J America11 Universities FteldStaft Reports The American Universities Field INSTITUTIONALMEMBERS Staff, Inc., founded in 1951,is a non­ American profit, membership corporation of University of Alabama American educational institutions. It The Asia Society Universities employs a full-time staff of foreign Aspen Institute for Humanistic area specialists who write from Studies abroad and make periodic visits to Brown University Fed Staff member institutions. AUFS serves Dartmouth College the public through its seminar pro­ Indiana University grams, films, and wide-ranging pub­ Institute for the Study of World lications on significant develop­ Politics mentsi n foreign societies. University of Kansas Michigan State University Ramapo College of New Jersey University of Pittsburgh University of Wisconsin

AUFS Reports are a continuing Associates of the Field Staff are series on international affairs and chosen for their ability to cut across Reports major global issues of our time. the boundaries of the academic dis­ Reports have for almost three ciplines in order to study societies in decades reached a group of their totality, and for their skill in col­ readers- both academic and non­ lecting, reporting, and evaluating academic-who find them a useful data. They combine long residence source of firsthand observation of abroad with scholarly studies relat­ political, economic, and social trends ing to their geographic areas of in foreign countries. Reports in the interest. Each Field Staff Associate series are prepared by writers who returns to the United States periodi­ are full-time Associates of the cally to lecture on the campuses of American Universities Field Staff the consortium's member institu­ and occasionally by persons on leave tions. from the organizations and univer­ sities that are the Field Staff's spon­ sors.

THE AUTHOR LOUIS DUPREE,who joined the AUFS new edition of G. Robertson's Kafirs of in 1959, is an anthropologist who has the Hindu Kush, and Afghanistan in the specialized in the Inda-European lan­ Seventies(co-editor with Linette Albert), guage areas of the Middle East and Cen­ eleven monographs and numerous tral Asia. Dr. Dupree's interest in Asia articles and reviews in such varied pub­ was first kindled by his service in World lications as American Anthropologist, War II as a merchant seaman and The Nation, The Economist, Evergreen paratrooper. He visited Afghanistan in Review, and the Middle East Journal. He 1949 and again in 1950-51for the Ameri­ is based in Kabul to observe can Museum of Natural History, and was developments in Afghanistan, , in Iran in 1951 under the auspices of the and Soviet Central Asia. University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. He received his Ph.D. degree from Harvard in 1955. Dr. Dupree joined the faculty of the Air University in 1954, and in 1946 he accepted his appointment to Pennsylvania State University where concurrent with his Field Staff affiliation, he is Adjunct Professor. In 1973-74, he was a Fellow, American Council of Learned Societies © 1978, American Universities Field at Kings College, Cambridge. His published works include Afghanistan, a Staff, Hanover, NH 1978/No.1 by LouisDupree Toward RepresentativeGovern­ Asia [LD-1-'78] ment in Afghanistan

Part l:The FirstFive Steps

Slowly, step by step, Afghanistan is future (ba"ringthe ever-present pos­ (including many in the police) to staff moving toward a representative sys­ sibility of a coup.) district and subdistrict administrative tem consistent with its cultural and positions and spread the message of historical patterns. Whether the suc­ Step 1:Coup d'etat the republic. The city-wise Parcham cessive steps have been planned, or, Obviously, the first step was the 1973 activists ran headlong into the rural like Topsy, "just grew," remains a coup d'etat, planned since the 1969 power elites. Within months these question. Whether the direction will elections2 in which Daoud replaced frustrated reformers either accepted be maintained remains for the future his first cousin and brother-in-law, the fact that change would be slow as well. Some and foreign former King Mohammad Zahir. The and consistent with existing cultural observers criticize the slow rate of 10-year (1963-1973) experiment in patterns, turned cynically to corrup­ movement, however. Most of these constitutional monarchy had failed, tion on well-established precedent, critics are western-trained,' West­ primarily because the ex-king, or returned disillusioned to Kabul ern-oriented and Western-reacting, advised by conservative members of and resigned-orwere dismissed for measuring everything in terms of his family and staff, neithertook the leaving their posts without permis­ time-motion efficiency, cost-bene­ steps necessary to implement the sion. fit-ratios, and heavy capital invest­ constitution nor suppressed the ment. According to one's perspec­ growing opposition. The last Prime By March 1975 Parcham was com­ tive, President Mohammad Daoud Minister of the period, Mohammad pletely fragmented; it no longer and his intimate advisers (including Musa Shafiq (December 12, 1972- existed as an effective political entity. his brother and occasional Special July 17, 1973), achieved some gen­ But in July 1977,the two main leftist Envoy, MohammadNaim) havebeen uine movement, but too little and too groups, Parcham and Khalq, re­ cautiously leading, goading, or late. united under the name Democratiqi­ channeling the Republic of Afghan­ Khalq to oppose the regime. istan, hoping to make the blows of Step 2: Parchamto the Provinces change fall the lightest on the most One of the few well-organized polit­ Step 3: Establish a Potential Intellec­ people-and, not just coincidentally, ical parties in Afghanistan, Parcham, tual Base remain in power. initially supported the coup and the Initially, Daoud removedthetop level republic. (Political parties had never administrators and diplomats asso­ The means they have chosen are been legalized during the monarchy ciated with the monarchy. Most simple. Basically, the government and still are not, but exist sub rosa.) were kept on the government payroll tries to stay slightly ahead of the ex­ Moderate leftist and urban-oriented, with such unimposing titles as pectations of the committed intelli­ with a sizable civil service member­ "Adviser." Some went into private gentsia. It announces new moves ship, Parcham is probably not totally business, mainly import-export. In unexpectedly-causing them to controlled by communists outside filling their positions, many Afghan pause, reflect, and attempt to place Afghanistan. Daoud used the well­ intellectuals and tech noera ts believe, the move in proper perspective. organized group to help re-establish rightly or wrongly, that educated After a time frustrations emerge administration in the provinces after Mohammadzai ( Daoud's lineage, but again until, just before the boiling the coup. also that of the ex-king) received point, the president (or one of his preferential treatment in the matter ministers)announcesstill anew step. With the military and the police as his of government appointments. Reviewing the steps taken si nee July source of power, and a ready-made 17, 1973 (26 saratan 1352 A.H., on administrative cadre, Daoud struck, President Daoud seems to have the Afghan calendar), may help sending about 160 of these enthu­ made some efforts to maintain the illuminate the probable path of the siastic, reform-minded young men former officials in the public eye. 2/LD-1-78

