ISSN 1359-9321 The Galton Institute NEWSLETTER

Galtonia candicans Issue Number 75 Spring 2011

Contents

Bob Edwards: the trail that Bob Edwards: led to the Nobel Prize 1 The trail that led to Sir Francis Galton 3 The Nobel Prize The Galton Institute by Conference 2010 4 Epigenetics and Martin H Johnson Epigenomics 5

British Society for Population Studies Conference 2010 6 Robert Geoffrey ‘Bob’ Edwards was born into a working-class family on the 27th European Human September 1925 in the small Yorkshire mill town of Batley. The family relocated Behaviour and Evolution to Manchester when Bob was about 5, where he was educated and gained a Conference 2010 8 scholarship in 1937 to Manchester Central Boy’s High School. The war then interrupted Bob’s education, for when he left school he was conscripted into the Morphometrics and British Army for almost four years. After discharge, in 1948, he returned home Statistical Shape Analysis to Manchester, from where he applied to read agricultural sciences at the Conference 2010 9 University College of North Wales at Bangor. Having gained a place and a grant to fund it, the course offered at Bangor was to disappoint. By that time he was Teaching Genetics in an experienced 23 year old, and he found it unchallenging and unscientific, and Secondary Schools 11 so in his third year he transferred to the Zoology Department, led by the more intellectually challenging Rogers Brambell FRS. However, in 1951, aged 26 he Editorial 12 gained a simple pass degree. Dismayed but not deterred, he applied to do a Diploma course in Animal Genetics at Edinburgh University under Conrad Galton Institute Waddington FRS, and, despite his pass degree, was accepted. Conference 2011 12

The intellectual spirit of scientific enquiry that Bob experienced in Edinburgh Published by: fitted his aptitudes, for Waddington rewarded his Diploma year with a funded The Galton Institute 3-year PhD place. Bob chose to study the developmental genetics of the mouse 19 Northfields Prospect under his supervisor, Alan Beatty. He generated aneuploid mouse embryos and Northfields studied their potential for normal development. To undertake these early LONDON SW18 1PE attempts at ‘genetic engineering’ in mammals, he needed eggs, sperm and Telephone: 020-8874 7257 embryos in which to manipulate the chromosomal composition. Sperm were www.galtoninstitute.org.uk abundant, but eggs were not, leading him to two major discoveries that proved to be of later significance for his Nobel work. With his wife, Ruth Fowler, he General Secretary: devised ways to increase the numbers of synchronised eggs recoverable from Mrs Betty Nixon adult female mice by use of exogenous hormones, overturning the conventional wisdom that super-ovulation of adult females was not possible. Second, working Newsletter Editor: with Alan Gates, he described the remarkable timed sequence of egg chromoso- Dr Geoffrey Vevers

