually managed by utilities. Utilities are companies or government agencies that supply electricity, gas, or water to the public. The water utility often manages three aspects of the water supply: source, treatment, and distribution.
The source can either be surface water, such as lakes and rivers, or groundwater, which is water below the Earth’s surface. The majority of people served by public water systems in the United States and in Canada’s major cities are served by surface water. Some surface water sources are created by dams that are built to hold rivers back or capture the flow of natural springs. The water collected behind the dam is called a reservoir. This water is then piped to a water treatment plant through transmissions pipes. Dams are also used to protect areas from flooding and, if they are built with turbines, dams can create electricity. These are called hydroelectric dams.
Ground water can be found in the porous areas of underground rock, clay, sand, and gravel. Precipitation evaporates, runs into streams and rivers, and soaks into the soil. Roots of trees and plants may absorb this water, or it can continue to percolate through various layers of sediment and rock formations. Water fills in all of the pores (or spaces) between the grains of rock. Some rock layers are more porous than others and able to trap large amounts of water in what’s called an aquifer. The top of an aquifer is called the water table. Ground water is pumped out of the rock layers through drilled wells. Aquifers can be recharged, or refilled, by more precipitation soaking through the soil and rock layers. If an aquifer is completely full, a swamp, lake, or spring may form on the surface. If too much water is pumped out for irrigation or a drought occurs, an aquifer can be depleted. As water is pumped out, the surface area of the land drops, and the land becomes more susceptible to flooding. This is called subsidence. Because most pollutants are filtered out as the water percolates through soil, ground water is generally cleaner than surface water. Recent regulations, however, require most groundwater to undergo a certain level of treatment to ensure that it is clean before it reaches our faucets (Staggs, 2011).
Subsurface water As precipitation infiltrates into the subsurface soil, it generally forms an unsaturated zone and a saturated zone. In the unsaturated zone, the voids— that is, the spaces between grains of gravel, sand, silt, clay, and cracks within rocks—contain both air and water. Although a lot of water can be present in the unsaturated zone, this water cannot be pumped by wells because it is held too tightly by capillary forces. The upper part of the unsaturated zone is the soil-water zone. The soil zone is crisscrossed by roots, openings left by decayed roots, and animal and worm burrows, which allow the precipitation to infiltrate into the soil zone. Water in the soil is used by plants in life functions and leaf transpiration, but it also can evaporate directly to the atmosphere. Below the unsaturated zone is a saturated zone where water completely fills the voids between rock and soil particles.
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Infiltration replenishes aquifers Natural refilling of deep aquifers is a slow process because groundwater moves slowly through the unsaturated zone and the aquifer. The rate of recharge is also an important consideration. It has been estimated, for example, that if the aquifer that underlies the High Plains of Texas and New Mexico—an area of slight precipitation—was emptied, it would take centuries to refill the aquifer at the present small rate of replenishment. In contrast, a shallow aquifer in an area of substantial precipitation such as those in the coastal plain in south Georgia, USA, may be replenished almost immediately (U.S. Department of Interior, 2016).
Groundwater is one of our most valuable resource—even though you probably never see it or even realize it is there. As you may have read, most of the void spaces in the rocks below the water table are filled with water. But rocks have different porosity and permeability characteristics, which means that water does not move around the same way in all rocks below ground. When a water-bearing rock readily transmits water to wells and springs, it is called an aquifer. Wells can be drilled into the aquifers and water can be pumped out. Precipitation eventually adds water (recharge) into the porous rock of the aquifer. The rate of recharge is not the same for all aquifers, though, and that must be considered when pumping water from a well. Pumping too much water too fast draws down the water in the aquifer and eventually causes a well to yield less and less water and even run dry. In fact, pumping your well too much can even cause your neighbor's well to run dry if you both are pumping from the same aquifer. In the diagram, you can see how the ground below the water table (the blue area) is saturated with water. The "unsaturated zone" above the water table (the greenish area) still contains water (after all, plants' roots live in this area), but it is not totally saturated with water. You can see this in the two drawings at the bottom of the diagram, which show a close-up of how water is stored in between underground rock particles.
Sometimes the porous rock layers become tilted in the earth. There might be a confining layer of less porous rock both above and below the porous layer. This is an example of a confined aquifer. In this case, the rocks surrounding the aquifer confines the pressure in the porous rock and its water. If a well is drilled into this "pressurized" aquifer, the internal pressure might (depending on the ability of the rock to transport water) be enough to push the water up the well and up to the surface without the aid of a pump, sometimes completely out of the well. This type of well is called artesian. The pressure of water from an artesian well can be quite dramatic.
A relationship does not necessarily exist between the water-bearing capacity of rocks and the depth at which they are found. A very dense granite that will yield little or no water to a well may be exposed at the land surface. Conversely, a porous sandstone, such as the Dakota Sandstone mentioned previously, may lie hundreds or thousands of feet below the land surface and may yield hundreds of gallons per minute of water.
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Rocks that yield freshwater have been found at depths of more than 6,000 feet, and salty water has come from oil wells at depths of more than 30,000 feet. On the average, however, the porosity and permeability of rocks decrease as their depth below land surface increases; the pores and cracks in rocks at great depths are closed or greatly reduced in size because of the weight of overlying rocks.
Pumping can affect the level of the water table Groundwater occurs in the saturated soil and rock below the water table. If the aquifer is shallow enough and permeable enough to allow water to move through it at a rapid-enough rate, then people can drill wells into it and withdraw water. The level of the water table can naturally change over time due to changes in weather cycles and precipitation patterns, stream flow and geologic changes, and even human-induced changes, such as the increase in impervious surfaces on the landscape.
The pumping of wells can have a great deal of influence on water levels below ground, especially in the vicinity of the well, as this diagram shows. If water is withdrawn from the ground at a faster rate that it is replenished, either by infiltration from the surface or from streams, then the water table can become lower, resulting in a
"cone of depression" around the well.
Depending on geologic and hydrologic conditions of the aquifer, the impact on the level of the water table can be short-lived or last for decades, and it can fall a small amount or many hundreds of feet. Excessive pumping can lower the water table so much that the wells no longer supply water—they can "go dry."
Water movement in aquifers Water movement in aquifers is highly dependent of the permeability of the aquifer material. Permeable material contains interconnected cracks or spaces that are both numerous enough and large enough to allow water to move freely. In some permeable materials groundwater may move several meters in a day; in other places, it moves only a few centimeters in a century. Groundwater moves very slowly through relatively impermeable materials such as clay and shale.
After entering an aquifer, water moves slowly toward lower lying places and eventually is discharged from the aquifer from springs, seeps into streams, or is withdrawn from the ground by wells. Groundwater in aquifers between layers of poorly permeable rock, such as clay or shale, may be confined under pressure. If such a confined aquifer is tapped by a well, water will rise above the top of the aquifer and may even flow from the well onto the land surface. Water confined in this way is said to be under artesian pressure, and the aquifer is called an artesian aquifer (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2016) .
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Solve the Problem In this diagram of a groundwater aquifer, where do you think wells should be placed. You want to be close to the house for access and want to have water even during dry seasons.
Staggs, 2011
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What is Water Pollution Water pollution is the pollution or contamination of natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, streams, oceans, and groundwater due to inflow or deposition of pollutants directly or indirectly into water systems. Water pollution very often caused by human activities. Any modifications or change in the chemical, physical and biological properties of water that can cause any harmful consequences on living things and the environment is known as water pollution.
Types of Water Pollution There are many types of water pollution depending on the sources the pollutants originate from. Types of water pollution are as follows: Nutrient Pollution Sewage water, waste water that contain high level of nutrients enter into water bodies. Nutrients in water encourage the growth of algae and weed in the water. This is known as eutrophication. This makes the water unfit for consumption and clog filters. Algal blooms in the water consume all the oxygen in the water, leading to suffocation for other water organisms. Surface Water Pollution Surface water includes rivers, lakes, oceans, streams, lagoons. Surface run-off substances that are hazardous dissolve and mix with water polluting the surface water. These run-off substances can be from any source like factories, domestic, sewage, agriculture etc. Oxygen Depletion Increase in the content of biodegradable matter in the water encourages the growth of microorganisms which end up using most of the oxygen. This results in oxygen depletion, killing aerobic organisms producing more of toxins like ammonia and sulphides. Ground Water Pollution Chemicals from fertilizers and pesticides applied to the soil are washed off and seep in the ground contaminating the composition of the ground water causing pollution. Natural Pollution Sometimes pollution is caused by microorganisms like bacteria and protozoa, this natural pollution can be lethal for fishes and other water life. Consumption of this water can lead to serious illness to humans. Suspended Matter Particulate matter of chemicals and other substances do not dissolve in water easily. These suspended particulate matters settle at the bottom of the water body harming the aquatic life at the floor of the water bodies. Chemical Water Pollution Most of the industrial let-off and chemical fertilizers used in farming end up in the water bodies. These materials are poisonous to most of the aquatic life, can make them infertile and eventually cause death. Water from these sources is obviously unfit for consumption. Oil Spillage Oil tankers and offshore petroleum refineries cause oil leakage polluting water. Oil spills can cause death of many aquatic organisms and also stick to the bodies and feather so seabirds which makes them unable to fly. Domestic Sewage Domestic sewage is the waste water from households. It is also includes sanitary sewage, and it contains a variety of dissolved and suspended. Domestic sewage contains disease causing microbes and chemicals contained in washing powders affect the health of all life forms in water. Agricultural Run-off The practices followed in agriculture affect the groundwater quality. Intensive cultivation causes fertilizers and pesticides to seep into the groundwater; this process is known as leaching. Irrigation run-off from agricultural fields causes high nitrate content in ground water. Industrial Effluents Untreated waste water from manufacturing industries contributes to water pollution. Thermal Water Pollution Thermal water pollution is the rise or fall in water temperatures. This changes in the temperature of water can be caused due to industries. Some industries use water as cooling agent, the heated water is let-off directly into the natural environment at a higher temperature. Cold water pollution happens when cold water is released into the water bodies. Aquatic organisms like fish are vulnerable to slight changes in the temperature. Heated water decreases oxygen in the water killing fish and other aquatic organisms. Cold water affects eggs and larvae, some invertebrates of the aquatic ecosystem.
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Sources of Water Pollution Sources of water pollution, particularly ground water pollution are group under two categories based on the origin of the pollutant. Point Source Pollution Water pollution caused by point sources refers to the contaminants that enter the water body from a single, identifiable source like pipe or ditch. Point source pollutants can be discharges from sewage treatment plant, factories or a city storm drain. Nonpoint Source Pollution Pollution caused by nonpoint sources refers to the contamination that does not originate from a single source. Nonpoint source pollution is the cumulative effect of small contaminants gathered in large area. Leaching of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land, storm water runoff over an agricultural land or a forest are examples of nonpoint source pollution.