Various cultural committees were Step4: The Searchfor Security more than two years in jail or under formed, jokingly referred to by the The coup had been textbook per­ arrest 6 Abdul Wali was tried by a day of the week each met (the"Mon­ fect-almost too perfect- perhaps military tribunal for alleged crimes day Committee," the "Wednesday encouraging others to plot against against the state (never tightly de­ Committee," etc.). Some individuals the new regime. Indeed, Daoud's fined). Unanimously acquitted, he serve simultaneously on several regime has felt itself threatened from was restored to full rank and privil­ committees, such as committees to both the left and the right. One group, eges but requested to leave the purchase manuscripts, old photo­ led by military officers disaffected country. Always a soldier's soldier, graphs, and documents for the new with the monarchy, had been pre­ Abdul Wali thanked the tribunal and National Archives, or to organize paring a coup at the time Daoud suc­ returned their salute of respect, if not international conferences. While cessfully struck. The 45 ringleaders, devotion, for most of his following weekly meetings of the various com­ including a former Prime Minister, had dissipated after the 1973coup. In mittees stifled rumors of arrests­ Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal fact, one of the coup leaders was Afghanistan's jails probably hold (whose role was more passive than second-in-command of his crack fewer political prisoners per capita active), were arrested, questioned, force de frappe. than any nation in Asia-the pro­ and received sentences varying from liferation of conferences helped de­ death (5) to acquittal (2).4 Before As a final gesture, Abdul Wali asked flect potential critics' interests, sentences were pronounced in late the members of the court to pray suggesting that the international December1973, however, Maiwand­ with him for the successful develop­ seminar has become the opiate of wal was discovered dead in his cell. ment of Afghanistan. They prayed at the Afghan intellectual. At least 11 Sometime between midnight and the very spot where King Moham­ academic conferences have been dawn October 20, either he com­ mad Nadir, father of ex-king Mo­ held since the founding of the repub­ mitted suicide-the official report­ hammad Zahir and uncle of Abdul lic.3 and Afghanistan has also been being unable to live with the brand Wali, was assassinated in 1933. host to several regional social, eco­ "traitor," or, more probably, was Abdul Wali went to the house of his nomic, and political meetings, such murdered by overenthusiastic father, the famous Marshal Shah as the Southwestern Asia Desertifi­ guards. Shocked, President Daoud Wali Khan, hero of the Saqqaoist cation CommitteeinJuly 1977. began to tighten his own securit~ War of 1929.7 Before leaving the and purged a number of leftists country, Abdul Wali reportedly said Kabul University is enjoying an un­ removing them one at a time. The that he bore his cousin, the Presi­ precedented atmosphere of aca­ survivors, hoping to keep their posi­ dent, no ill feelings, and that Daoud demic freedom, but fear has not tions of power, did not protest too at this time was good for the country. been completely dispelled: teachers much. None of those dismissed has However, one occasionally hears talk are well aware that the situation can been executed or imprisoned; in Kabul indicating that Abdul Wali literally change overnight. Instruc­ several have even been given may try to return as successor to tors are being encouraged to prepare ambassadorialposts. Only two mod­ President Daoud. Much depends on individualized lectures and discard erate leftists remain in the Cabinet, how successfully the democratic decades-old syllabi. They can, for the however. process has been institutionalized by first time, select their own required the time President Daoud either re­ reading lists for students. While few The government reportedly un­ signs, voluntarily turns over the gov­ dare to be too outspoken, there is a covered a plot among leftist ernment to an elected successor, or spirit akin to "Let the Hundred (so-called Marxist) officers in dies. Flowers Bloom" in China. September 1975, and arrested about 40 officers from the 14th Armored At the international conferences, Division. Most were dismissed from The PanjsherInsurgency Afghan scholars present papers of the service after a short period of in­ During the 1975 Jeshn celebration, varying opinions, although well­ carceration. an event occurred which shook the known leftists, like Sulaiman Layek complacency of many in the power are seldom asked to participate. The To forestall attempts from the royal­ elite. By accident, my wife (Nancy), regime usually carefully selects local ist right, the government arrested my youngest daughter (Sally),and I delegates from both in-groups and Major-General Abdul Wali, com­ blundered into the middle of the out-groups. The mere act of selec­ mander of the Central Forces Kabul, mess. We left Kabul by Land Rover tion becomes an act of rehabilitation, which includes all units from Kabul and drove north over the unpaved and competition for such appoint­ to the border. Abdul Wali, first trail leading into the Panjsher Valley, ments is fierce. In the conference cousin of both President Daoud and and trekked from Bazarak to Dulana, sessions,the "outs" often joust with the ex-king (also son-in-law of Zahir a small village. One of our "servants" the "ins," and their scholarly (and Shah),hadbeen a great influence on (actually a friend and member of the sometimes personally vitriolic) dia­ the former king, and his ambitions family for 15 years) lived in Dulana, logues carry the seeds for emerging might ultimately have led him to the and was making one of his periodic ( and ongoing) ideological positions. throne. In September 1975, after visits to his other "family." LD-1-'78/3

200 MIH. lDO Km

TURKOMAN

ETHNIC MAP

MaMOGHOL TA• TAJIK u-uZBAK TU. TUftKOMAN FA• FARSIWAN A-ARAB TI-TANIII ,..._....MA.llR PUSHTUN AREA ETHNIC UN'TS -· IO J.OLAAANI PUSHTUNUNITS ---~;i,.L-., 16 !-GHILZAI PU5HT'JNUNTS ·.. _ ·----p~ucii:~~---·=:~•11! -.._____ ...... OTHERPUSHT!.PI 1RIBES lHJERUNE ' ' UNINHABITED ' ...... _._.J. '·- -·-·---·-·-·--- /'--·- .....- -