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 1 SPRING 2011 mal maturation events that lead up two papers remarkable for their cal laparoscopy in the UK. These to ovulation after injection of the prescience. They describe the pro- skills were critical for the success of ovulatory hormone (human chori- duction of embryonic stem cells from the further IVF work, which used in- onic gonadotrophin; hCG). It was rabbit embryos – capable of prolifer- vivo matured eggs recovered just also in Edinburgh that Bob’s interest ating through over 100 generations prior to ovulation, a change necessi- in ethics was first sparked by the and of differentiating into various tated by concerns about the develop- interdisciplinary debates among cell types. mental potential of in-vitro matured scientists and theologians that eggs. In 1970 they described the Waddington organised. These From Glasgow, Bob relocated to collection of in-vivo matured eggs resulted in Bob’s life-long humanist Cambridge in 1963, again at the from follicles after mild hormonal ethical sympathies. invitation of Alan Parkes, now the stimulation, and by 1971 had Marshall/Walton professor there. He achieved regular fertilisation of these After a brief sojourn in the USA resumed his work on egg maturation, eggs and their early development from 1957 to 1958, he returned to the and showed that eggs of larger through cleavage to the blastocyst UK at the invitation of Alan Parkes to species, such as man, took longer to stage. The long haul to the birth of join him at the MRC National mature than those of smaller ones, Louise Brown in 1978 was marked by Institute for Medical Research human eggs taking some 36 hours struggles to get the endocrinological (NIMR), Mill Hill. His remit was to rather than the 12 or so for mice. problems of implantation resolved. work on the development of new These cytogenetic studies were These struggles were not helped by methods of fertility control, espe- reported in two seminal papers in fierce opposition from peers and cially immuno-contraception. 1965. In each of these papers, the press, nor by the rejection for fund- However, his time there between focus is on the study, detection and ing of the work by the MRC, which 1958 and 1962 was one of increasing prevention of genetic disease, they described as unethical. intellectual conflict. Whilst enthusi- unsurprisingly given Bob’s research astic about the science underlying interests. Indeed, within three years Bob tackled this criticism head on. immuno-contraception, his old he had, with Richard Gardner, He chose to engage with the issues interests in eggs, fertilisation and, in provided proof of principle for publically through the media, but particular, the genetics of develop- preimplantation genetic diagnosis incurred further criticism from peers ment were gradually reasserting (PGD), in a paper on rabbit embryo for doing so. He is a pioneer in the themselves. His interest was re- sexing published in 1968, another public communication of science. He awakened by the then recently key paper. also engaged with professional published descriptions of the pa- ethicists and lawyers on the ethical thologies in man that resulted from Between 1965 and 1969, Bob and regulatory issues raised by his chromosomal anomalies. The possi- struggled to achieve IVF in humans. work, and published a Nature paper ble clinical relevance of his work on Paradoxically, the problem he with Dave Sharpe in 1971, which egg maturation and aneuploidy in confronted was not with eggs, but surveys the scientific benefits and the mouse was clear. with sperm. For fertilization to risks of the science of IVF, the legal occur, the sperm had to be capaci- and ethical issues raised by IVF, and Bob resumed his experiments with tated, a process that occurs physio- the pros and cons of the various mice, and found he was able to logically in the uterus. The question regulatory responses to them. It mimic in vitro the in-vivo matura- was: how to achieve capacitation in anticipates social responses that tion of eggs: the eggs matured vitro? The solution proved to lie in were some 13-19 years into the spontaneously when released from some experiments being undertaken future. their follicles. The possibility of by graduate student, Barry Bavister, studying the same phenomenon in who found that raising the pH of the To Bob’s contributions to science, humans was evident, as was in-vitro medium yielded regular fertilisation medicine, public communication and fertilisation and studies on the of hamster eggs. Applying this reproductive ethics should be added genetics of early human develop- medium to human sperm, did the his pioneering work in building the ment. He then sourced human trick, and, using eggs matured in community of modern scientific ovarian biopsies, with difficulty, vitro, fertilization in vitro was reproductive medicine that is called from various clinical sources, to achieved in 1969. Assisted Reproductive Technologies study human oöcyte maturation. (ART). He founded the European However, this quest for human eggs, In 1968, Bob had met Patrick Society of Human Reproduction and and his dreams of IVF, reached the Steptoe, and so began a fruitful Embryology as well as the journals ears of the then Director of NIMR, partnership of equals: scientist and Human Reproduction, Human Sir Charles Harington FRS, who gynaecologist. Steptoe’s deep con- Reproduction Update, Molecular banned any work there on human cern for the infertile became shared Human Reproduction, and Repro- IVF. Bob left Mill Hill in 1962 for a by Bob. Patrick’s clinical skills ductive BioMedicine Online. Justifia- year in Glasgow to work with John included his pioneering pre- bly called the father of ART, he is a Paul. The year in Glasgow resulted in eminence in the use of gynaecologi- worthy Nobel Laureate in Physiology

SPRING 2011 2 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER and Medicine (For more details of rabbit by transferring sexed blasto- Reproductive BioMedicine Online. Nobel ceremony etc see http:// cysts. Nature 218: 346-9. Reprod. BioMed. Online, in press. nobelprize.org/ and Reproductive BioMedicine Online - Home news Edwards RG, Bavister BD, Johnson MH. (2011) Robert button). Steptoe PC. (1969) Early stages of Edwards: the early years. Reprod. fertilization in vitro of human BioMed. Online, in press. oöcytes matured in vitro. Nature 221: 632–5. Johnson MH, Franklin SB, Robert Edwards: some key Cottingham M, Hopwood N. (2010) papers: Steptoe PC, Edwards RG. (1970) Why the Medical Research Council

Laparoscopic recovery of preovula- refused Robert Edwards and Patrick Fowler RE, Edwards, RG. (1957) tory human oöcytes after priming of Steptoe support for research on Induction of superovulation and preg- nancy In mature mice by gonadotro- ovaries with gonadotrophins. Lancet human conception in 1971. Hum. phins. J. Endocr. 15: 374-84. 295: 683–9. Reprod. 25: 2157-74.