Water Pollutants Major water pollutants are as follows: Sewage - Sewage pollutants include domestic and hospital wastes, animal and human excreta etc. The sewage let off causes oxygen depletion, spread of diseases/epidemics. Metals - Metals like mercury are let off into water bodies from industries. Heavy metals like mercury cause poisoning and affect health causing numbness of tongue, lips, limbs,deafness, blurred vision and mental disorders. Lead - Industrial wastes also lead to Lead pollution. If lead enters the human body system in higher quantities it affects RBCs, bone, brain, liver, kidney and the nervous system. Severe lead poisoning can also lead to coma and death. Cadmium - Source for cadmium pollution is industries, fertilizers. Cadmium gets deposited in visceral organs like liver, pancreas, kidney, intestinal mucosa etc. Cadmium poisoning causes vomiting, headache, bronchial pneumonia, kidney necrosis, etc. Arsenic - Fertilizers are source for arsenic pollution. Arsenic poisoning causes renal failure and death. It also causes liver and kidney disorders, nervous disorders and muscular atrophy, etc. Agrochemicals like DDT - It is a pesticide. Accumulation of these pesticides in bodies of fishes, birds, mammals and man affects nervous system, fertility and causes thinning of egg shells in birds. Bacteria, Viruses and Parasites - These are sourced from human and animal excreta, they are infectious agents. Plastics, Detergents, Oil and Gasoline - They are a waste from industries, household and farms. They trigger organic pollution and is harmful to health. Inorganic Chemicals - Inorganic chemicals like acids, salts, metals are a result of industrial effluents, household cleansers, and surface run-off and are injurious to health. Radioactive Materials - Mining and ores processing, power plants, weapons production and natural give rise to radioactive pollution like that of uranium, thorium, cesium, iodine and radon. Radioactive pollution causes serious health diseases to all organisms. Sediments - Sedimentation of soil, silt due to land erosion and deposition causes disruption in ecosystem. Plant Nutrients - Nutrients like nitrates, phosphates, and ammonium are let off from agricultural and urban fertilizers, sewage and manure. Excess of nutrients cause eutrophication and affect the ecosystem. Animal Manure and Plant Residues - These substances in water causes increased algal blooms and microorganism population. This increases oxygen demand of water, affecting aquatic ecosystem. This is introduced into water due to sewage, agricultural run-off, paper mills, food processing etc. Thermal Pollution - Temperature changes of water caused due to using water as cooling agent in power plants and industries causes increase in water temperature affecting the aquatic life.
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Causes of Water Pollution The contaminants that lead to water pollution include a wide variety of substance like chemicals, pathogens, temperature changes and discoloration. Industrial activity causes huge water pollution. Wastes from factories are let off into freshwater to carry waste from plants into rivers. This contaminates water with pollutants like lead, mercury, asbestos and petrochemicals. Sewage let off from domestic households, factories, commercial buildings are untreated in water treatment plants yet are disposed into the sea. Sewage containing flush chemicals and pharmaceuticals causes greater problems. Solid waste dumping and littering of cardboard, plastics, glass, styrofoam, aluminium tins, etc., in water bodies. Oil spills from tankers and ship travel causes oil pollution. Oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick layer on the water surface. Burning of fossil fuels and emissions from industries and motor vehicles causes formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere. These particles fuse with water vapor resulting in acid rain. Acid rain harms aquatic life. Increase in water temperature is a result of global warming and thermal plants use water as cooling agents for mechanical equipments. Other causes of water pollution: Detergents, by-productions of disinfection, food processing waste, insecticides, petrochemicals, debris from logging operations, volatile organic compounds, personal hygiene and cosmetic products, drug pollution, chemical wastes, fertilizers, heavy metals, and sedimentation are other causes of water pollution.
Effects of Water Pollution Water pollution extensively affects health in humans and aquatic ecosystems. Groundwater contamination causes reproductive and fertility disorders in wildlife ecosystems. Sewage, fertilizer and agricultural run-off has nutrients, organic substances which lead to increase of algal bloom causing oxygen depletion. The lower oxygen levels affect the natural ecological balance of rivers and lake ecosystem. Consumption and swimming in contaminated water causes skin diseases, cancer, reproductive problems, stomach ailments in humans. Industrial effluents and agricultural pesticides accumulate in aquatic environments causing harm to aquatic animals and lead to biomagnifications. Heavy metals like mercury, lead are poisonous to small children and women. These chemicals interfere in the development of nervous system in fetuses and young children. Rising water temperatures destroy aquatic ecosystem. Coral reefs are bleached due to warmer temperatures. Warmer waters forces indigenous water species to seek cooler water causing ecological shift of the affected area. Littering by humans like plastic bags, clog and suffocate aquatic animals. Water pollution causes soil erosion in streams, rivers and flooding due to accumulation. (TutorVista.com, 2017)
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http://www.7continentslist.com/world-information/water-pollution-on-earth.php
http://greenplanetethics.com/wordpress/list-of-drinking-water-contaminants-their-maximum-contaminant-level-micro-organisms/
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21. Water Transmission
For most of our history, people have had to live near safe water sources such as lakes, rivers, and springs. That is why many of our communities are near a large water source; for example: Chicago is near Lake Michigan, Toronto is near Lake Ontario, and Montreal is near the St. Lawrence River. Some other cities, such as Phoenix, Los Angeles, and Mexico City were started near water source, but have grown too large to depend on the surrounding surface sources for their water. These cities depend on groundwater sources or must import their water through pipes, canals, aqueducts and ditches from sources many miles away. The process of bringing water supplies to water treatment plants is called water transmission.
In some developing countries, many people must still carry their domestic water by hand over long distances. This is usually a job for the women and children, who may spend many hours each day carrying water for their families. According to the World Health Organization, which monitors water and sanitation issues in developing countries, the situation is improving, and now 3.8 billion people, or 57% of the world’s population, get their drinking water from a piped connection that provides running water in their homes or compound. This means that some 1.6 billion people, 43%, still must go outside their immediate domiciles to obtain clean water (Staggs, 2011).
Water was an important factor in the location of the earliest communities and the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of cities. In the development of water resources beyond their natural condition in rivers, lakes, and springs, the digging of shallow wells was probably the earliest innovation. As the need for water increased and tools were developed, wells were made deeper. Brick-lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus River basin as early as 2500 BCE, and wells almost 500 meters deep are known to have been used in ancient China.
Construction of qanāts, slightly sloping tunnels driven into hillsides that contained groundwater, probably originated in ancient Persia about 700BCE. From the hillsides the water was conveyed by gravity in open channels to nearby towns or cities. The use of qanāts became widespread throughout the region, and some are still in existence. Until 1933, the Iranian capital city of Tehrān, drew its entire water supply from a system of qanāts.
The need to channel water supplies from distant sources was an outcome of the growth of urban communities. Among the most notable of ancient water-conveyance systems are the aqueducts built between 312 BCE and 455 CE throughout the Roman Empire. Some of these impressive works are still in existence. The writing of Sextus Julius Frontinus (who was appointed superintendent of Roman aqueducts in 97 CE) provides information about the design and construction of the 11 major aqueducts that supplied Rome itself. Extending from a distant spring-fed area, a lake or a river, a typical Roman aqueduct included a series of underground and aboveground channels. The longest was the Aqua Marcia, built in 44 BCE. Its source was about 37 km from Rome. The aqueduct itself was 92 km long, however, because it had to meander along land contours in order to maintain a steady flow of water. For about 80 km the aqueduct was underground in a covered trench and only the last 11 km was it carried aboveground on an arcade. In fact, most of the combined length of the aqueducts supplying Rome (about 420 km) was built as covered trenches or tunnels. When crossing a valley, aqueducts were supported by arcades comprising one or more levels of massive piers and impressive arches.
The aqueducts ended in Rome at distribution reservoirs, from which the water was conveyed to public baths or fountains. A few very wealthy or privileged citizens had water piped directly into their homes, but most people carried water in containers from a public fountain. Water was running constantly, the excess being used to clean the streets and flush the sewers.
Ancient aqueducts and pipelines were not capable of withstanding much pressure. Channels were constructed of cut stone, brick, rubble, or rough concrete. Pipes were typically made of drilled stone or of hollowed wooden logs, although clay and lead pipes were also used. During the Middle Ages there was no notable progress in the methods or materials used to convey and distribute water.
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Cast-iron pipes with joints capable of withstanding high pressures were not used very much until the early 19th century. The steam engine was first applied to water-pumping operations at about that time, making possible for all but the smallest communities to have drinking water supplied directly to individual homes. Asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced concrete, and steel came into use as materials for water supply pipelines in the 20th century.
Distribution pipes are made of asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, plastic, reinforced concrete, or steel. Although not as strong as iron, asbestos cement, because of its corrosion resistance and ease of installation, is a desirable material for feeders up to 41 cm in diameter. Cast iron has an excellent record of service, with many installations still functioning after 100 years. Ductile iron, a stronger and more elastic type of cast iron, is used in newer installations. Iron pipes are provided in diameters up to 122 cm and are usually coated to prevent corrosion. Plastic pipes are available in diameters up to 61 cm. They are lightweight, easily installed, and corrosion-resistant, and their smoothness provides good hydraulic characteristics. Precast reinforced concrete pipe sections up to 366 cm in diameter are used for arterial mains. Reinforced concrete pipes are strong and durable. Steel pipe is sometimes used for arterial mains in aboveground installations. It is very strong and lighter than concrete pipe, but it must be protected against corrosion with lining of the interior and with painting and wrapping of the exterior.
Water mains must be placed roughly 1 to 2 meters below the ground surface in order to protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing. Since the water in a distribution system is under pressure, pipelines can follow the shape of the land, uphill as well as downhill. A water main should never be installed in the same trench with a sewer line. Where the two must cross, the water main should be placed above the sewer line (Nathanson, 2014).