Dulana sits at the high western end homes.a Farfrom being isolated, the the bad-ma'ash had tried to steal it of an east-west valley. Numerous Panjsher has increasingly close but it would not start for them either. such valleys stretch, finger-like, to social, economic, and political ties Others volunteered that our trusty the east and west of the North-south with Kabul. guard had kept the headlights and Panjsher Valley. Small tributaries inside lights on all night because "he pour into the major Panjsher River The three Duprees returned to is afraid of everything," an allegation from these same satellite valleys. BazarakonJuly22tofind the people he hotly denied. We still had to push there in a high state of excitement. the vehicle to get it started. Another Some said bandits had visited the of our former "servants," Abdul The people of the Panjsher are village during the night. Others Aziz, now working for another mainly Persian-speaking Tajik, and loudly denied this, stating that bad­ foreigner in Kabul, 9accompanied refer to themselves collectively as ma'ash (badmen) from Pakistan had us. Panjsheri. More specifically, they passed through Bazarak going refer to themselves by locality: south, cutting the telephone lines in The wheat shimmered from green to Bazarak, Rokha, Dulana, etc. Many many places. They suggested we gold, as it ripened by altitude-the Panjsheri have been drawn to Kabul wait in Bazarak until the situation higher, the greener. Terraced fields by the growing, diverse economic cleared, but, in our usual Western and gardens shone green near the opportunities, but they maintain "hurry-up" style, we decided to river bottom. The trail wound round their rural links. An improved infra­ return to Kabul. and round, and came out at Rokha structure and increased bus services Valley and the village of Qabzan, make it easy for those working in The Land Rover would not start. The where huge logs stretched across Kabul to return often to their village man hired to guard our vehicle said the bazaar street, a classic roadblock. 4/LD-1-78

Excited armed men surrounded us riddled with bullet holes. Around a army helicopters flying in the direc­ immediately, all shouting at once. corner about five kilometers north of tion of the fighting. Nearer Kabul we The local governor and his police Bandar Panjsher, a dramatic scene met two lorries carrying troop rein­ commandant pushed their way unfolded. An Afghan officer forcements, followed by an ambu­ through the crowd and told us sprawled just off the road to the left lance. danger lay ahead. The telephone near the river embankment. He lay lines between Rokha and Bandar on his stomach, one arm extended By the time the last remnants of the Panjsher (entrance to Panjsher toward the river, the other twisted insurgentswere rounded up on July Valley) had been cut, and no com­ unnaturally at his side, his legs ex­ 27, Kabul's rumor mill had had a field munication with the provincial tended parallel and straight, as day.10 As the following examples center (Charikar) was possible. All though someone had tried to drag suggest, separating fact from fiction the government knew was that him to safety. Blood soaked the was not always easy. armed men roamed the road ground under him and his blouse between Rokha and Bandar shone wet red. A dark brown stain Rumor: The American ambassador Panjsher. disfigured his trousers. (Theodore Eliot), his wife (Pat), the

I braked the Land Rover beside him. He was dead. I turned to our pas­ sengers to ask if we should pick him up, and immediately spotted, as did the others in the vehicle, about 25-30 gendarmes hiding in the rocks and under an overhanging ledge. They yelled, "Buro! Buro! (Go! Go!-or, Get the hell out of here!). They waved frantically, but remained crouched and under cover.

Puffs of dust in perfect line swept across the left front of the Land Rover, followed instantaneously by thefamiliarsharp crack and whine of small arms bullets from an automatic weapon. I needed no further urging. Luckily, I had not turned off the ignition, and we rounded the near corner to safety as rapidly as our 1 ancient (1962) red Land Rover could trundle. According to passengers in The district governor asked if we the rear seats, bullets followed us British ambassador (John Drinkall), would permit six of his men to down the road, but never caught up. and their entourage, trekking and accompany us, both as protectors riding in the Panjsher north of the and purveyors of messages to the The insurgents (for such they were, zone of action, had agreed to be­ authorities.Not havingmuch choice, although realization came only later) come hostages of the insurgents, all we agreed, so the crowd gave the probably fired at us for two reasons: arranged through the Pakistan Em­ Land Rover another push and off we ( 1) They wanted to delay news of the bassy in Kabul. What this would rode. insurgency from reaching the gov­ accomplish was never made clear, ernmentas long as possible; (2) They but hostage-taking has become a The beauty continued, but the had been frustrated in their attempts great international outdoor sport. silence, except for the wind, pressed to start our vehicle at Bazarak. Later the rumor even included the ominously, particularly after we lowly Duprees in the package hos­ passed a Kabul taxi burned out and We finished our journey to Bandar tage deal. Fact: Neitherthe ambassa­ Panjsher uneventfully and deposited dorial party nor the Duprees had any our passengers, who were met by inkling of the insurgency until it ex­ 1. Panjsher Valley. Scene of insurgency the provincial governor and gave him ploded on the scene. inJuly 1975. his first solid news of the Panjsher 2. Panjsher Valley. Roadwork Just prior Insurgency. Rumor: The insurgents managed to to insurgency at spot where the gen­ blow up a large section of the hydro­ darmeofficer was killedin July 1975. Later, on the asphalt road between power facilities at Naghlu on the Charikarand Kabul, we noted several Kabul River. Fact: The insurgents LD-1-'78/5

used plastique to blow a part of one the Republic in July 1973). Almost all the dominantly secular character of Naghlu power tower, which mo­ the insurgents were non-Pushtun the new breed of administrators, mentarily interrupted some flow of and supporters of conservative re­ despite repeated references to Islam electricity to Kabul, but only on a ligious parties such as the lkhwan­ in the speeches of the prime minister small grid. al-Musulirnin (a Muslim Brother­ and high-ranking cabinet members. hood, not directly related to those Fearing persecution, 30 or so of the Rumor: Paktya's provincial governor groupings in the Arab World, but in most active and articulate members had been assassinated by the in­ the same tradition of "back-to-early­ of the lkhwan-al-Musulimin and surgents. Fact: The fight around the Isam': plus socialism.) other groups fled to Pakistan, main­ Paktya governor's Russian jeep near taining contact with the Afghan Urgun related to a local blood feud, Many observers, Afghan and for­ troops from exile. in which the governor had inter­ eign, believed that the 1973coup had vened. One side disagreed with the been "communist" inspired or "Rus­ The Baluch Insurrection and terro­ terms dictated by the governor and sian" sponsored. Religious conserva­ rist acts in Pakistan's North-West wanted to ambush him. The tives were particularly disturbed at Frontier Province peaked during governor had loaned the jeep to a friend to transport guests to a wedding. The ambushers believed the governor to be riding in the jeep (which he wasn't) and shot it up. The feud continues.

Rumor: Abdul Khaliq, the governor of Bamiyan Province, was assassi­ nated by the insurgents. Fact: Abdul Khaliq, an Indiana University alum­ nus, is alive and well.

Rumor: The grandson of Habibullah II (alsocalled Bacha Saqqao, son of a water carrier)" participated in the insurgency. Fact: No one in Tagao, old home of Habibullah II, least of all kinsmen of the formerTajik folk-hero and king for nine months in 1929, was involved.