Edwards RG, Gates AH. (1959) Steptoe PC, Edwards RG, Purdy Timing of the stages of the maturation JM. (1971) Human blastocysts grown divisions, ovulation, fertilization and the in culture. Nature 229: 132–3. Martin Johnson is Professor of first cleavage of eggs of adult mice Reproductive Sciences at The Anat- treated with gonadotrophins. J. Endocr. Edwards RG, Sharpe DJ. (1971) 18: 292-304. omy School, Department of Physiol- Social values and research in human ogy, Development and Neuroscience Cole RJ, Edwards RG, Paul J. (1965) embryology. Nature 231: 87–91. & the Centre for Trophoblast Re- Cytodifferentiation in cell colonies and search, Downing Street, Cambridge. cell strains derived from cleaving ova and Steptoe PC, Edwards RG. (1978) blastocysts of the rabbit. Exp. Cell Res. Birth after the reimplantation of a 37: 501–4. human embryo. Lancet 312: 366. Bob Edwards has been a Fellow of Cole RJ, Edwards RG, Paul J. (1966) the Galton Institute since 1965 and Cytodifferentiation and embryogenesis in Background reading cell colonies and tissue cultures derived has served on our Council on three

from ova and blastocysts of the rabbit. separate occasions. As well as Dev. Biol. 13: 385–407. Edwards RG, Steptoe PC. (1980) A delivering the Darwin Lecture in Matter of Life: The Story of a Human Biology in 1971, he also Edwards RG. (1965) Maturation in Medical Breakthrough. Hutchinson: delivered the Galton Lecture at our vitro of mouse, sheep, cow, pig, rhesus London, UK. annual conference in 1982. It was monkey and human ovarian oöcytes. entitled The Current Clinical and Nature 208: 349-51. Edwards RG. (1996) Patrick Ethical Situation of Human Concep-

Christopher Steptoe, C. B. E. 9 June tion In Vitro and the full text can be Edwards RG. (1965) Maturation in 1913-22 March 1988. Biog. Mems. vitro of human ovarian oöcytes. Lancet found in Twelve Galton Lectures: A Fell. R. Soc. 42: 435-52. 286: 926-9. Centenary Selection with Commen- taries, edited by Steve Jones and Gardner RL, Edwards RG. (1968) Gardner RL, Johnson MH. (2011) Milo Keynes and published by The Control of the sex ratio at full term in the Bob Edwards and the first decade of Galton Institute in 2007.

SIR FRANCIS GALTON 1822—1911 Victorian polymath: geographer, meteorologist, tropical explorer, founder of psychometrics, inventor of fingerprint identification, pioneer of statistical correlation and regression, eugenicist, cousin of and best-selling author.

Sir Francis Galton died on 17 January, 1911 and was buried in his family grave, alongside his mother and father, in Claverdon churchyard in Warwickshire. Al- though Galton had lived for much of his life in London, his parents’ family home was in Claverdon. To commemorate the centenary of Sir Francis’ death, the Galton grave has been completely restored to its original state. Members of The Galton Institute will be interested to know that the Institute contributed, with others, to- wards this much needed restoration.