Solve the Problem Are there areas in North America that are more densely populated than others? Are these densely populated areas more or less likely to be near a water source? How does water get from the mountains to the cities? (Staggs, 2011)
The Colorado River provides water to many major metropolitan areas that are far from its banks through a series of dams and aqueducts. Find out more by exploring the Los Angeles Aqueduct project at www.ladwp.com/ladwp/cms/ladwp004409.jsp , the Central Arizona Project, www.cap-az.com , and the largest dam and reservoir system, Hoover Dam and Lake Mead, operated by the Southern Nevada Water Authority, https://www.snwa.com/ . (Staggs, 2011)
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Built in 1913, the Los Angeles Aqueduct (L.A. Aqueduct) remains an engineering marvel that provides critical water to millions of people. For 100 years, the L.A. Aqueduct has been the source of legend and controversy, helped create the second largest city in the United States, and preserved the Owens Valley in a natural state. In these pages, you will find accurate, current, and historical information about the system that has fueled so much interest over the years. www.ladwp.com/ladwp/cms/ladwp004409.jsp
Lake Mead water levels are falling due to an extended drought and over appropriation, which increases the risk to millions of people who depend on the Colorado River of water supply shortages. The health and future of the entire Colorado River system could be under threat without additional actions by all river users. All users have a stake in protecting and preserving the environments and economies tied to the reliable water supply the river provides. Visit the Protect Lake Mead Site http://protectlakemead.com/colorado-river-lower-basin-structural-deficit
Colorado River
Southern Nevada's water supply begins as snow melt in the Rocky Mountains. Southern Nevada gets nearly 90 percent of its water supply from the Colorado River, which begins as snow melt in the Rocky Mountains. The snow melt travels through a series of tributaries into the river, which winds its way south for 1,450 miles and empties into the Gulf of California in Mexico. Sharing the River Seven western states and Mexico share the river, which serves more than 25 million people. The river is divided into two major districts: the Upper Basin and the Lower Basin, and it is governed by a series of compacts, laws and court decisions collectively known as the Law of the River. Apportionment/Allocation Nevada receives 300,000 acre-feet per year (AFY) of Colorado River water under the Law of the River compacts. An acre-foot is equivalent to 325,851 gallons of water. When the allocation was assigned, Nevada’s negotiators viewed 300,000 acre-feet as more than reasonable for the sparsely populated Southern Nevada. The state instead focused on hydro-electricity and secured one-third of the electricity generated by Hoover Dam. https://www.snwa.com/ws/river.html
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22. Groundwater and Land Subsidence
Approximately 53% of the population in the United States gets its water from underground aquifers. An aquifer is a geological (created by rocks) formation containing water. Like the holes in a sponge, an aquifer has opening or pores that can store water. Most aquifers are separated from each other by layers of rock or bodies of dense rock that do not have many holes (nonporous). The water is drawn up from the aquifer to the surface by a well or spring. The world’s largest aquifer is the Ogallala Aquifer, which extends from Nebraska to Texas.
Rain and snow can percolate through the soil into the ground. As groundwater, it can seep into an aquifer at various rates, depending on the rock above it. Water may move through sandstone a few inches or feet per day, but it moves much more slowly through hard rock and much faster through gravel.
Because ground water seeps down through soil, the soil filters the water. Because of that natural filtering, groundwater tends to need less treatment than surface water before it is used as drinking water. But pollutants can migrate through earth layers along with water, so even these sources need to be checked for purity. As the water percolates through the ground, it dissolves some of the materials it encounters, increasing its mineral concentration. Aquifers near the surface are more easily polluted than deep aquifers (Staggs, 2011).
Land Subsidence Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of groundwater have been withdrawn from certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The rock compacts because the water is partly responsible for holding the ground up. When the water is withdrawn, the rocks falls in on itself. You may not notice land subsidence too much because it can occur over large areas rather than in a small spot, like a sinkhole. That doesn't mean that subsidence is not a big event -- states like California, Texas, and Florida have suffered damage to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars over the years. This is a picture of the San Joaquin Valley southwest of Mendota in the agricultural area of California. Years and years of pumping groundwater for irrigation has caused the land to drop. The top sign shows where the land surface was back in 1925! Compare that to where Dr. Poland is standing (1977). Here in the United States, one place that has experienced substantial land subsidence is California. You can read all about it on our California Water Science Center Web site.
Subsidence is a problem everywhere Subsidence is a global problem and, in the United States, more than 17,000 square miles in 45 States, an area roughly the size of New Hampshire and Vermont combined, have been directly affected by subsidence. More than 80 percent of the identified subsidence in the Nation has occurred because of exploitation of underground water, and the increasing development of land and water resources threatens to exacerbate existing land-subsidence problems and initiate new ones. In many areas of the arid Southwest, and in more humid areas underlain by soluble rocks such as limestone, gypsum, or salt, land subsidence is an often-overlooked environmental consequence of our land- and water-use practices.
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When you look at this picture of buildings in Mexico City, do you find yourself asking if these buildings in Mexico City seem to be following a wave pattern instead of a straight line from left to right? In fact, that is just what is happening not only to these buildings, but throughout Mexico City, where long-term extraction of groundwater has caused significant land subsidence and associated aquifer-system compaction, which has damaged colonial-era buildings, buckled highways, and disrupted water supply and waste-water drainage. Some buildings have been deemed unsafe and have been closed and many others have needed repair to keep them intact.
Land subsidence is most often caused by human activities, mainly from the removal of subsurface water. This picture shows a fissure near Lucerne Lake in San Bernardino County, Mojave Desert, California (photograph by Loren Metzger). The probable cause was declining groundwater levels. Here are some other things that can cause land subsidence: The principal causes are aquifer- system compaction, drainage of organic soils, underground mining, hydrocompaction, natural compaction, sinkholes, and thawing permafrost. (U.S. Department of the Interior, 2016)
Solve the Problem What do you think happens to wells when all of the water is removed from them? What would happen to the lakes and rivers that are fed by water from springs if all the water were pumped out of the aquifers? (Staggs, 2011)
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23. Soil and Water Do Mix!
Although soils consist primarily of sand, silt, and clay, there are more than 70,000 different types of soils around the globe. Each of these soils holds water differently. Soils can be classified into three groups by texture: clayey, sandy, and loamy. Clay soils are very smooth and sticky. Since clay particles are very small, they do not easily release water to plants or forms pools for wells or aquifers. Sandy soils are very loose and crumbly. The sand particles are so large that they do not hold water and allow water to pass through the soil. Loamy soils are a combination of both sand and clay. (Staggs, 2011)
The mineral particles of the soil differ widely in size and can be classified as follows: Name of the particles Size limits in mm Distinguishable with naked eye gravel larger than 1 obviously sand 1 to 0.5 easily silt 0.5 to 0.002 barely clay less than 0.002 impossible The amount of sand, silt and clay present in the soil determines the soil texture. In coarse textured soils: sand is predominant (sandy soils). In medium textured soils: silt is predominant (loamy soils). In fine textured soils: clay is predominant (clay soils).
The texture of a soil is permanent, the farmer is unable to modify or change it. Coarse textured soil is gritty. Individual particules are loose and fall apart in the hand, even when moist. Medium textured soil feels very soft (like flour) when dry. It can be easily be pressed when wet and then feels silky. Fine textured soil sticks to the fingers when wet and can form a ball when pressed.
Soil structure refers to the grouping of soil particles (sand, silt, clay, organic matter and fertilizers) into porous compounds. These are called aggregates. Soil structure also refers to the arrangement of these aggregates separated by pores and cracks.
Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive and compact soils. Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural practices), he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
Soil moisture content The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil.
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It is commonly expressed as the amount of water (in mm of water depth) present in a depth of one metre of soil. For example: when an amount of water (in mm of water depth) of 150 mm is present in a depth of one metre of soil, the soil moisture content is 150 mm/m (see Fig. 36). Fig. 36. A soil moisture content of 150 mm/m
The soil moisture content can also be expressed in percent of volume. In the example above, 1 m3 of soil (e.g. with a depth of 1 m, and a surface area of 1 m2) contains 0.150 m3 of water (e.g. with a depth of 150 mm = 0.150 m and a surface area of 1 m2). This results in a soil moisture content in volume percent of:
Thus, a moisture content of 100 mm/m corresponds to a moisture content of 10 volume percent. Note: The amount of water stored in the soil is not constant with time, but may vary.
Saturation During a rain shower or irrigation application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil pores are filled with water the soil is said to be saturated. There is no air left in the soil (see Fig. 37a). It is easy to determine in the field if a soil is saturated. If a handful of saturated soil is squeezed, some (muddy) water will run between the fingers. Plants need air and water in the soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will suffer. Many crops cannot withstand saturated soil conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days. Rice is one of the exceptions to this rule. The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does not last long. After the rain or the irrigation has stopped, part of the water present in the larger pores will move downward. This process is called drainage or percolation.
The water drained from the pores is replaced by air. In coarse textured (sandy) soils, drainage is completed within a period of a few hours. In fine textured (clay) soils, drainage may take some (2-3) days.
Groundwater Part of the water applied to the soil surface drains below the rootzone and feeds deeper soil layers which are permanently saturated; the top of the saturated layer is called groundwater table or sometimes just water table.
Depth of the groundwater table The depth of the groundwater table varies greatly from place to place, mainly due to changes in topography of the area (see Fig. 41).
The groundwater table
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In one particular place or field, the depth of the groundwater table may vary in time. Following heavy rainfall or irrigation, the groundwater table rises. It may even reach and saturate the rootzone. If prolonged, this situation can be disastrous for crops which cannot resist "wet feet" for a long period. Where the groundwater table appears at the surface, it is Fig. 41. Variations in depth of the groundwater table called an open groundwater table. This is the case in swampy areas. The groundwater table can also be very deep and distant from the rootzone, for example following a prolonged dry period. To keep the rootzone moist, irrigation is then necessary.
Perched groundwater table A perched groundwater layer can be found on top of an impermeable layer rather close to the surface (20 to 100 cm). It covers usually a limited area. The top of the perched water layer is called the perched groundwater table. The impermeable layer separates the perched groundwater layer from the more deeply located groundwater table (see Fig. 42).
Soil with an impermeable layer not far below the rootzone should be irrigated with precaution, because in the case of over irrigation (too much irrigation), the perched water table may rise rapidly.
Capillary rise So far, it has been explained that water can move downward, as well as horizontally (or laterally). In addition, water can Fig. 42. A perched groundwater table move upward. If a piece of tissue is dipped in water, the water is sucked upward by the tissue. Upward movement of water or capillary rise The same process happens with a groundwater table and the soil above it. The groundwater can be sucked upward by the soil through very small pores that are called capillars. This process is called capillary rise. In fine textured soil (clay), the upward movement of water is slow but covers a long distance. On the other hand, in coarse textured soil (sand), the upward movement of the water is quick but covers only a short distance. Soil texture Capillary rise (in cm) coarse (sand) 20 to 50 cm medium 50 to 80 cm fine (clay) more than 80 cm up to several metres
(Natural Resources Management and Environment Department)
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24. Water Purification
In the United States and Canada, almost all urban areas treat or clean their water using some type of process. Which process is used depends primarily on the quality of the raw (untreated) water. For example, many communities that use groundwater as their water source simply chlorinate the water before ehy distribute it to their customers.
Cities that depend on surface water (lakes or rivers) for their supply generally use conventional treatment to purify the water. Water treatment is the process of cleaning water. Treatment makes the water safe for people to drink. Because water is a good solvent, it picks up all sorts of natural substances. In addition, industry, transportation, agriculture, and other human activities can add pollution to waterways that must be removed before the water can be consumed.