Rumor: Between 40-70,000 armed men rebelled in the widely separated areas of Ghazni, Andarab, Katawaz, Mazar-i-Sharif, Serai Khwaja, and Bamiyan-aswell as Panjsher. Fact: Scattered actions did occur (mainly attacking police posts) at Jalalabad, Naghlu, but most of the action cen­ tered in the Panjsher and Laghman. No more than 300 insurgents were involved: 5 or 6 were killed in action, several were wounded, and most were taken prisoner. The govern­ ment suffered few casualties: one killed, and four wounded. About 20 or more were arrested outside Panjsher, including 2 former wakil (elected members of the Wo/esi Jirgah, the Lower House of Parlia­ ment, abolished with the founding of

3,4. Baluchguerrillasinaction, ta/11975. 6/LD-1-'78

1973-74.13Although the Afghan easily been smuggled across the the entrance to the Panjsher Valley, government offered asylum to the border at numerous points, with or making it possible to move military refugees, it attempted to limit the without Pakistani assistance. reinforcements rapidly from Kabul level of violence by contrplling into the region. Helicopters spotted accessto arms, ammunition, and ex­ Some have suggested that a hand the intruders and kept them under plosive devices. Later, the Afghans other than Pakistan's may have been surveillance as security forces closed attempted to close the border, so involved. But if all or most of the in­ in. More important, battery­ that the refugees could not return. surgents were anticommunist and powered transistor radios keep the religiously conservative, obviously Panjsher Valley abreast of what is A team of Indian military specialists the Soviet Union would not have happening in the world outside. So arrived in Afghanistan late in 1973, benefited from its success, nor when the insurgents told the vil­ would the Chinese. The United allegedlyto advise the Afghan army lagers that Kabul was in flames, they States is contented enough with on unconventional warfare, though simply tuned their transistor sets to Daoud's policy of bi-tarafi (nonalign­ Afghan officials deny this was their Radio Afghanistan. All was normal. ment). could conceivably role. However, the Afghans did train With a collective shrug, the benefit if an ultraconservative, a small number of Pakistani Pushtun Panjsheris returned their radio dials Islamic state proved antagonistic to to other stations, mainly in Soviet saboteurs, who returned to Pakistan Pakistan, but this would probably to blow up small bridges, culverts, Central Asia, where they could listen not be the case. An Islamic Republic to Tajik music. buses, cut telephone lines, and make of Afghanistan might even draw a general nuisance in the North-West nearer to an Islamic Republic of Frontier Province. Pakistani govern­ Pakistan. Iran, although a Muslim Unable to swim in Chairman Mao's ment informers, posing as dissident state, is predominantly Shia, where­ "friendly sea," the first prerequisite Pushtun, infiltrated the training as most Afghan are Sunni, and the of a successful guerrilla movement, camp and it was closed soon after. Shahinshah is already convinced most of the insurgents were either 6 that Afghanistan is not trapped in the killed or captured within a weekJ Soviet camp. Would even Pakistan The Panjsheris refused to assist the Who Benefits? benefit? The question became insurgents, not so much because the The action had established a prece­ superfluous after the Panjsher Insur­ people of the Panjsher are ardent dent, however, and it is thus gency failed, and the failure may patriots or nationalists, but because reasonable to expect the have actually been the beginning the young intruders are outsiders.In had at least a minor hand in the rapprochement between Afghanis­ addition, the insurgency arose Panjsher Insurgency. Presumably, it tan and Pakistan. during the period of peak activity in would have been an information­ the agricultural cycle, and few gathering operation designed to LimitedEngagement farmers or transhumants will desert assess the strength of the Daoud The insurgents struck at several fields or flocks to join in outside­ regime should an insurgency occur points across the border on the night inspired fighting. (The seasonal there. Moreover, from the Pakistani and early morning of July 21 and 22, aspects of warfare in preindustrial perspective, they had nothing to lose 1975. Small groups crossed the societies should always be consid­ and everything to gain. A propa­ , a veritable sieve, at ered by revolutionary and counter­ ganda war between Radio Afghan­ many places from Chitral to Baluch­ revolutionary movements.) istan and Radio Pakistan was istan. Taxicabs transported the conducted nightly, and relations Kabul group to link up with the Although the Afghan government between the two nations ap­ Panjsher insurgents~5 Other small had been quick to accuse the Pakis­ proached a nadir. If the Daoud groups rendezvoused in Paktya, tanis of complicity (which Pakistan government was weak and univer­ Laghman, Jalalabad, and Badakh­ promptly denied), the Afghans sub­ sally disliked, a small group of insur­ shan. sequently played down the entire gents just might be able to precipi­ affair for several reasons: tate a revolt. But if the movement The insurgents tried to raise a revolt failed to gain widespread support, among the Panjsheri Tajik, ha­ I, the insurgency caught Afghan the Pakistanis might be prepared to ranguing against the "godless, com­ security forces by surprise, and their discuss the political differences be­ munist-dominated regime in Kabul." relatively slow reaction revealed tween the two countries. They told the people that Kabul was weaknesses in the chain of in open revolt, but needed rural command, prompting several trans­ 14 17 The weapons used by the insur­ support to finish the task. But the fers; gents are easily obtainable in the year was 1975, not 1929, when the Kabul bazaar and elsewhere in Saqqaoist Revolt succeeded partly 2. since the Panjsheris overwhelm­ Afghanistan, leading some to specu­ because Afghanistan lacked an ingly rejected the insurgents' over­ late that the rebellionwas completely adequate communications system. tures, it would be better not to over­ a local affair. They could also have Now an asphalt road runs almost to publicize the affair; LD-1-'78n