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 3 SPRING 2011 of cytosine bases (DNA methylation). Lecture. Prof Surani gave an over- While assembly of the genome into view of how early developmental The Galton Institute chromatin achieves the required switches of the type proposed by Annual Conference DNA compaction to fit the genetic Conrad Waddington are controlled information into the cell nucleus, it by epigenetic mechanisms. Specifi- 10 November, 2010 inevitably affects every DNA based cally, how primordial germ cells un- at process including DNA repair, DNA dergo epigenetic changes during replication and gene transcription. specification and movement to the The Royal Society For such processes to access the genital ridge of the embryo. Further- DNA sequence, chromatin is a dy- more, he presented recent data de- Epigenetics: Where Life namic structure. scribing the reversal of this cellular Meets the Genome We now know that such processes differentiation process to generate pluripotent embryonic germ cells, and associated differential gene ex- which can be cultured and examined pression involve a complex interplay in vitro. between transcription factors, chro- Historically, the term “epigenetics” matin regulators, histone modifica- The afternoon session began with is attributed to Conrad Waddington tions, histone variants, DNA methy- presentation of the Cedric Carter (1905-1975) who in the late 1930s lation and non-coding RNA mole- Medal by Professor Sir Walter Bod- remarked “It is, surely, obvious that cules. Furthermore, a number of dis- mer. The practice of awarding the the fertilized egg contains constitu- eases, most notably cancer, are char- Cedric Carter Memorial Medal was ents which have definite properties acterized by altered epigenetic pro- instituted in the 1980’s after the which allow only a certain limited files; alterations in the epigenome death of Professor Cedric Carter, a number of reactions to occur; in so may play a role in the susceptibility long serving council member of the far as this is true, one may say that and pathogenesis of human disease. Eugenics Society, a past-president development proceeds on a basis of and a serving officer of the Society at the "preformed" qualities of the fer- The aim of this one-day symposium was to bring together a diverse range the time of his death in 1984. The tilized egg. But equally it is clear that Institute awards the medal on a tri- of recent research that has studied the interaction of these constituents ennial basis to recipients who, in the epigenetics in the context of the sys- gives rise to new types of tissue and opinion of Council, “have made out- tems and areas outlined above. Six organ which were not present origi- standing contributions either to the speakers from various disciplinary nally, and in so far development work of the Institute or in the gen- backgrounds gave talks to an audi- must be considered as "epigenetic."” eral field of eugenics”. The 2010 re- ence of around 100 attendees. The inherited preformed or prede- cipient of the Cedric Carter Medal termined genetic program provides Professor Adrian Bird (University was Professor Anthony Edwards. information about what is possible, of Edinburgh) opened the meeting Elected a fellow of the Eugenics Soci- but regulation of genetic expression with a discussion of epigenetics and ety in 1960, he has held numerous involves interpretation. It is the lat- chromatin. He proposed a refine- positions during his 50-year associa- ter that is epigenetic. Since then the ment to the definition of epigenetics tion with the Eugenics Society and term epigenetic has gone through to convey more accurately the field in the Galton Institute, including coun- many refinements and to reflect a the 21st century; “the structural ad- cil member, vice president and in broader biological focus than just aptation of chromosomal regions so 1997 he gave the Galton Lecture. development, and is now most com- as to register, signal or perpetuate Professor Bernhard Horsthemke monly defined as “the study of mi- altered activity states”. The impor- (University of Duisburg-Essen) ex- totically and/or meiotically heritable tance of these adaptations and al- plained how genomic imprinting is changes in gene function that cannot tered activity states were highlighted an epigenetic process by which the be explained by changes in DNA se- in data presented concerning the male and the female germ line confer quence”. neurological disorder Rett Syndrome specific (marks) imprints onto cer- and using a mouse model, demon- The establishment, maintenance tain gene regions, so that one allele strated that Rett-like symptoms can and modulation of such gene tran- of an imprinted gene is active and be readily reversed by restoration of scriptional programmes is reliant on the other is silent. He demonstrated a functional gene MeCP2 that is a the inherent ‘plasticity’ of chromatin how the study of families with the reader of epigenetic marks. This (the complexes that package DNA Prader Willi syndrome and other raised not only the prospect of a into chromosomes). Nucleosomes, disorders involving imprinted genes the fundamental repeating unit of therapeutic approach to the treat- ment of Rett syndrome in humans have revealed information about im- chromatin, are composed of a multi- print erasure and the establishment but also highlighted the importance subunit complex of histones, around of new imprints between generations. of epigenetics in disease. which 147 base pairs of DNA is wrapped. The DNA molecule can be Professor Azim Surani (University Professor Peter Jones (USC/Norris covalently modified at the 5 position of Cambridge) delivered the Galton Comprehensive Cancer Center) dis-