When the microscope was invented in the 1850s, germs could be seen in water for the first time. In 1902, Belgium was the first country to use chlorine to clean or treat water in a public water supply. Today, almost every city in the industrialized world treats its drinking water. Treatment includes disinfection with chlorine or other chemicals to kill germs. Conventional water treatment plants – the most common- follow the same basic process. 1. Intake. Water is taken from surface water. Logs, fish, and plants are screened out at the intake, and the water is drawn into the treatment plant. If the source is groundwater, the “screening” is done by the soil as the water travels under the earth’s surface. Sometimes very little treatment is required for groundwater. 2. Chemical Addition. Aluminum sulfate (alum), polymers, lime-soda ash and/or chlorine are added to the water to kill germs, improve taste and odor, and help settle solids still in the water. The water and chemicals are rapidly mixed together to create a reaction that helps the chemicals work. 3. Coagulation and Flocculation. During this step, the added chemicals continue to react with natural particles in the water, allowing them to cling together during the process of coagulation. The particles are gently stirred during flocculation to form particles called floc that are large enough to be removed. 4. Sedimentation. The water and the floc particles flow into a sedimentation basin where the floc settles to the bottom and is removed. (American Water Works Association) 5. Filtration. After sedimentation, the water flows through filters made of layers of sand, gravel, and sometimes charcoal. Filtration removes any remaining particles. 6. Disinfection. A small amount of chlorine, or other disinfection chemical, is added to the water, which is then held in a closed tank or reservoir called a clearwell. Here, the disinfection chemicals mix throughout the water to keep the water safe as it travels to the public through the distribution system. In some water systems, especially those with groundwater sources, disinfection is the only treatment necessary (American Water Works Association) (Staggs, 2011).
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Several other water treatment processes are also effective in cleaning water. These processes are often combined with different steps in the conventional treatment process and include: Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, which uses a UV (black) light shined into the water, in a manner similar to the solar exposure used by ancient civilizations; Membrane filtration, which uses filters with extremely tine holes to screen out contamination; Ozonation, a chemical that “blasts” germs to death; and Aeration which mixes water with air, releasing gaseous contaminants.
Utilities test the water throughout the treatment process to measure the amounts of chemicals and pollutants. Sampling is performed to make sure the processes are working and that the water is safe before it leaves the plant. In North America, governments have set standards for drinking water. When water leaves a treatment plant, it is as clean or cleaner than required by these standards (American Water Works Association) (Staggs, 2011).
http://www.cleanwateragency.com/Ultrafiltration/
Solve the Problem How can people disinfect their water when they are camping? How does conventional treatment compare to the natural process of groundwater? How does it compare to the processes used by ancient civilizations?? (Staggs, 2011)
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25. Parts Per Million Because water is such a good solvent, it picks up many minerals, chemicals and microbes in the environment (both natural and man-made). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set standards for how much of what contaminant can be in our water. Local water departments treat the water to meet these standards so our water is clean and safe to drink.
It is impossible for all contaminants to be removed, however, and the standards to limit these are expressed in milligrams per liter, which is parts per million (ppm), or even micrograms per liter, which is parts per billion (ppb). Nearly everyone has difficulty understanding what “one in a million” actually means. Highly sophisticated testing equipment means that minuscule amounts of pollutants can be identified and measured – parts per million, parts per billion, and even parts per trillion. These tiny amounts can be imagined this way: One part per million is equal to one drop in a 28-gallon (50 liter) trash can. One part per billion is equal to one drop in about the amount found in an average home swimming pool, or 250 trash cans. One part per trillion is equal to one drop in 20 Olympic-size swimming pools.
(Staggs, 2011)
http://jennarocca.com/parts-per-million-equation/
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Types of Drinking Water Contaminants
The Safe Drinking Water Act defines the term "contaminant" as meaning any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter in water. Therefore, the law defines "contaminant" very broadly as being anything other than water molecules. Drinking water may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. Some drinking water contaminants may be harmful if consumed at certain levels in drinking water while others may be harmless. The presence of contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk. Only a small number of the universe of contaminants as defined above are listed on the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL). The CCL serves as the first level of evaluation for unregulated drinking water contaminants that may need further investigation of potential health effects and the levels at which they are found in drinking water. The following are general categories of drinking water contaminants and Scientist collecting water sample. examples of each: Physical contaminants primarily impact the physical appearance or other physical properties of water. Examples of physical contaminants are sediment or organic material suspended in the water of lakes, rivers and streams from soil erosion. Chemical contaminants are elements or compounds. These contaminants may be naturally occurring or man-made. Examples of chemical contaminants include nitrogen, bleach, salts, pesticides, metals, toxins produced by bacteria, and human or animal drugs. Biological contaminants are organisms in water. They are also referred to as microbes or microbiological contaminants. Examples of biological or microbial contaminants include bacteria, viruses, protozoan, and parasites. Radiological contaminants are chemical elements with an unbalanced number of protons and neutrons resulting in unstable atoms that can emit ionizing radiation. Examples of radiological contaminants include cesium, plutonium and uranium. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016)
(United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2009)
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Contaminants in water sources affecting public health can be divided into three categories:
Inorganic chemicals comprise some of the most common and mobile contaminants in groundwater. Such contaminants include nitrate, ammonia, sodium, chloride, fluoride, and arsenic. Nitrate contamination from sewage and agricultural practices occurs over large Inorganic areas. Salt in groundwater can be the result of the upwelling of highly mineralised Chemicals geothermal or sea water in coastal areas, and road de-icing. Fluoride and arsenic can occur naturally in areas containing sediments derived from igneous rocks. Nitrate and chloride do not adsorb readily on to soil materials and can be transported great distances.
E.g. nitrate, ammonia, sodium, chloride, fluoride, cyanide, arsenic, etc. Organic compounds are carbon and hydrogen-based chemicals, some of which occur naturally. However, it is mainly the human-produced chemicals that are of concern. These chemicals include solvents, pesticides, and other industrial chemicals. Organic chemicals are Organic removed from groundwater by chemical reactions and microbial activity. Many organic Chemicals compounds, however, particularly those containing chlorine, can remain in the subsurface for many years. Many organic chemicals are highly toxic and cause severe health problems such as birth defects and cancer.
E.g. petro-chemicals (oil, diesel), plastic, solvents, pesticides, chlorine, paint, etc. Metals, including heavy metals, are also of environmental concern. The transport of metals is controlled by their solubility. The solubility of metals is dependent on pH. The pH of water Metals can be affected by acid drainage from mining activities. Dissolved metals can also be adsorbed onto large organic molecules in water and be transported by them.
E.g. cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, etc. http://www.sswm.info/content/pathogens-contaminants
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Flint Water Crisis Fast Facts
(CNN)Here is a look at the water crisis in Flint, Michigan, where cost-cutting measures led to tainted drinking water that contained lead and other toxins.
Facts: Flint, located 70 miles north of Detroit, is a city of 98,310, where 41.2% of residents live below the poverty line and the median household income is $24,862, according to the US Census Bureau. The median household income for the rest of Michigan is $49,576. The city is 56.6% African-American.
Flint once thrived as the home of the nation's largest General Motors plant. The city's economic decline began during the 1980s, when GM downsized its sprawling industrial complex.
In 2011, the state of Michigan took over Flint's finances after an audit projected a $25 million deficit. Even though Flint's water supply fund was $9 million in the red, officials were using some of this money to cover shortfalls in its general fund. A receivership ended in April 2015, when the water fund was declared solvent and the remaining deficit was eliminated by an emergency loan.
In order to reduce the water fund shortfall, the city switched water sources in 2014. While a new pipeline connecting Flint with Lake Huron was under construction, the city turned to the Flint River as a water source during the two-year transition.
The Flint River had been the city's primary water source decades earlier, but Flint switched to Lake Huron in 1967, purchasing its supply through the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department.
Contaminated Water Supply: Historically, the water in the Flint River downstream of Flint has been of poor quality, and was severely degraded during the 1970s, due to "the presence of fecal coliform bacteria, low dissolved oxygen, plant nutrients, oils, and toxic substances." In 2001, the state ordered the monitoring and cleanup of 134 polluted sites within the Flint River watershed, including industrial complexes, landfills and farms laden with pesticides and fertilizer.
According to a class-action lawsuit, the state Department of Environmental Quality was not treating the Flint River water with an anti-corrosive agent, in violation of federal law. The river water was found to be 19 times more corrosive than water from Detroit, which was from Lake Huron, according to a study by Virginia Tech.
Since the water wasn't properly treated, lead from aging service lines to homes began leaching into the Flint water supply after the city tapped into the Flint River as its main water source.
Health effects of lead exposure in children include impaired cognition, behavioral disorders, hearing problems and delayed puberty. In pregnant women, lead is associated with reduced fetal growth. In everyone, lead consumption can affect the heart, kidneys and nerves. Although there are medications that may reduce the amount of lead in the blood, treatments for the adverse health effects of lead have yet to be developed.
Timeline: 2007 - Flint prepares to tap into the Flint River as a backup water source, despite residents' concerns about sewage spills and industrial waste. Flint is the only city in Genesee County poised to use the Flint River as an emergency water source, according to the county's drain commissioner.
March 22, 2012 - Genesee County announces a new pipeline is being designed to deliver water from Lake Huron to Flint. The plan is to reduce costs by switching the city's water supplier from the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD) to the Karegnondi Water Authority (KWA).
April 16, 2013 - On the city council's recommendation Andy Dillon, state treasurer, authorizes Flint to make the switch. One day later, the DWSD terminates its water service contract with Flint, effective April of 2014. There are further discussions, however, between Flint's leaders and the DWSD about options that would allow the city to purchase Detroit water after the contract ended. Flint resumes buying Detroit water in October of 2015.
April 21, 2014 - The changeover to the Flint River is delayed by days as workers complete construction of a disinfectant system at the treatment plant.
August 14, 2014 - The city announces fecal coliform bacterium has been detected in the water supply, prompting a boil water advisory for a neighborhood on the west side of Flint. The city boosts the amount of chlorine in the water and flushes the system. The advisory is lifted on August 20.
September 5, 2014 - Flint issues another boil water advisory after a positive test for total coliform bacteria. The presence of this type of bacteria is a warning sign that E. coli or other disease-causing organisms may be contaminating the water. City officials tell residents they will flush the pipes and add more chlorine to the water. After four days, residents are told they can safely resume drinking water from the tap.
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October 1, 2014 - The Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) issues a governor's briefing paper outlining possible causes for the contamination issues. Among the problems are leaking valves and aging cast iron pipes susceptible to a buildup of bacteria. The MDEQ concludes flushing the system and increasing chlorine in the water will limit the number of boil water advisories in the future.
October 2014 - The General Motors plant in Flint stops using the city's water due to concerns about high levels of chlorine corroding engine parts. The company strikes a deal with a neighboring township to purchase water from Lake Huron in lieu of using water from the Flint River. The switch is anticipated to cost the city $400,000.
January 2, 2015 - The city warns residents the water contains byproducts of disinfectants that may cause health issues including an increased risk for cancer over time. The letter is sent after the state finds that the level of disinfecting chemicals in the water exceeds the threshold set by the Safe Drinking Water Act. The water is deemed safe for the general population, but the elderly and parents of young children are cautioned to consult with their doctors.
January 12, 2015 - The DWSD offers to reconnect the city with Lake Huron water, waiving a $4 million fee to restore service. City officials decline, citing concerns water rates could go up more than $12 million each year, even with the reconnection fee waiver.
January 21, 2015 - Residents tote jugs of discolored water to a community forum. The Detroit Free Press reports children are developing rashes and suffering from mysterious illnesses.