3. the Afghans prefered to believe reached its peak intensity. Under the India, but as the eastern and that Prime Minister Bhutto of Pakis­ constitutional monarchy ( 1963- southern frontier of the Amir's tan knew little of the details of the 1973), passions subsided, only to [] dominions, operation, leaving it to the military to surface in Daoud's first speech after 3nd as the limit of the respective show that two could play the game the coup, he referred to ... "our rela­ spheres of influence of the two Gov­ of border infiltration. tions with Pakistan, the only nation ernments, the object being the ex­ with which we have a political differ­ tension of British authority, and not Almost all the insurgents were un­ ence, the Pushtunistan issue. We that of the Indian frontier." (empha­ employed high school graduates or shall continue to seek a permanent sis added)23 university students, and had sought solution to this problem." jobs through the employment Only as the British prepared to depart branch of the Central Statistical Pakistan, ever sensitive to what it India (in almost unholy haste, Office of the Prime Ministry. The considers border threats, reacted according to some observers)did the number of unemployed high school strongly, and Radio Pakistan began British Indian government under students increases annually, and is an intensive propaganda campaign Lord Louis Mountbatten (last Vi­ now estimated at about 20,000-a against the Daoud regime, which ceroy of undivided India) issue aide­ body of potential revolutionary mal­ Radio Afghanistan matched in memoires to concerned parties (in­ contents. Of course, many other vitriol. Actually, both Afghans and cluding Mohammad Ali Jinnah, thousands of the unemployed have Pakistanis enjoyed the nightly ex­ founder and first Governor-General returned to their villages eventually changes, and usually listened to both of Pakistan) indicating that the to be reincorporated, albeit with programs, whenever possible. Pakis­ British considered the Durand Line hostility, into the traditional rural tan's "Kakajan," an Afghan who de­ an international boundary. Pakistan, structure.18 fected to Pakistan about 25 years therefore, would inherit the British ago, was particularly well received in position. President Daoud instructed the mili­ both countries for his comic, but tary tribunal trying the 93 accused biting commentary. In essence, This unilateral decision (without any insurgents to "Judge well, that Kakajan took the place of a free press discussion with the Afghans, as history might judge us well." On July in Kabul. provided for in the Treaty of 1921) 5, the government announced its and distortion of the true position verdict: 3 were to be executed; 21 President Daoud's goal from the be­ produced the "Pushtunistan" prob­ otherswere condemned to death but ginning of his new rule, however, lem, yet to be solved. Still, progress had their sentences commuted to life was to "defuse the 'Pushtunistan' has been made. imprisonment by the president; 2 issue" before he convened a Loya received sentences of 18 years in Jirgah (Great National Assembly), so In February 1975 Mohammad Nairn, prison; 7, 15 years; 2, 14 years; 7, 13 as to clear the way for discussion of brother and Occasional Envoy for years; 1, 12 years; 23, 10 years; 2, 9 constitutional issues. Whereas the President Daoud, attended the years; 2, 8 years; 17, sentenced to United States got the same "old" funeral ceremonies for the king of from 12 to 18 months were released Nixon, Afghanistan got a "new" Nepal. Senator Charles Percy (Illi­ at the end of the trial, having in effect Daoud: having spent ten years out of nois), a friend of Afghanistan in U.S. servedtheirtime; 16wereacquitted. power conducting a running semi­ government circles, arranged a par­ nar, reading widely and discussing all lay between Nairn and the Pakistani The stage had been set for the next facets of social, economic, and polit­ representative, Foreign Minister Aziz step, but many observers of the left Ahmad. Both men agreed to try to ical fact and theory, and how they in Afghanistan are still waitingfor the could be applied to Afghanistan, he have their country's radio propa­ other shoe to drop.19 ganda diminished, and there was a had concluded that Afghanistan could live with the Durand Line if the gradual softening which prepared Step 5: Defuse the "Pushtunistan" Pakistanis would accept real regional the way for further talks. Issue autonomy for the Baluch and Push­ Much has been written, pro and con, tun peoples.22 Afghans let it be known informally on the "Pushtunistan" problem, that they were willing to talk and left which involves the legality of the the ball resting squarely in Prime Durand Line of 1893 as an inter­ The British never considered the Minister Bhutto's court. A natural national boundary, and the political Durand Line as ade jure international disaster provided the occasion for a status of the Pushtun and Baluch boundary. Many manuscripts and formal breakthrough. March and living on the Pakistani side of the official documents in the India Office April 1976 proved to be the cruelist Line.20 While the problem has Library and Files in London, New months for Afghanistan. An earth­ clouded Afghan-Pakistan relations Delhi, and elsewhere attest to this quake of massive violence struck the since the 1947 partition of India, it fact. I need only quote one example: Tashkurghan (Khulm) area of was during the first "decade of "The Line was not described [in the northern Afghanistan on March 19, Daoud" 21 (1953-1963) that it 1893 treaty-LOI as the boundary of 1976, destroying at least 600 houses 8/LD-1-'78

in several villages, killing about 30 BetweenJune 7 and 11, Bhutto and The two governments also ex­ people and injuring 60. Then and in Daoud met twice privately with only changed views on the Baluchistan April, unprecedented floods swept an interpreter present. (Bhutto Insurrection, the outlawed National through most of the major lowland understands some Persian, and Awami Party (NAP) and its leaders, areas of Afghanistan, washing away Daoud understands some English.) particularly Khan Abdul Wali Khan, bridges, drowning people and live­ Both sessions lasted for about two son of , Khan stock. Several nations and inter­ and one-half hours. The official, . The Pakistan national and bilateral aqencies re­ across-the-table conference be­ Supreme Court had earliersupported sponded to the tragedy~ 4 Pakistan tween the two prime ministers and the legality (if not the propriety) of donated $4 million (including 2,000 their advisers took place in the after­ the government's order to outlaw tons of rice) to the victims, a gift noon of June 10. In between, Bhutto NAP, seize its assets, and arrest its gratefully-and publicly-acknowl­ and his entourage squeezed in a leaders for activities inimical to edged by the Afghan government. flying trip to the famous Buddhist Pakistan's security. The Pakistanis About the same time the radio "war" site of Bamiyan, where two gigantic had been pleased- and surprised­ ceased abruptly. Then, in late May, Buddhas (55 and 38 meters tall), at the restraint with which the Pakistan experienced severe flood­ carved into the side of a sandstone Afghan government greeted the ing and the Afghans responded to cliff, dominate the valley .26 Supreme Court decision, another the disasters with reciprocal gifts of key factor promoting rapproche­ relief supplies, duly publicized by An innocuous-sounding commu­ ment. both nations. nique (Kabul Times, June 12, 1976) was issued as the meetings ended, The Bhutto-Daoud talks paid an un­ but its implications may prove more expected dividend: they discovered Several Islamic countries, led by far-reaching. For the first time, the they liked each other. Both chided Libya, Iran, and Turkey (not jointly, Pakistanis admitted that a "political their respective aides for the false however) quietly served as go-be­ difference" existed between the two impressions created by external tweens, and arranged for Prime Min­ nations. (Previous Pakistani state­ reports. This was particularly true in ister Bhutto to visit Afghanistan, to ments either ignored or ridiculed the the case of Bhutto, for many foreign­ be followed by a visit to Pakistan by "Pushtunistan"issue.) On their part, educated Pakistani foreign service President Daoud.25 With great fan­ the Afghans agreed to solve the officers retain the plainsman's con­ fare Prime Minister Bhutto arrived in "political difference" within the spirit tempt for the rude, crude barbarians Kabul on June 7, for a four-day of the Panch Sheela (Five Principles) of the hills, a hangover from the days official visit. The result was a giant of the 1955 Bandung Conference, of the . (The hillsmen, I step toward reconciliation. Press and attended by 29 nonaligned nations. must add, return the contempt­ radio comments from Pakistan and with added measure.) But times and Afghanistan were virtually identical, The two most important "Principles" attitudes have changed among some as both had agreed beforehand to for the nascent Afghanistan-Pakis­ Afghan and Pakistani intellectuals. issue joint daily press releases tan rapprochement are respect for As recently as March 14, early in to avoid misunderstandings. The the boundaries of neighbors and Pakistan's current time of troubles, Kabul Times (government-con­ noninterference in the affairs of Prime Minister Bhutto told me em­ trolled, English-language news­ others. In other words, Afghanistan phatically that he and Daoud were paper) and counterpart Pakistani will probably accept the Durand Line among the few leaders in the region newspapers of the National Press as an international boundary if with a real sense of historical Trust printed, in essence, the same Pakistan effectively implements the process. report (simply substitute "Afghanis­ regional autonomy articles (Part VI in tan" where "Pakistan" occurs): the 1973 Constitution of the Islamic Rapprochement edged slowly for­ Republic of Pakistan. Pakistan has ward. President and Prime Minister Whereas the government of Pakis­ virtually admitted that the British (he held both titles until elected tan acted with sympathy and hu­ sold them a bill of goods concerning president after the constitutional manitarian sentiments towards the the legality of the Durand Line as an Loya Jirgah in January 1977) Mo­ peopleaffectedin Afghanistan by international boundary, and the hammad Daoud attended the Fifth floods and quakes, the government Afghans seem willing to accept that Summit Conference of the Heads of of Afghanistan was gratified. When the Baluch and Pushtun problems on States and Governments of Non­ Pakistan markedly toned down her the Pakistani side of the line are Aligned Countries, held in Colombo, publicity and propaganda campaign, internal affairs. In theory, all that re­ Sri Lanka, August 15-19, 1976. Presi­ Afghanistan construed the move as mained after the first Daoud-Bhutto dent Daoud flew to Colombo via a positive one, and as one con­ moot was to complete the drawn-out New Delhi, where hegavea stopover tributing to the creation of an atmos­ choreography required by diplo­ press conference. In the interview, phere which would allow direct macy, those time consuming steps Daoud emphasized nonalignment contacts to establish mutual con­ which international law (if not justice and Afghanistan's friendship with fidence and amnity. and reason)demand. India. When Daoud addressed the LD-1-'78/9