SPRING 2011 4 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER cussed new techniques for studying childhood-onset Type 1 Diabetes, overview of the days proceedings by nucleosome positioning at the single- specifically for DNA methylation. Professor Marcus Pembrey (Visiting molecule level. Such a method allows Such Epigenome-Wide Association Professor, University of Bristol) and each molecule to be viewed as an Studies (EWAS) present novel op- a discussion of what the future holds individual entity instead of an aver- portunities but also create new chal- for epigenetics, including the poten- age population, single-molecule lenges that are not encountered in tial for transgenerational inheritance analysis confirmed nucleosome shift- genome-wide association studies of phenotypic traits mediated ing at a number of genes therefore (GWAS). He also discussed EWAS through epigenetic phenomena. study design, cohort and sample se- providing a potential mechanism for lections, power and analytical ap- rapid silencing and reactivation of genes during the cell cycle. proaches, confounding factors, fol- Reported by: Paul J Hurd, lec- low-up studies, and how integration Dr Vardhman Rakyan (Barts and turer in Molecular Biology & Bio- of EWAS with GWAS can help to dis- The London School of Medicine and chemistry, School of Biological and sect complex GWAS haplotypes for Dentistry) presented data on large- Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary, functional analysis. scale studies of human disease- University of London as well as a associated epigenetic variation in The meeting concluded with an trustee of The Galton Institute.

somes and can therefore carry both ment is to be preferred. Epigenetics black and orange genes, one of the and Epigenomics two X chromosomes, with all of the The principal mechanisms which genes it carries, is inactivated in each are responsible for epigenetic phe- A Rough Guide cell of the body. The inactivation is a nomena can be regarded as switch largely random process which occurs gear turning genes on or off for long

early in foetal life and the descen- periods which may extend over gen- The two words in my title are seen dants of each inactivated cell retain erations although in the process of more and more frequently nowadays. the inactivation through cell genera- gamete formation an erasure process Historically epigenetic findings were tions indefinitely. Thus, female cats occurs which results in the removal first reported many years ago but carrying both gene variants display a of the majority of potentially herita- were not readily accepted because mosaic pattern of black and ginger ble epigenetic effects. These mecha- ‘’they did not conform to Mendel’s patches which reflects faithfully the nisms fall broadly into three classes. laws’’ This observation provides, original pattern of inactivation. The first and probably both opera- incidentally, an excellent type speci- tionally and numerically most im- men supporting the thesis that nei- In this example we see a case of an portant is a process of methylation of ther laws nor dogma but rather prin- epigenetic effect i.e. where the phe- DNA. Methylation per se is a part of ciples should provide the framework notype does not necessarily reflect the normal mechanism of control of for expounding biological knowl- the genotype and where inheritance gene activity but at an extreme level, edge. This short exposition arises (in this case from cell to cell) of the by interfering with transcription of because it appeared to me that gen- epigenetic (in this case inacti- messenger RNA from the affected eral understanding of what the terms vated) state is stable. region, effectively shuts down activ- embrace and signify was perhaps less ity of the gene concerned. The sec- than it might be and is offered with To give a satisfactory definition of ond mechanism is that of modifica- the hope that readers will gain some epigenetics is not easy and so far as I tion of the histone elements with benefit from it. am aware there is still no universally which the DNA in chromosomes is accepted definition. Why this is so is intimately associated. Such modifica- Casual observation tells us that the probably a consequence of the fact tions may include acetylation, me- coat colour of cats is variable. How- that epigenetic processes may have a thylation and phosphorylation and ever, the nature of this variability is variety of causal mechanisms. To they appear to influence gene activity different in the two sexes. Individual illustrate the variation in terminol- by changing the spatial organisation females may, for example, have ogy I give here two examples used in of the DNA-histone complex and as a patchy black and ginger coats but in articles published in 2010. 1 consequence blocking transcription males this is never seen. The reason ‘’Epigenetics is the study of heritable from the DNA. The third mechanism for the difference is that the gene alterations of gene expression that is less well understood and depends concerned with this colour difference are not caused by changes in DNA upon the existence of small (non- is on the X chromosome and males, sequence ’’. 2 ‘’Epigenetics is the coding) molecules of RNA, which, by having only one X, show the coat study of inherited changes in pheno- pairing with specific messenger RNA colour phenotype determined by the typic traits or genome function with- molecules, block production of the single black or ginger variant out changes in the underlying DNA gene product concerned. of the gene they carry whilst in fe- sequence’’. For the writer and for males, which have two X chromo- general understanding the first state- Finally there is another exceptional