February 2015 - The MDEQ notes some "hiccups" in the transition, including a buildup of TTHM, a cancer-causing byproduct of chlorine and organic matter. In a background paper submitted to Governor Rick Snyder, the MDEQ states that elevated TTHM levels are not an immediate health emergency because the risk of disease increases only after years of consumption. Snyder announces a $2 million dollar grant to fix problems in the pipes and sewers.
February 26, 2015 - The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) notifies the MDEQ it has detected dangerous levels of lead in the water at the home of Flint resident Lee-Anne Walters. A mother of four, she had first contacted the EPA with concerns about dark sediment in her tap water possibly making her children sick. Testing revealed that her water had 104 parts per billion (ppb) of lead, nearly seven times greater than the EPA limit of 15 ppb.
March 18, 2015 - Walters follows up with the EPA after another test indicates the lead level in her water is 397 ppb.
March 23, 2015 - Flint City Council members vote 7-1 to stop using river water and to reconnect with Detroit. However, state- appointed emergency manager, Jerry Ambrose overrules the vote calling it "incomprehensible" because costs would skyrocket and "water from Detroit is no safer than water from Flint."
June 5, 2015 - A group of clergy and activists file a lawsuit against the city, claiming that the river water is a health risk. The city attorney fires back in July that the lawsuit is baseless. The case is dismissed in September.
June 24, 2015 - An EPA manager issues a memo, "High Lead Levels in Flint," warning the city is not providing corrosion control treatment to mitigate the presence of lead in drinking water. According to the memo, scientists at Virginia Tech tested tap water from the Walters' home and found the lead level was as high as 13,200 ppb. Water contaminated with 5,000 ppb of lead is classified by the EPA as hazardous waste. Three other homes also have high lead levels in the water, according to the memo. Walters sends the memo about lead in her tap water to an investigative reporter from the ACLU, Curt Guyette.
July 9, 2015 - The ACLU posts a video about the lead in Walters' water. Flint Mayor Dayne Walling drinks a cup of tap water on a local television report to ensure residents that it is safe.
July 13, 2015 - After the EPA memo is leaked by the ACLU, a spokesman for the MDEQ tells Michigan Public Radio, "Anyone who is concerned about lead in the drinking water in Flint can relax." He explains initial testing on 170 homes indicates that the problem is not widespread.
July 22, 2015 - Governor Snyder's chief of staff, Dennis Muchmore, emails the Department of Community Health in response to reports by the ACLU and on public radio. "I'm frustrated by the water issue in Flint. I really don't think people are getting the benefit of the doubt. Now they are concerned and rightfully so about the lead level studies they are receiving from DEQ [MDEQ] samples. Can you take a moment out of your impossible schedule to personally take a look at this?"
August 17, 2015 - The MDEQ orders Flint to optimize corrosion control treatment in the water supply after state testing from the first six months of 2015 reveals elevated lead levels.
August 23, 2015 - Virginia Tech Professor Marc Edwards notifies the MDEQ his team will be conducting a water quality study.
September 8, 2015 - The Virginia Tech team issues a preliminary report indicating 40% of Flint homes have elevated lead levels.
September 9, 2015 - The EPA announces it will assist Flint in developing a corrosion control treatment for the water. The next day, MDEQ spokesman, Brad Wurfel tells the Flint Journal the city needs to upgrade its infrastructure, but he also expresses skepticism about the Virginia Tech study.
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September 11, 2015 - After concluding that Flint water is 19 times more corrosive than Detroit water, Virginia Tech recommends the state declare that the water is not safe for drinking or cooking. The river water is corroding old pipes and lead is leaching into the water, according to the study.
September 24, 2015 - A research team led by Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha, a pediatrician from the Hurley Medical Center, releases a study revealing the number of children with elevated lead levels in their blood nearly doubled after the city switched its water source. In neighborhoods with the most severe contamination problems, testing showed lead levels tripled.
October 2, 2015 - The Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) reviews the data from the Hurley Medical Center and verifies the findings. The state begins testing drinking water in schools and distributing free water filters.
October 8, 2015 - The MDEQ announces three Flint schools tested positive for dangerous lead levels in the water. Governor Snyder says the city will discontinue using Flint River water.
October 15, 2015 - Governor Snyder signs a spending bill appropriating $9.35 million to help Flint reconnect with Detroit for water and provide health services for residents.
October 16, 2015 - The city switches back to Detroit water. Residents are cautioned that it will take weeks for the system to be properly flushed out and there may be lingering issues. The EPA establishes a Flint Safe Drinking Water Task Force.
November 4, 2015 - The EPA publishes a final, redacted version of its report on high lead levels in three Flint homes, including Walters' residence.
November 13, 2015 - Residents file a federal class action lawsuit claiming 14 state and city officials, including Governor Snyder, knowingly exposed Flint residents to toxic water.
December 14, 2015 - Flint declares a state of emergency.
December 29, 2015 - MDEQ Director Dan Wyant resigns after the Flint Water Advisory Task Force concludes the crisis resulted from a failure of state regulators.
January 5, 2016 - Governor Snyder declares a state of emergency in Genesee County. A spokeswoman for the US Attorney's Office in Detroit tells CNN that a federal investigation is underway.
January 12, 2016 - The Michigan National Guard is mobilized to help distribute clean water.
January 13, 2016 - Governor Snyder announces an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease occurred in the Flint area between June 2014 and November 2015, with 87 cases and 10 deaths. It is unclear, however, whether the spike is linked to the water switch.
January 14, 2016 - Governor Snyder writes President Barack Obama to request the declaration of an expedited major disaster in Flint, estimating it will cost $55 million to install lead-free pipes throughout the city.
January 16, 2016 - The president declines to declare a disaster in Flint. Instead, he authorizes $5 million in aid, declaring a state of emergency in the city. The state of emergency allows the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to step in.
January 21, 2016 - The EPA criticizes the state's slow response to the crisis and expresses concerns about the construction of the new pipeline to Lake Huron. The agency issues an emergency administrative order to ensure state regulators are complying with the Safe Drinking Water Act and are being transparent in their response to the crisis. The EPA says it will begin testing the water and publishing the results on a government website. An EPA administrator who was notified in June about Flint's high lead levels resigns effective February 1.
January 22, 2016 - The MDEQ claims the EPA has failed to note the state's multimillion-dollar initiatives to address the crisis, including water testing, distribution of filters and medical care.
January 27, 2016 - A new federal lawsuit is filed in Detroit against the state, alleging the violation of the Safe Water Drinking Act.
February 1, 2016 - A spokeswoman for the US Attorney's Office in Detroit tells the Detroit Free Press that the FBI, the US Postal Inspection Service, the inspector general of the EPA and the EPA's criminal investigation division are assisting in the probe of the Flint water crisis.
February 3, 2016 - The House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform holds a hearing on the Flint water crisis. Governor Snyder is not called to appear.
February 8, 2016 - Governor Snyder turns down an invitation to testify at another congressional hearing on the crisis, citing a previous commitment to deliver a budget presentation to the state legislature in Michigan. The committee does not have the power of subpoena.
March 17, 2016 - Governor Snyder testifies before the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform.
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March 31, 2016 - Lawyers, including some with the NAACP, file a class action lawsuit against Lockwood, Andrews & Newnam, PC, the state of Michigan, Governor Snyder and others. Plaintiffs seek damages for those affected by the water crisis.
April 20, 2016 - Criminal charges are filed against government employees Mike Glasgow, Stephen Busch and Mike Prysby. Busch, a district water supervisor for the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, and Prysby, a district water engineer, each face six charges. Glasgow, a former laboratory and water quality supervisor who now serves as the city's utilities administrator, is charged with tampering with evidence, a felony, and willful neglect of duty, a misdemeanor. All are on administrative leave.
April 25, 2016 - Five hundred and fourteen residents and former residents of Flint file a class action lawsuit against the EPA. The plaintiffs allege negligence and demand more than $220 million in damages for the EPA's role in the water crisis.
April 25, 2016 - Flint activists announce the formation of a new initiative, the Community Development Organization. Created in response to the water crisis, the non-profit will assist and share information with those effected by the Flint River water switch.
May 4, 2016 - President Barack Obama visits Flint to hear first-hand how residents have endured the city's water crisis and to highlight federal assistance to state and local agencies.
May 4, 2016 - Mike Glasgow reaches a deal with prosecutors contingent on his cooperating as a witness in the investigation. Glasgow gives a plea of no contest to willful neglect of duty, a misdemeanor, and the felony charge of tampering with evidence is dismissed. He is released on personal bond following the plea agreement.
May 9, 2016 - Fired city administrator Natasha Henderson files a federal lawsuit against the city of Flint and Mayor Karen Weaver. Henderson claims that in February 2016, Weaver told former employee Maxine Murray to direct donors to a political campaign fund "Karenabout Flint" instead of to the Safe Water/Safe Homes fund. The Safe Water/Safe Homes fund is specifically for the residents who are suffering due to the water crisis. Mayor Weaver calls the allegations "outrageously false."
June 22, 2016 - The Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette files civil lawsuits against two companies for their alleged role in the Flint water crisis. Veolia North America is charged with negligence, fraud, and public nuisance. Lockwood, Andrews & Newman (LAN) is charged with negligence and public nuisance.
-- LAN responds to the lawsuit by stating it was "surprised and disappointed that the state would change direction and wrongfully accuse LAN of acting improperly, and will vigorously defend itself against these unfounded claims." LAN also says the accusations ignored the assessments of investigators that the City of Flint and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality made the key decisions about water treatment. "LAN was not hired to operate the plant and had no responsibility for water quality," the statement says, adding that the company "regularly advised that corrosion control should be added and that the system needed to be fully tested before going online."
-- Veolia also responds with "disappointment in Attorney General Schuette's inaccurate and unwarranted allegations." The company says, "the Attorney General has not talked to Veolia about its involvement in Flint, interviewed the company's technical experts or asked any questions about our one-time, one-month contract with Flint." The company says its "engagement with the city was wholly unrelated to the current lead issues."
July 29, 2016 - Six current and former state workers are charged as the criminal investigation continues. One of the employees, Liane Shekter-Smith, is the former chief of the Michigan Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance. She faces charges of misconduct in office and willful neglect of duty for allegedly misleading the public and concealing evidence of rising lead levels in water.
October 18, 2016 - The ACLU of Michigan files a class action lawsuit against school districts in Flint for exposing students to tainted water and inadequately testing children for learning disabilities that may have been caused by ingesting lead.
November 2016 - Dennis Walters, the husband of Flint advocate Lee-Anne Walters, files a complaint claiming that he is being mistreated at work by superiors and colleagues who resent his wife's activism. Walters, a Navy veteran who works at a police precinct at the Naval Station Norfolk, says that he has been scheduled to work long hours with no breaks and denied opportunities to expand his skill set via training. The family relocated to Virginia because of the water problems in Flint.