delegates in Colombo, on August 26, political difference[author's italics] and Pakistan." (In 1975, the same he elaborated on by now familiar and other differences." An invitation mayor had delivered an inflamma­ topics: nonalignment as a positive was issued to President Fazal Elahi tory speech in support of "the natu­ force; the need to eliminate colo­ Chaudhry (a ceremonial nonentity in ral and undeniable rights to Pushtun nialism and racism in Africa; the con­ Pakistan) and Prime Minister Bhutto and Baluch people." Even Ajmal frontation of the developing world to "pay official visits to Afghanistan Khattak, leader of the "Pushtunis­ with economic neocolonialism, in the near future." The invitations tani" and Baluch refugees, spoke of which annually widens the gap be­ were accepted with pleasure.28 not rocking the boat. He indicated tween the haves and the have-nots; that he and his fellow refugeeswould support for the "legitimate rights" of "Pushtunistan Day," celebrated abide by any decisions reached by the Palestinians; discussed the pos­ annually in Afghanistan on August Pakistan and Afghanistan, but if sible creation of a South Africa­ 31, fell flat after Daoud's trip to regional autonomy is not granted, Rhodesia-Israel axis; defined the Pakistan. Usually an occasion for "we are prepared to fight on." problems of landlocked states in a anti-Pakistan speeches and bois­ mobile, modernworld.27 terous street demonstrations which Subsequent events in Pakistan civil servants and students are "en­ jeopardized partial rapprochement: At the conclusion of the summit, The ~ir Uprising (September couraged" to attend, in 1976 the 2 Prime Minister Daoud flew directly crowds were small and subdued, 1976); the destruction of Wana 30 from Colombo to Islamabad, on attendance by civil servants and bazaar (late October 1976); and August 21, arriving in the late after­ students not being required. Many the national elections and their after­ noon. At the banquet that evening, key government officials and math (March1977-continuing). But Prime Minister Bhutto said: "Please dignitaries did attend the cere­ the Afghans have not used any of the believe in our sincerity, and please monies, including: Mohammad incidents as an occasion for negative believe the efforts we are making, Nairn; Dr. Mohammad Hassan Sharq comment on Pakistani affairs. along with you, to reach a solution, (First Deputy Prime Minister, now because once our differences-or Ambassador to Japan); Sayyid As I write, Pakistan is under martial difference as you like to put it- are Abdul'ilah (Second Deputy Prime law, Mr. Bhutto has been deposed as resolved we know that many vistas Minister, now Minister of Finance); Prime Minister, and the nation awaits will open up for the betterment of Dr. Abdul Majid (Minister of Justice, new national and provincial elec­ both peoples." now Minister of State); Dr. Abdul tions. The Afghans want to nego­ Kayeum Wardak (Minister of Educa­ tiate but only after a stable Pakistani The Pakistanis spared no effort to tion, now Minister of Tribal Affairs); government comes into being. make the visit a public and official Dr. Abdur Rahim Navin (Minister of success, but even they were sur­ Information and Culture); Waheed prised at the warmth with which the Abdullah (Deputy Foreign Minister, (February1978) crowds greeted Daoud. The recep­ now Minister of State for Foreign tion the next day in the famed Affairs). Moghul Shalimar Gardens of proved to be the climax. Visibly Dr. Ghulam Sakhi Nourzad, mayor of moved by the crowd's enthusiastic Kabul, gave the keynote address, in response, Daoud read his speech which he emphasized the recent with an animation rare in his other exchange of talks between Prime public appearances. At Murree, the Ministers Daoud and Bhutto, and the hill resort behind Islamabad and good will they engendered. He , Prime Minister Daoud ended by saying: "I open observation went on an unannounced walk, and of Pushtunistan National Day with was photographed talking to Pakis­ sincere prayers for the ultimate suc­ tani children. Pakistani news media cess of the talks which have begun duly publicized the event. between the leaders of Afghanistan

In public both sides emphasized their "neighborliness" and desire to solve their political problem; in private, the ball bounced squarely in Bhutto's court.