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 5 SPRING 2011 epigenetic mechanism which de- conceived during this period show an ing this is simpler; it means simply pends not upon gene activity but increased liability to diabetes and to the study en masse of those genes in upon protein state. Prions are pro- schizophrenia suggestive of an epi- the genome which are subject (or tein molecules capable of existing in genetic effect in which very low nu- may be subject) to epigenetic effects. at least two conformational states tritional status of parents has pro- What then is the size of the epige- and, in one of these forms ( but not duced an altered activity level of sev- nome? The human genome contains others) are responsible for the occur- eral, possibly many, genes passed on of the order of 20,000—25,000 rence of ailments like mad cow dis- in this condition to offspring. Whilst genes but in any tissue at any time ease and Kuru. The protein molecule this remains to be proven the fact only a small fraction of this number has exactly the same amino acid se- that one gene involved in control of is operative. Hard evidence exists to quence in all conformations but in growth is under average methylated, show that at least fifty individual one (disease causing) form has the another associated with schizophre- genes on a number of different chro- additional property that it directs nia is over average methylated and at mosomes show epigenetic effects molecules in the course of synthesis least four other genes of unspecified and as the X chromosome, all of to adopt the same conformation and function are also over average me- which is so involved, comprises hence to cause the disease to mani- thylated in hongerwinter individu- about five percent of the genome it fest in the offspring of affected indi- als is strongly suggestive. Similar seems that possibly a few thousand viduals. findings have also been reported for (but may be many more) constitute Chinese and Swedish populations. the human epigenome. The example of prions noted above is a case of what may loosely be Possible epigenetic effects arising Together epigenetics and epige- termed an epigenetic disease and from a variety of experiences such as nomics constitute a very active and evidence is accumulating that epige- chronic exposure to drugs of abuse exciting field of study which will netic effects may be involved fairly and stress in parents and of proce- surely generate results of great sig- frequently in some diseases. Thus, dures required for IVF in the produc- nificance for both fundamen- for example, in the Netherlands the tion of fertilised eggs have recently tal genetics and for the understand- winter months of 1944-5 (de honger- been announced and there seems ing of human development and dis-

winter) were a period of severe little doubt that many more will eases within the near future. shortage of food for many Dutch emerge in future. people, so severe in fact that thou- John A Beardmore sands died. Studies of individuals Turning now to epigenomics, defin- Treasurer, The Galton Institute ing by those attending. BSPS also tries and described some of the British Society for added a couple of fringe meetings to measurement issues for malaria, the format in 2010. such as the use of verbal autopsy. Population Studies Plenary 1: Ties Boerma, World He described some recent develop- Conference 2010 Health Organisation ments in TB where the MDG is to reduce the prevalence and death Ties Boerma from the WHO pre- rates. In 2008 there were an esti- mated 1.8 million deaths involving sented his plenary session on the Demography and Monitoring and TB. He noted that interventions The 2010 Conference at the Uni- Evaluation of Health in Developing were mainly around treatment with versity of Exeter was again the high- Countries. multiple drugs and that there had light of the BSPS year, with over 180 been progress with case detection He started with an overview of participants over the three days of and treatment success, but that there recent developments in world health the Conference. From the feedback was no evidence of a decline in relating his talk to Millennium De- forms the consensus was that the prevalence. He looked at measure- velopment Goals (MDG). The MDG6 ment issues, and mentioned the suc- meeting had been very successful, is to reduce the prevalence and cess of population based surveys to with particular plaudits for the two death rates associated with malaria. assess prevalence. plenary sessions. Thus this report The burden of the disease, mostly in concentrates on those plenary ses- sub-Saharan Africa, is an estimated The biggest issue is HIV. The MDG sions. It is hoped to have podcasts of 243 million clinical episodes, and is to halt and begin to reverse the the plenaries on the BSPS website. 800,000 deaths per year. He de- spread of HIV by 2015. He noted scribed a range of recent improve- that there were an estimated 33 mil- lion people living with Aids, with 2 Additionally, the Nothing new ments in dealing with malaria, since about 2003, and noted in particular million deaths in 2008. Ties showed under the sun: a brief history the large increase in funds to support a chart tracking the huge increase in of the Census in the UK special prevention, testing and treatment. funding for HIV/AIDS; from $1.5 session, presented by Ian White from Ties presented charts showing the billion in 2000 to $13 billion in the Office for National Statistics, was dramatic improvements in malaria 2008. He also showed the improve- reported as being hugely entertain- prevalence across a range of coun- ment in treatment, the slow decline