November 10, 2016 - The state of Michigan and city of Flint are ordered to deliver bottled water to homes where the government hasn't checked to ensure that filters are working properly. In court documents, the leader of a nonprofit group helping residents said that as many as 52% of the water filters installed in a sample of more than 400 homes had problems.
December 20, 2016 - Four officials -- two of Flint's former emergency managers, who reported directly to the governor, and two water plant officials -- are charged with felonies of false pretenses and conspiracy. They are accused of misleading the Michigan Department of Treasury into getting millions in bonds, and then misused the money to finance the construction of a new pipeline and force Flint's drinking water source to be switched to the Flint River.
January 24, 2017 - The Michigan Department of Environmental Quality says that lead levels in the city's water tested below the federal limit in a recent six-month study.
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January 30, 2017 - A $722 million class action lawsuit is filed against the EPA on behalf of more than 1,700 residents impacted by the water crisis.
February 17, 2017 - The Michigan Civil Rights Commission issues a report: "The Flint Water Crisis: Systemic Racism Through the Lens of Flint." According to the 129-page report, "deeply embedded institutional, systemic and historical racism" indirectly contributed to the ill-fated decision to tap the Flint River for drinking water as a cost-saving measure. While the study says the commission did not find specific violations of Michigan's civil rights laws, the commission says it believes "the current state civil rights laws appear inadequate to address" the "root of this crisis."
March 17, 2017 - The EPA announces that it has awarded $100 million to Flint for drinking water infrastructure upgrades.
March 28, 2017 - A federal judge approves a $97 million settlement, in which the state of Michigan agrees to replace lead or galvanized steel water lines in the City of Flint. The state will cover the cost of replacing water lines -- the pipes that connect household plumbing to the main distribution pipe running beneath the street -- for at least 18,000 Flint households by 2020.
June 14, 2017 - The Michigan attorney general's office announces that several state officials have been charged with involuntary manslaughter in connection with a Legionnaires' outbreak that killed 12 people during the Flint water crisis.
(CNN, 2017)
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26. Waterborne Diseases
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5709a4.htm
Cholera and typhoid are two common diseases that are caused by untreated drinking water. Cholera is a serious infectious intestinal disease characterized by acute fever, severe diarrhea, vomiting and muscle cramps. Death can occur several hours after the onset of the disease. Typhoid, a less severe disease, is characterized by malaise, fever, and a severe headache. Every day nearly 6,000 people who share our planet die from water-related illnesses and the vast majority are children. During the past 10 years, thousands of people have died in many developing countries from waterborne diseases. In fact, more than 50% of those hospitalized in developing countries are victims of waterborne diseases.
With the introduction of chlorine, typhoid and cholera have been virtually eliminated in North America. The only recent cases of U.S. residents dying from these waterborne diseases were people who had traveled in developing countries.
In recent years, scientists have carefully investigated to see if the same chlorine that disinfects our drinking water could also form harmful substances (called trihalomethanes, or THMs) when combined with organic compounds – typically decaying leaves, grass, and dead trees. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has stated: “The benefits of chlorination far outweigh any potential harmful effects of compounds that may be created in the process.” (Staggs, 2011).
Tapped Out?: Are Chlorine's Beneficial Effects in Drinking Water Offset by Its Links to Cancer? Thousands of American municipalities add chlorine to their drinking water to get rid of microbes. But this inexpensive and highly effective disinfectant has a dark side. “Chlorine, added as an inexpensive and effective drinking water disinfectant, is also a known poison to the body,” says Vanessa Lausch of filter manufacturer Aquasana. “It is certainly no coincidence that chlorine gas was used with deadly effectiveness as a weapon in the First World War.” The gas would severely burn the lungs and other body tissues when inhaled, and is no less powerful when ingested by mouth.
Lausch adds that researchers have now linked chlorine in drinking water to higher incidences of bladder, rectal and breast cancers. Reportedly chlorine, once in water, interacts with organic compounds to create trihalomethanes (THMs)—which when ingested encourage the growth of free radicals that can destroy or damage vital cells in the body. “Because so much of the water we drink ends up in the bladder and/or rectum, ingestions of THMs in drinking water are particularly damaging to these organs,” says Lausch.
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The link between chlorine and bladder and rectal cancers has long been known, but only recently have researchers found a link between common chlorine disinfectant and breast cancer, which affects one out of every eight American women. A recent study conducted in Hartford, Connecticut found that women with breast cancer have 50-60 percent higher levels of organochlorines (chlorine by-products) in their breast tissue than cancer-free women.
But don't think that buying bottled water is any solution. Much of the bottled water for sale in the U.S. comes from public municipal water sources that are often treated with, you guessed it, chlorine. A few cities have switched over to other means of disinfecting their water supplies. Las Vegas, for example, has followed the lead of many European and Canadian cities in switching over to harmless ozone instead of chlorine to disinfect its municipal water supply.
As for getting rid of the chlorine that your city or town adds to its drinking water on your own, theories abound. Some swear by the method of letting their water sit for 24 hours so that the chlorine in the glass or pitcher will off-gas. Letting the tap run for awhile is not likely to remove any sizable portion of chlorine, unless one were to then let the water sit overnight before consuming it. Another option is a product called WaterYouWant, which looks like sugar but actually is composed of tasteless antioxidants and plant extracts. The manufacturer claims that a quick shake of the stuff removes 100 percent of the chlorine (and its odor) from a glass a tap water. A year’s supply of WaterYouWant retails for under $30.
Of course, an easier way to get rid of chlorine from your tap water is by installing a carbon-based filter, which absorbs chlorine and other contaminants before they get into your glass or body. Tap-based filters from the likes of Paragon, Aquasana, Kenmore, Seagull and others remove most if not all of the chlorine in tap water, and are relatively inexpensive to boot (Tapped Out?: Are Chlorine's Beneficial Effects in Drinking Water Offset by Its Links to Cancer?, 2017).
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Waterborne Pathogens
Pathogen Disease (Symptoms)
Bacteria Aeromonas spp Enteritis Campylobacteriosis (diarrhoea, cramping, abdominal pain, fever, nausea; Campylobacter jejuni/coli arthritis; Guillain-Barré syndrome) Escherichia coli (EIEC, EPEC, Enteritis ETEC, EHEC) Plesiomonas shigelloides Enteritis Typhoid/paratyphoid fever (headache, fever, malaise, anorexia, bradycardia, Salmonella typhi/paratyphi splenomegaly, cough) Salmonella spp. Salmonellosis (diarrhoea, fever, abdominal cramps) Shigellosis (dysentery - bloody diarrhoea, vomiting, cramps, fever; Reiter’s Shigella spp. syndrome) Vibrio cholera Cholera (watery diarrhoea, lethal if severe and untreated) Yersinia spp. Yersinioses (fever, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, joint pains, rash)
Virus Enteric adenovirus 40 and 41 Enteritis Astrovirus Enteritis Calicivirus (incl. Noroviruses) Enteritis Coxsackievirus Various: respiratory illness, enteritis, viral meningitis Echovirus Aseptic meningitis, encephalitis (often asymptomatic) Enterovirus types 68-71 Meningitis, encephalitis, paralysis Hepatitis A Hepatitis (fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea, abdominal discomfort, jaundice) Hepatitis E Hepatitis Poliomyelitis (often asymptomatic, fever, nausea, vomiting, headache, Poliovirus paralysis) Rotavirus Enteritis Parasitic protozoa Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis Cryptosporidiosis (watery diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and pain) Cyclospora cayetanensis (often asymptomatic; diarrhoea; abdominal pain) Amoebiasis (often asymptomatic, dysentery, abdominal discomfort, fever, Entamoeba histolytica chills) Giardia intestinalis Giardiasis (diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, malaise, weight loss) Helminthes (parasitic worms) Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis (generally no or few symptoms; wheezing; coughing; fever; enteritis; pulmonary eosinophilia)
Taenia solium/saginata Taeniasis Trichuriasis(unapparent through vague digestive tract distress to emaciation Trichuris trichiura with dry skin and diarrhoea) Ancylostoma duodenale(Hookworm) (Itch; rash; cough; anaemia; protein deficiency) Schistosomiasis spp Schistosomiasis, bilharzia
http://www.sswm.info/content/pathogens-contaminants
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27. Solar Still
Water is called the universal solvent. That means minerals and additives can be small enough to completely mix with the liquid. Ocean water has large amounts of salt minerals dissolved in it. Humans cannot drink this because the dissolved salt damages the brain, nerves, heart, and kidney.
Distillation refers to the process of removing impurities from a liquid by first vaporizing it and then allowing it to condense. Distillation can be used to convert salt water into drinking water. The key to distillation is the amount of heat and energy that is used in the process. Some areas use a solar still. A solar still uses the energy of the sun to convert salt water into drinking water. Because a great deal of energy is needed to convert the large amounts of water that communities require, solar stills are not widely used for converting salt water into drinking water.
Some areas such as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the U.S. Naval Base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, use distillation to produce drinking water. Most of these stills are powered by oil-burning generators. Since ocean water is abundant in these areas (but fresh water isn’t), the benefit of producing portable drinking water outweighs the cost of the fuel to produce it (Staggs, 2011).
https://sustainability.stackexchange.com/questions/5455/why- cant-solar-stills-convert-sea-water-into-fresh-water
http://file.scirp.org/Html/10-6401101_8277.htm
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28. Water’s Way
The third part of a water supply system is distribution. Each day, about 40 billion gallons (227 billion liters) of clean drinking water are produced to be distributed to consumers by water systems in the United States. The water treatment plant is connected to homes and businesses through miles and miles of underground pipes.
Large pipes, called mains, run beneath streets to carry the water to different neighborhoods and business districts. These pipes are made of iron concrete, steel or hard plastic. Buildings are connected to the mains by service lines, often made of copper. These service lines are linked to a building’s indoor plumbing.
In addition to service lines, storage tanks and fire hydrants are also connected to the mains. The storage tanks are usually built on high ground so gravity can move the water through the pipes to the customers. This saves energy.
Storage tanks hold water in reserve so there is enough water for everyone to use water at the same time, like in the morning when people are getting ready for school and work. More importantly, tanks store water so there is enough to fight fires. Firefighters connect hoses to hydrants that pull water out of the distribution system when they need to fight a fire. Back in the 1800s, before water treatment plants existed, water distribution systems were built in cities just to provide access to water to put out fires.
In many cities today, computers control the amount of water that goes through the mains. Large valves are also used to control the water. The vales act just like giant faucet handles that can shut off the water at important points in the distribution system. If a water main breaks or other problems occur, the water suply can be shut off to the broken section of pipe until repairs are made.