The brief joint communique (August 24) replicated the points spelled out in June: ... dialogue initiated ... "to find an honorable solution of their 10/LD-1-'78

NOTES Queen Homaira and most of the royal large number of Panjsheri males who 1. For one expression of these ideas, familyjoined the ex-king in exile in Italy a work as servants in the Kabul foreign see: Roger Bastide, Applied Anthro­ few days after the 1973 coup. Only community. Thieves case villages where pology, Harper Torchbooks, New York, Ahmad Wali, eldest son of Marshal Shah a large percentage of the males are 1974. Wali Khan, and his family now remain in known to be away at work in Kabul. The Kabul. Ahmad Wali, a well-liked natural­ thieves come up from Kabul in taxis to 2. For a discussion of the 1969 elections, ist, has never participated in the intra­ rob, rape, and retire before the few re­ see: L. Dupree, Afghanistan Continues family struggles for political power. maining village males can strike back. Its Experiment in Democracy [LD-3-71 l, Well armed with automatic weapons, the AUFS Reports, South Asia Series, Vol. 8. These phenomena are being studied "taxicab bandits" remain a menace. 15, No. 3, 1971. For analysis of the coup by a British anthropologist, Diana Colvin, and subsequent events, see: L. Dupree, who was also in the Panjsher at the time 16. Che Guevara learned the same lesson A Note on Afghanistan 1974 [LD-4-741, of the insurgency. the hard way in the unfamiliar social and AUFS Reports, South Asia Series, Vol. natural terrain of highland Bolivia. XVIII, No. 6, 1974; The New Republic of 9. The Panjsher "mafia" virtually con­ Afghanistan: The First Twenty-one trols certain networks of foreign­ 17. The Ministry of the Interior was sent Months, Special Paper, The Asia Society employed servants in Kabul. to the Ministry of Tribal Affairs; the chief (New York), Afghanistan Council, 1976; of the gendarmerie became Minister of The Afghans Honor a Muslim Saint: 10. Rumor-mongering is so rampant, one the Interior. Reprise [LD-7-761, AU FS Reports, wag was heard to say: "Kabul doesn't South Asia Series, Vol. XX, No. 7, 1976. exist; it's a rumor!" 18. Considerthe young male high school graduate from Laghman who failed to 3. International conferences th rough 11. I am following M.E. Yapp's sugges­ find a government job, the aspiration of May 1976 are listed in L. Dupree, Afghan tion in referring to the Tajik folk-hero as virtually all graduates. Returning home, Studies [LF-4-761, AU FS Reports, Habibullah II, rather than Bacha Saqqao, he was greeted by derision and sarcasm South Asia Series, Vol. 20, No. 4, 1976, which has a pejorative connotation. from his father and his uncles. The entire and L. Dupree, The Afghans Honor a Habibullah II was overthrown and exe­ family had counted on the young man Muslim Saint: Reprise [LD-7-761, op. cuted by Nadir Khan, who became Nadir finding the kind of sinecure in a govern­ cit. a seminar on Two Centuries of Shah from 1929-1933.See Yapp," A little ment job which would have given the Publications (19th and 20th game, Afghanistan since 1918," South family prestige and "a friend in court" Centuries) was held in August 1977 and a Asian Review, July-October 1975, pp. should a dispute arise with the govern­ September gathering commemorated 401-406. ment. Unable to bear the taunting, the the Birth of Sanai'i. young man committed suicide (rare in 12. Unsubstantiated rumors that Meha­ Afghanistan), and now the family bears 4. A list of the conspirators and their juddin Gahiz, the influential editor of the collectiveguilt. (Students have also been sentences are found in: Anis, Heywad, religiously oriented, anticommunist known to commit suicide on failing Jamouriat, The Kabul Times (English), newspaper, Gahiz, had been assassi­ exams, or on being refused admission to and the quarterly Aryana (English). nated on September 7, 1972 at the the university- so the pattern may inten­ insistence of the KGB encouraged this sify.) 5. Many believe that Maiwandwal's belief. This version of the murder is death was leftist-inspired, because reported in John Barron's KGB: The 19. The most recent potential threat from elimination of potential rivals has been a Secret Work of Soviet Secret Agents, the right occurred in December 1976, common communist tactic. One of the Reader's Digest Press, New York, 1974, when retired Brigadier Mir Ahmad Shah, few Afghan politicians with an inter­ pp. 330-331. one of the few high-ranking Shia national reputation, Maiwandwal would officers, was arrested along with about probably have been a leader in any sub­ 13. President Z.A. Bhutto of Pakistan 100 others from Khoshi (Logar). Paktya, sequent democratic processes and, had precipitated the Baluchistan Insur­ and the northern provinces. The original therefore, became a prime target for gency and the subsequent reaction in the cause of dissatisfaction may have been elimination. North-West Frontier Province by at­ more personal than political. Prime Min­ tempting to squelch increasing demands ister Daoud passed over Ahmad Shah for 6. Ironically, Abdul Wal i's final place of for regional autonomy as defined in the promotion in the Jeshn-i-Jamhouriat list incarceration was the summer palace 1973 constitution. (July 1976). The brigadier then de­ inside the Arg (now the Presidential manded either promotion or retirement; Palace), where he and his wife, Princess 14. East German P-30s. P-40s, Sten retirement quickly followed. Only after Bilqis, spent part of their honeymoon. guns, etc. These types are easily pur­ that did Ahmad Shah begin to talk of chasable from the Darra Adam Khel possible overthrow with right wing 7. Marshal Shah Wali is known as Fateh­ Afridi in Darra, Kohat Frontier Region, (mainly religious) dissidents. Govern­ where Pakistani central government i-Kabul. Conqueror of Kabul. He dis­ ment infiltrators monitored (and re­ authority does not exist (Akbar S. cusses his long career in My Memoirs, ported) the talks, and police arrested the published in English, Kabul, 1970. On Ahmed, Social and Economic Change in brigadier and his cohorts. Most have now April 16, 1977, the venerable Marshal, 96 the Tribal Areas, Oxford University been released, after promising to refrain years old, died in exile in Rome Press, Karachi, 1977, p. 37.) from political activity in the future. surrounded by his family. He lies buried in Rome's Muslim cemetery. Some day, 15. The taxicab gambit partly accounts 20. For a short bibliography, see L. his body will probably be returned to for the belief by some that thieves had Dupree, Afghanistan, Princeton Univer­ Afghanistan and reburied with full mili­ come to loot. This pattern developed sity Press, 1973, pp. 425-429; 485-494; tary honors. over the past few years because of the 538-554. (Sources are in parentheses). LD-1-'78/11