SPRING 2011 6 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER in new case rates and discussed is- demography innovations, including  the evidence on convergence be- sues with measurement. conducting verbal autopsies via mo- tween 'native' and immigrant bile 'phones, were showing progress. women. The goals of MDG 4 and 5 are to

reduce child mortality by ⅔ and ma- Plenary 2: Tomáš Sobotka, Vi- Tomáš showed the increase in the ternal mortality by ¾, between 1990 enna Institute of Demography and 2015. In 2009 there were about number of countries with low fertil- 8 million child deaths and 400,000 Tomáš Sobotka from the Vienna ity from 1970 to the early 2000's. maternal deaths in 2008. 2010 is Institute of Demography (VID) pre- Particularly striking is the rapid in- the year of maternal neonatal child sented the key trends in fertility in crease, from the middle of the health. Ties noted the gradual de- the developed world. As introduc- 1990's, in the number of European cline in child mortality but a slower tion, Tomáš noted that in the litera- countries with the lowest fertility decline in maternal mortality, and ture there were notions about fertil- whilst recent estimates for maternal rates (of below 1.3). However, since ity being too low and looming popu- mortality were more upbeat, the the early 2000's the number of coun- lation decline; with populist writings, tries with low fertility rates has re- MDG5 is unlikely to be met. In in sections of the media, on immi- terms of measurement he noted the mained roughly static, though the grants 'taking over'. Tomáš noted importance of household surveys as alarmist conclusions from 1906 on number with the lowest rates has there is very limited clinical data. “Social suicide” in the UK as a result dropped very sharply, back to zero in

of declining fertility rates by 2009. Ties then discussed chronic dis- Newsholm. Tomáš then compared eases for which there are no MDGs, this with recent quotes from demog- Tomáš illustrated the big differ- suggesting that this might be the raphers, showing that nothing ences between regions in fertility next area to have goals. He noted changes, for example W. Lutz et al trends, in particular very large de- that the burden is increasing due to a 2006, the “Low fertility trap” hy- range of factors and that interven- clines in fertility in Southern Europe pothesis. Tomáš also noted the and Central-eastern Europe. A com- tions were mainly focussed on pre- European Commission Green Paper mon feature however was towards an vention e.g. reducing risk factors (2005) that said low birth rate is a such as tobacco. In 2011 there will “challenge for the public authori- upturn in fertility starting about be a United Nations General Assem- ties”; and that “return to demo- 2000 in almost all areas, though the bly Special Session on chronic and graphic growth” is one out of “three amount of upturn still differs across non-communicable diseases which essential priorities”. Tomáš, showed regions, being very strong in some should present an important oppor- three examples from books “The Last countries. This increase in fertility tunity. He mentioned that there Days of Europe: Epitaph for an Old showed that areas can change rapidly were crucial data gaps, for example Continent”, “Decline and Fall: from lowest low fertility to more nor- lack of evidence on risk factors. Ties Europe's Slow Motion Suicide”, and discussed using interview surveys to mal low levels of 1.4 to 1.6, but still “PeopleQuake”, and noted an alarm- below replacement level. This up- look at heart problems and schizo- ist video with bogus statistics on turn in fertility is remarkable as it is phrenia, with some international YouTube got 12.3 million views for comparisons. He also looked at the the English version. the first concerted rise of fertility search for summary measures, in- across the whole developed world. cluding the BigMac Index! In terms of the micro-level theme he highlighted concerns that individ- Tomáš looked at whether this in- He looked at monitoring and ual preferences are not fulfilled (but crease is “real”, with a large number evaluation and the rôle of Demogra- that this stands on “shaky ground”) of articles speculating that the lowest phy and noted the need for regular and concerns that people may “miss monitoring of MDGs – especially to low rates are an artefact, caused by out” if they don't have a family they delayed childbearing, and that co- support performance based dis- realise this too late (Kravdal 2010), bursement. He showed the hort rates may not ultimately show though the argument can go the such low rates. Tomáš briefly looked 'epidemic' of indicators and targets, other way round, not realising the but noted that impact evaluation was consequences of having children … at the Bongaarts-Feeney method that a neglected topic. He set out two attempts to adjust for these effects, areas where there was a rôle for de- taking account of the tempo effect. mography: these were data genera- Tomáš's talk then went on to look