Utilities sample and test water throughout the distribution system to make sure the water reaching the customers is safe. They also flush the water pipes regularly to keep them clean. This done is by turning off valves at certain points and forcing water at high pressure through a section of pipe and out fire hydrants (Staggs, 2011).
https://www.epa.gov/dwsixyearreview/drinking -water-distribution-systems
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29. Water Pressure
Water pressure is the force of water pushing against an object (such as the sides of water pipes). Most cities build their water treatment plant or a water tower on the highest point of the city. This allows the natural force of gravity to distribute the water throughout the town. Without pressure water would not be able to move long distances (Staggs, 2011).
http://www.nwwater.com/index.php/water-pressure-questions
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30. Water Works Most treated water isn’t consumed. In addition to residential homes, treated water is distributed to industrial, commercial, and public facilities. Some industrial plants, such as computer chip manufacturers, pump and process their own water to completely remove any trace minerals, producing ultrapure water.
Several cities also have treatment plants that clean the water to slightly lower standards, producing reclaimed, or reuse, water. This recycled water is then distributed through separate pipes to nonpotable uses.
Water is a necessity in all aspects of life. Water distribution systems connect to buildings and irrigation systems throughout a community, providing clean water for many uses. These are some of the different ways that water is used.
RESIDENTIAL PUBLIC USE Watering Parks Bathing Public pools Cooking Highway medians Washing INDUSTRIAL Recreation Processing microchips for computers COMMERCIAL Ore smelting Hospitals Meat butchering and packing Restaurants Food processing Sports arenas Producing electricity Schools and universities
(Staggs, 2011)
Solve the Problem Which of the listed activities would be appropriate for reused water – clean water that doesn’t need to meet drinking water standards? (Staggs, 2011)
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31. Water Economics
Every day people work around the clock to produce and deliver the clean, safe water we use. The average amount of water produced per person per day in the United States is about 160 gallons (606liters) for all uses, including industrial, commercial and public use. U.S. residents each use an average of 80 to 100 gallons (303 to 279 liters) per day. Canadians use considererably less, with an average home use per person of 230 liters (60 gallons) per day. For areas with heavy industry or that are highly agricultural, this average is higher. For residential areas, the average is lower.
Most people pay for water delivered to their home according to the amount they use. In the United States, the water rate is usually based on each 1,000 gallons used; in most other industrialized countries, the charge is for each cubic meter (m3) used. This is the “volume” charge for actual water used. One thousand gallons (3.8 m3) of water typically serves one consumer for about 20 days. Prices vary greatly, but a typical cost is in the United States is about $3 (US) for 1,000 gallons (3.8 m3). In Canada, where households tend to use less water, typical rates are about $1/m3 264 gallons) in Canadian dollars, so if you do the math, rates are about the same in both countries (Staggs, 2011).
https://www.scgov.net/utilities/Pages/ReadWaterMeter.aspx
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32. Save the Water A person needs only five gallons of clean water a day to meet basic needs, but most North Americans use much more than that. A typical U.S. household of four people uses 400 gallons (1,514 liters) of water per day. Much of that water goes to watering the lawn. Indoors, nearly 30 percent is flushed down the toilet. Clothes washing accounts for 26 percent of that use, followed by showers at 20 percent and faucets (dishes, washing hands, brushing teeth, etc.) at 19 percent.
Water-saving toilets and other fixtures can save more than 11,000 gallons (41,600 liters) per year in an average home. For example, low-water use toilets require less than 1.3 gallons (4.9 liters) per flush, compared to 3.5 gallons (13.2 liters) per flush for older, less-efficient models. Conserving water also conserves energy, because it takes energy to treat and deliver the water that you use every day.
A lot of water is wasted because of leaky fixtures. A dripping faucet that fills an 8-ounce (237 milliliters) container in less than 30 minutes can waste as much as 1,225 gallons (4,630litres) of water each year. To detect hidden leaks, look at your family’s water fill. It will tell you how much water is used per month, or per billing period. If four people live in your house and the bill show more than 12,ooo gallons (45,500 liters) used per month during a winter month, such as January or February, your house probably has some serious leaks.
What are some ways you can save water? 1.) Take a shower instead of a bath. A full bathtub uses about 70 gallons (265 liters) of water, while a five- minute shower uses just 10 to 25 gallons (38 to 95 liters). 2.) Be a drip detective. Check all faucets, toilets and appliances for leaks. A leak faucet that fills an 8- ounce (237 milliliter) container in less than 30 minutes can waste as much as 1,225 gallons (4,620 liters) of water a year. 3.) Clean vegetables in a pan of water rather than under running tap water, then give your plants a drink with the used water. 4.) Run the dishwasher and clothes washer only when full. 5.) Cool your drinking water in the refrigerator instead of running the tap. 6.) Run water at less than full flow, and turn the faucet off when you floss and brush. 7.) Adjust the height of your lawn mower to cut your grass higher. A lawn height of 2 ½ to 3 inches (6.3 to 7.6 cm) helps protect the roots from heat stress and reduces the loss of moisture to evaporation. 8.) Use a broom or a rake, not the hose, to remove debris from driveways and walkways. 9.) Keep swimming pools covered when not in use to slow evaporation. 10.) Water lawns and plants early in the morning or in the evening, when the sun’s rays aren’t working to evaporate your water.
(Staggs, 2011)
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33. The Value of Water In a world of sky-rocketing prices on everything from food to homes to fuel, your tap water remains one of the best bargains around. At a fraction of a penny per gallon, tap water provides safety, convenience and freedom. Less than 1% of the average person’s total personal income is spent on water and wastewater services. Studies show that bottled water is not purer than tap water, yet bottled water costs about 1900% more. Community water supplies are test every day – far more frequent testing than bottled water.
Based on 2010 data: The average price of water in the United States is about $1.50 for 1,000 gallons. At that price, a gallon of water costs less than one penny.
Gallon of Cost $ Tap water Less than 0.5 Bottled water 1.43 – 8.00 Soda pop 2.80 – 4.60 Milk 3.79 – 4.24 Gasoline 2.49 – 3.75 Table wine 5.45 – 37.95 Coffee-shop latte individually served 35.00 – 52.00 Imported olive oil 135.00 – 525.00 French perfume 60,160
An 8-ounce (237 milliliters) glass can be refilled with tap water approximately 15,000 times for the same price as a six-pack of soda. Bottled water costs about 1900% more than water straight from the tap. What do you think is the better bargain? (Staggs, 2011)
2016 Data: A typical household, using 60,000 gallons a year, paid $316 for water service from a local government and $501 for service from a private company. (Food & Water Watch, 2016)This is $5.27 per 1,000 gallons, which is 0.00527 cents per gallon compared to the 2010 Data of 0.0015 cents per gallon. So water is still less than one penny per gallon. (Mrs. Booker)
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Appendix A. Organisms Found in Raw Water B. Water Treatment Around the World C. EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations D. CDC Water Borne Pathogens
http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/index.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/ponddip/index.html
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APPENDIX A Organisms Found in Raw Water
NOT TO SCALE
http://www.emporia.edu/ksn/v03n3-february1957/
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APPENDIX A Organisms Found in Raw Water
http://www.thinglink.com/scene/645099091805601792
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APPENDIX A Organisms Found in Raw Water
Rarely predominant except for start-up conditions and conditions that mimic start-up such as Amoebae over-wasting, recovery from toxicity, washout, and organic overloading. Dominant under high organic loading, dispersion of floc particles, such as through chlorination, Flagellates, plant- and start-up conditions or conditions that mimic start-up. like Also may dominate in the presence of excess soluble phosphorus. Except for the presence of excess soluble phosphorus, these are dominant for operational Flagellates,animal- conditions listed for plant-like flagellates and usually follow plant-like flagellates as the like dominant group. Free-swimming Transition group that dominates between healthy and unhealthy conditions and proliferates when ciliates large numbers of free-swimming bacteria are present. Dominant in the presence of mature floc particles and low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in Crawling ciliates the bulk solution. Alternate with stalked ciliates as the dominant group. Dominant in the presence of mature floc particles and low BOD in the bulk solution. Stalked ciliates Alternate with crawling ciliates as the dominant group.
https://eponline.com/Articles/2007/03/01/The-Protozoa-Puzzle.aspx?Page=1
https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/ch-12-vocab/deck/12306093
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Euglena
Nematode Planarian
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Rotifers Waterbear Cyclops Water Shrimp
Volvox (green) Spirogyra (green) Desmids (green)
Haematococcus (red) dinoflagellates (red, green, multicolored Daphnia (Water Flea)
https://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/identifypond.html
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https://sites.google.com/a/jeffcoschools.us/mr- cuthbertson/_/rsrc/1478644134367/annoucements/11316labpondwaterorganisms50pts/LAB%20-%20Pond%20Water.jpg
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APPENDIX B Water Treatment Around the World This table shows statistics about countries throughout the world.
Infant Gross % of Child Domestic Population Total Death Waterborne Country Population National Having Access Population Rate Diseases (Ages 0-14) (per 1,000 Product* to Clean births) (per capita) Water Supply Senegal 12.5 million 5.2 million 60 $ 1 700 72% 78 Pakistan 117 million 64 million 65 $ 2 600 90% Haiti 92 million 34 million 58 $ 1 800 46% 71 Malaysia 26 million 8 million 15 $ 14 000 95% 91 Mexico 112.5 million 32 million 18 $ 13 500 91% Canada 33.7 million 5.3 million 5 $ 24 515 100% United States 310 million 62 million 6 $ 46 400 100% * U.S. Dollars NOTE: Water percentages were rounded to nearest whole number. Sources: All data from CIA World Fact Book 2010, Pharos Books. New Your, N.YU>, except for percent of population having access to clean water supply, which was taken from UNEP.Net, 2006 WorldWater.org, safe drinking water unicef.org (Staggs, 2011)
Solve the Problem: Do countries with high infant death rates have greater or less access to clean water supplies than countries with low infant death rates? Do countries with low per-capita incomes have higher or lower rates of infant deaths than countries with high per-capita incomes? Why?
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C: EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Water Drinking Primary National EPA C:
APPENDIX
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C: EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Water Drinking Primary National EPA C:
APPENDIX
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C: EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Water Drinking Primary National EPA C:
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX D: CDC Water Borne Pathogens
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Environmental Health Vessel Sanitation Program Health Practices on Cruise Ships: Training for Employees Transcript Waterborne Illnesses The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Vessel Sanitation Program is proud to bring to you the following session: Waterborne Illness. While this session primarily for cruise vessels under the jurisdiction of the Vessel Sanitation Program, it may be used by anyone who is interested in this topic. This session should not be used to replace existing interactive training, but should be used as an adjunct to a comprehensive training program.
Waterborne illness. Learning objectives. At the end of the session, you will be able to list the pathogens associated with waterborne illness outbreaks, list the routes of transmission for waterborne pathogens, and list the prevention methods for specific pathogens.
Waterborne illnesses. There are potable water illnesses and recreational water illnesses, and we'll be discussing both of these.
Waterborne outbreak agents. There are bacterial agents, viral agents, parasitic agents, and chemical agents which cause waterborne illness.
Routes of transmission. Waterborne illnesses can be caused by ingestion or consuming water, by dermal contact, which is contact of the water with skin or mucous membranes, or by inhalation, which is by breathing in a mist or aerosolized water particles.
Bacterial pathogens. We will be discussing each one of these pathogens in detail: E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, Salmonella typhi, Shigella, Campylobacter, Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas, and others.