21. L. Dupree, The Decade of Daoud Pakistan to nationalize the forests, in 30. In the heart of the Pushtun country, Ends [LD-7-'631, AUFS Reports, theory to prevent deforestation by local at Wana in South Waziristan the Wazir South Asia Series, Vol. VII, No. 7, 1963; Kohistani tribesmen. But the Kohistani and their neighbors, the Masud Pushtun, ibid., 1973, pp. 499-558, also A New have always resisted central government have fought for generations for control Decade of Daoud?, [LD-1-73], AUFS authority, even after the formal absorp­ of local forests. Locally recruited khas­ Reports, South Asia Series, Vol. XVII, tion of the princely state of Dir into the sadars(tribal levies),together with Scout No. 4, 1973. For a discussion of historical North-West Frontier Province. battalions of the Frontier Corps, a para­ background and recent events relative to military force with headquarters in Pesh­ the "Pushtunistan" debate, see L. Shaikh Mohammad Rashid, a self­ awar, have responsibility for law and Dupree, : Revolutionary styled socialist in Bhutto's cabinet (Min­ order. The Frontier Constabulary (a sepa­ Pushtun Poet [LD-9-761, AU FS Reports, ister of Food, Agriculture Cooperatives, rate ,unit) guards the border zone South Asia Series, Vol. XX, No. 9, 1976. Under-developed Areas, and Land Re­ between the Settled Districts and the 9, 1976. form) visited the area and announced the Tribal Areas. nationalization plan. When forest 22. The two main routes of commerce rangers attempted to prevent local In 1973, Bhutto launched an unprece­ and communication between Afghan­ tribesmen from entering the forests, dented socioeconomic development istan and Pakistan can be check-pointed about 2,000 Kohistanis struck back. program in the Federally Administered by both nations: Kabul-Torkham-Pesha­ (Probably the fight also involved discon­ Tribal Areas (FATA), which led to a 30- war; Kandahar-Chaman-. The rest tent between Nawab Painda Khel, fold increase in expenditures in 4 years. of the frontier, however, is still relatively nominal ruler of Dir, and the contractors He also reopened several deserted British open. who bought the lumber.) At first, the cantonments, including Razmak and tribesmen planned to march on Islama­ Wana, less than a thousand inhabitants 23. Classified Military Report on Afghan­ bad (150 miles away) to present their each, many of them engaged in istan, published by the General Staff case, but local security forces used tear smuggling. In August 1973, the Shawal India, Government of India Press, 1925, gas to break up thisattempt at a peaceful Rifles moved into Razmak. ( I nthe days of p.69. demonstration. the British Raj, up to 30,000 troops and Royal Air Force personnel occupied 24. The Australian Council for Overseas Ten days of fighting resulted, and the these forts. Even fabled Lawrence of Aid is helping rebuild the village of Seh government sent 10,000 troops (mainly Arabia served as "Aircraftsman Shaw" Ghancheh, about 12 kilometers east of the Federal Security Force, part of in Miranshah in 1929.) Tashkurghan. Syed N. Sibtain, an "Bhutto's private army"), armored Australian architect, is directing the vehicles (some say two tank divisions), In fact, only a minority resisted violently. project which will provide earthquake­ and used jet fighters to quell the uprising. Many joined the outsiders, offering ser­ proof housing for 30 families (149 On November 4, the government vices, labor, materials, foodstuffs, and­ people). admitted that about 62 Kohistanis had at least temporarily- loyalty. As the gov­ been killed (some claim 300-600), 12 se­ ernment of Pakistan moved more and 25. My Report on Ajmal Khattak con­ curity forces personnel killed, and 12 more military units in the South Wazir­ tains verbatim accounts of the radio ex­ wounded. Nongovernment sources istan area, the old bazaar inside the can­ changes. See Note 20. claim about 60 killed on each side, and tonment grew rapidly, and threatened to 150 Pakistani troops wounded. No surpass the military installations. Re­ 26. See chapter on Bamiyan in Nancy matter what the true figures, the impor­ peated government demands that the Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide to tant fact is that a major uprising did building of shops cease, and that the Afghanistan, Afghan Tourist Organiza­ occur. older shops move outside the sensitive tion, Kabul, 1977;2nd ed. in press. cantonment area, were ignored. Spies By mid-November, Bhutto Sahib had for the truculent tribal elements 27. English text in The Kabul Times, performed another of his periodic wandered in and out of the bazaars, col­ August 17, 1976. miracles. He flew to Dir, restored the lecting information on troop movements Jirgah(villagecouncil) system for settling which often led to ambushes of military local disputes (he had earlier abolished 28. English text in The Kabul Times, convoys. August 25, 1976. The Afghans also it), and blithely announced that 25-40 suggested that it was to their mutual percent of the forests wou Id be returned Frustrated at every turn, the government interest for Pakistan to drop charges to the people. He announced these finally ordered the troops to clear the against Khan Abdul Wali Khan and his things as though the nationalization plan shopkeepers and camp followers from 40-odd NAP associates. The Pakistanis and the subsequent uprising had never the area. A combination of artillery bar­ were less than enthusiastic, although the happened, but he did state publicly rages and air strikes reduced almost all of government did subsequently release87- several times that "no foreign hand was Wana (except the central cantonment year-old Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, who involved in Dir." Thus, Prime Minister area) to rubble, and completely had been incarcerated for 16 months. In Bhutto ended rumors that Afghanistan destroyed any sympathy that existed for the 29 years since Pakistani indepen­ or India (or both) participated in- or its modernization programs. dence, the "Frontier Gandhi" has spent even perpetrated-the trouble. Col. 16 years in jail, and 8 years in voluntary H.R.C. Pettigrew, Frontier Scouts, Although Bhutto made several trips exile in Afghanistan. Selsey Press, Sussex, n.d., but obviously thereafter to the area, he was not post-1947; Col. Eric "Buster" Goodwin, successful in gaining support for an Life Among the Pathans (Khattaks)~nd accelerated program of development. 29. The Dir uprising involved the mis­ edition, Ferozsons, Rawalpindi, 1975. Indeed, there were even assassination guided efforts by the government of attempts. Nonetheless, the roads have 12/LD-1-'78

come to stay. Schools remain open. Modern hospitals and clinics treat hun­ dreds of patients daily. But, a significant minority still resist: the battle for the tribal soul is far from over. Akbar S. Ahmed, Social and Economic Change in The Tribal Areas, Oxford University Press (Karachi), 1977.

/ \, t·, '