Escherichia coli. There are several pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, which are classified under enterovirulent E. coli. They are enterohemorrhagic, enteroinvasive, enterotoxigenic, enteropathogenic, and enteroaggregative. Escherichia coli O157:H7, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes diarrheal illness, and it's classified as an enterohemorrhagic E. coli. In its most severe form, it can cause hemorrhagic colitis. The reservoir for this bacteria are cattle, deer, goats, and sheep. Humans can also be a reservoir. It is typically associated with contaminated food and water. E. coli O157:H7 prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection, halogenation of water, or boiling water for one minute.
Salmonella species, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes diarrheal illness known as salmonellosis. Humans and animals are the reservoir, and it's typically associated with contaminated food and water. Salmonella species, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection, halogenation of water, and also boiling water for one minute.
Salmonella typhi, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes diarrheal illness, also known as typhoid fever. And humans are the reservoir for this pathogen. Salmonella typhi, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection, halogenation of water, and boiling water for one minute.
Shigella species, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes diarrheal illness known as shigellosis. Humans and primates are the reservoir for this pathogen. Shigella species, in the United Statestwothirds of the shigellosis in the U.S. is caused by Shigella sonnei, and the remaining onethird is caused by Shigella flexnieri. In developing countries, Shigella dysenteriae is the primary cause of illness associated with this pathogen. Shigella species, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection, halogenation of water, and boiling water for one minute.
Campylobacter, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes diarrheal illness. And Campylobacter is primarily associated with poultry, animals, and humans. Campylobacter, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection, halogenation of water, and boiling water for one minute.
Vibrio cholerae, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes diarrheal illness, also known as cholera. It is typically associated with aquatic environments, shellstocks, and human. Vibrio cholerae has also been associated with ship ballast water, and there will be a discussion later on in this presentation of an outbreak associated with ship ballast water. Vibrio cholerae, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection, halogenation of water, and boiling water for one minute.
Legionella, the basics. It's a bacteria. It causes a respiratory illness known as legionellosis. There are two illnesses associated with legionellosis: the first, Legionnaire's disease, which causes a severe pneumonia, and the second, Pontiac fever, which is a nonpneumonia illness; it's typically an influenzalike illness, and it's less severe. Legionella is naturally found in water, both natural and artificial water sources. Legionella, prevention. Maintaining hot water systems at or above 50 degrees Centigrade and cold water below 20 degrees Centigrade can prevent or control the proliferation of Legionella in water systems. Hot water in tanks should be maintained between 71 and 77 degrees Centigrade. Proper recreational water system maintenance and disinfection can prevent the proliferation of Legionella in recreational water systems. It is important to prevent water stagnation. This can be accomplished by eliminating dead ends in distribution
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systems and in recreational water systems. Additionally, preventing biofilm development is important to control this particular pathogen in water systems.
Pseudomonas, the basics. It's a bacteria. It is caused by dermal contact with water. It can cause dermatitis, which is an inflammation of the skin, or it can cause otitis, which is an infection of the ear. Pseudomonas is typically associated with soil and water. Pseudomonas, prevention. Proper maintenance and disinfection of recreational water systems is important in preventing Pseudomonas.
Viral pathogens. We will be discussing Hepatitis A and Norovirus in this presentation.
Hepatitis A, the basics. It's a virus. It causes inflammation of the liver. And the reservoir for Hepatitis A virus is humans. Hepatitis A, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection and adequate disinfection. Fecal matter can protect Hepatitis A virus from chlorine. Additionally, Hepatitis A virus is resistant to combined chlorines, so it is important to have an adequate free chlorine residual.
Norovirus, the basics. It's a virus. It causes diarrheal illness. And humans are the reservoir for this virus. Norovirus, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection. Parasitic pathogens. During this presentation, we will be discussing Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Schistosomatidae.
Cryptosporidium, the basics. It's a parasite. It causes diarrheal illness known as crytpsporidiosis. It is typically associated with animals and humans, and it can be acquired through consuming fecally contaminated food, contact with fecally contaminated soil and water. Cryptosporidium, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection. A CT value of 9,600 is required when dealing with fecally accidents. CT equals a concentration, in parts per million, while time equals a contact time in minutes. Cryptosporidium can also be prevented or eliminated by boiling water for one minute. Filtration with an "absolute" pore size of one micron or smaller can eliminate Cryptosporidium. And reverse osmosis is known to be effective as well.
Giardia, the basics. It is a parasite. It causes diarrheal illness known as giardiasis. It is typically associated with water. It is the most common pathogen in waterborne outbreaks. It can also be found in soil and food. And humans and animals are the reservoir for this pathogen. Giardia, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include source protection; filtration, coagulation, and halogenation of drinking water.
Schistosomatidae, the basics. It is a parasite. It is acquired through dermal contact, cercarial dermatitis. It is commonly known as swimmer's itch. The reservoir for this pathogen are aquatic snails and birds. Schistosomatidae, prevention. Prevention strategies for this pathogen include eliminating snails with a molluscicide or interrupting the life cycle of the parasite by treating birds with an antihelmetic drug.
Chemical illnesses. Chemical illnesses associated with potable water and recreational water are too numerous to itemize. They are typically associated with crossconnections and runoff. Some chemical contamination can occur naturally. Waterborne illness associated with drinking water by etiologic agent, United States 1999 to 2000. As we can see from this slide, 51% of the outbreaks were associated with the pathogens we just discussed.
Waterborne outbreaks that have occurred both in the United States and also in Europe. Waterborne outbreaks. In the following slides, we'll be discussing potable water and recreational water outbreaks.
Potable water outbreaks.
What: cholera. Who: this resulted in greater than 10,000 fatalities. When: 1854. Where: in Soho, England. Why: poor sanitary conditions of city water system. This was the result of contamination of the city's water supply from cesspits. In the middle of the 19th century, 1854, Soho had become an unsanitary place. Underneath the floorboards of the overcrowded cellars lurked a sea of cesspits as old as the houses, and many of these had never been drained. It was only a matter of time for a big outbreak to occur. It finally did so in the summer of 1854. When a wave of Asiatic cholera first hit England in late 1831, it was thought to be spread by miasma in the atmosphere. By the time of the Soho outbreak 23 years later, medical knowledge about the disease has barely changed, though one man, Dr. John Snow, a pioneer of science of epidemiology, had recently published a report speculating that it was spread by contaminated water.
What: typhoid. Who: 1,000 individuals were infected. When: 1885. Where: this occurred in Plymouth, Pennsylvania. Why: as a result of contaminated water pumped into the city's water supply. Death rate for typhoid fever, United States, 1900 to 1960. This slide depicts the reduction in typhoid fever cases in the United States. The first system to be chlorinated in the United States was Boonton, New Jersey, in 1908. Chlorine standards were then introduced in 1914. In Wheeling, West Virginia, in 1918 to 1919, there were approximately 155 to 200 cases of typhoid fever per 100,000 population. After the introduction of chlorination in the first part of 1919, there
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were only seven cases per 100,000. In developing countries, 80% of all diseases are caused by consuming water contaminated with pathogens and pollutants. This slide depicts that correlation. On the left hand of the slide shows access to safe potable drinking water, while the right hand side shows death rates for children under five. You can see a direct correlation to access to the safe potable drinking water and the reduction in those death rates.
What: E. coli O157:H7. Who did it affect? There were 243 cases, 32 hospitalizations, and four deaths. When: 1989. Where: Cabool, Missouri. Why: there was no disinfection of the city's water supply during heavy rains, when runoff ran through cattle manure and washed into the well system.
What: Cryptosporidium. Who did it affect? 370,000 cases per 800,000 population with over 4,400 hospitalizations and more than 100 deaths. When: 1993. Where: Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Why: during heavy rains, the city's filtration system was overwhelmed, and the Cryptosporidium oocysts passed through that system and infected the water supply throughout the city.
What: Vibrio cholera. Who: there were no individuals affected. This affected the shellfish supplies in Mobile Bay. When: 1992. Where: Alabama. Why: there was contaminated ballast water in cargo ships. The corrective action was the FDA recommended the U.S. Coast Guard to have ships dumped and change ballast water at high seas before entering port. What: a photo chemical contamination. Who: 544 ill individuals and one death. When did this occur? In 1978. Where: aboard a U.S. aircraft carrier. Why: this was the result of an unprotected cross connection between the vessel's potable water supply and a photo chemical development system.
What: Legionella. Who: there were two fatalities. When: January 1999. Where: a cargo vessel under repair. Why: mechanics were exposed to Legionella pneumophilia in a ship's fresh water pump.
What: Norovirus. Who: 48 outbreaks, 200 to 5,500 cases. Samples from 28 outbreaks are available. Norovirus caused 18 of these outbreaks. When: 1998 to 2003. Where: in Finland. Why: most likely caused by sewage contamination of surface water systems. Waterborne disease associated with ships, 1970 to 2003. As you can see on this slide, 15 of the outbreaks were associated with pathogenic organisms that we discussed earlier. 21 of these outbreaks were the result of chemical contamination of the water supplies.
Recreational water illness outbreaks.
What: Cryptosporidium. Who did it affect? There were 369 cases. When: July of 1997. Where: Minnesota. Why did this occur? This was an inadequately treated decorative fountain that had been converted to a recreational fountain. Corrective action: the recreation fountain was switched back to a decorative fountain. What: Cryptosporidium. Who: 47 initial cases. This quickly spread to 3,000 ill with 711 positive for Cryptosporidium. When: August 2005. Where: in Seneca, New York. Why: Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in an inadequately treated system for a splash zone. Corrective action: implementation of new guidelines for nonpool facilities such as spray pads.
What: Cryptosporidium. Who: 1,000 cases. When: in the summer of 2000. Where: this occurred in Ohio and Nebraska. Why: the exact cause was undetermined. However, the swallowing of water, fecal accidentsfive in Ohioswimming while symptomatic18% in Nebraskawere indicated as contributing factors.
What: Pseudomonas dermatitis. As you can see from this slide, we have two outbreaks of Pseudomonas dermatitis. In the first cases on your left, it affected 19 individuals. When: in February of 1999. Where: in Colorado. Why: Pseudomonas in a hot tub due to inadequate chlorine levels. On the righthand side, you can see we have nine cases. When: February of 2000. Where: in Maine. And why: again, Pseudomonas was growing in a hot tub due to inadequate chlorine levels.
What: Legionella. Whom did it affect? There were 15 cases. When: October of 1996. Where: in Virginia. Why: a whirlpool spa display at a retail store tested positive for Legionella. The corrective action: the whirlpool spas and displays were to be inspected and maintained.
Resources and references. For further information about the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, please visit www.cdc.gov. For further information about the Food and Drug Administration, please visit www.fda.gov. Some of the material in these slides was taken from "Waterborne Pathogens," American Water Works Association manual 48, and the "Journal of Water and Health."
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Staggs, K. (2011). Story of Drinking Water. Denver: American Water Works Association.
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