tion - through surveys, death regis- at four main areas: tration and population based longi- Tomáš then considered other pos- tudinal surveys, and analysis and sible explanations, in particular pol- evaluation. In particular he noted  upturns in period fertility and icy effects – the return of pronatal- that cause of death registration was a their explanations ism and high levels of fertility of im- priority topic and it is estimated that migrants. He presented evidence  the likely stabilisation in com- 40 million babies are born but not showing that in some countries this pleted cohort fertility (in some re- registered each year, and 40 million effect was actually negative, and only gions) people die unregistered each year. small where it did occur. 77 countries, with two thirds of the

world’s population, do not have  the effects of the recent recession It appears that fertility rates were reliable cause of death statistics. IT and

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 7 SPRING 2011 stabilising in Western, Southern, and ing at unemployment and fertility. the issues that might affect this dis- Eastern Europe and the USA. He However, he also pointed out studies cussion, such as environmental con- started by looking at cohort fertility that showed other factors were more cerns and the impact of immigration. rates, setting out the advantages of important than the economic cycle. this method of measuring fertility, He concluded that some decline in Tomáš suggested that those that particularly in dealing with post- fertility should be expected as a re- wanted to look further at this topic ponement issues. He noted that sult of the recent recession, but might like to look at the website there was debate about whether it looked at other complicating factors. www.humanfertility.org was period rather than cohort rates The recession has slowed or stopped driving fertility. Some countries the increasing fertility rates in a All abstracts from the Conference achieved low levels of cohort fertility number of countries, but not every- can be found on the BSPS website at 100 years ago and he showed that where, and the effects of the reces- the decline in younger age cohort sion on changing fertility rates were http://www2.lse.ac.uk/socialPolicy/ fertility had stabilised in several likely to be small and short-lived. BSPS/annualConference/2010/ countries, with a small uptick in re- 2010%20Exeter.aspx cent years in a few, suggesting than Tomáš stated that there was evi- this marked the end of increasing dence of converging fertility rates The above is a shortened version of postponement of child-bearing. amongst immigrants and second the report submitted by The British generation immigrants with the Tomáš suggested that there might Society of Population Studies. 'native born' population, showing the be an increase in fertility with the example of the Netherlands. recession in theory. In the OECD there was evidence since 1980 of a BSPS would like to thank The Gal- correlation between decreased fertil- Finally Tomáš looked at the issue ton Institute for their very wel- ity and decreasing GDP (lagged by a of whether there should be a desired come contribution in the form of a year). He also quoted research look- or optimal fertility rate, looking at grant towards Conference expenses.

and the Faculty of Law, Administra- evolution of cooperative behaviour, tion and Economics from the Univer- whilst Stephen Le presented data The European Human sity of Wroclaw for their generous from Vietnam suggesting that patient Behaviour and Evolution financial support of the conference. people are not universally more co- Conference 2010 A summary of the conference pro- operative. Gilbert Roberts used evo- ceedings is provided below. lutionary simulation to investigate the role of reputation-based partner The 5th European Human Behav- choice in unconditional cooperation, iour and Evolution Association Con- Day 1 and the session was rounded off by ference was held at the University of The opening ceremony, held in Laurence Fiddick and colleagues who Wroclaw, Poland from Thursday 25 the exquisite surroundings of Wro- examined the effects of social status on perceptions of fairness in coop- to Saturday 27 March 2010. The con- claw University’s Aula Leopoldinum, erative exchanges. ference gathered over 160 attendees was followed by the first of six engag-

from 25 countries. There were 48 ing plenary talks. Daniel Fessler pre- After lunch, Eckart Voland, deliv- thought-provoking talks, including sented a captivating case for the util- ering the second plenary talk of the six plenary presentations, across the ity of integrating phylogentic and day, outlined a thought provoking full spectrum of Evolutionary Psy- ultimate approaches in understand- discussion of how cooperative breed- chology, and Hu- ing the evolution of the mind, and ing might have paved an evolution- man Behavioural Ecology. The con- outlined why emotions underpinning ary path to human conscientiousness tinued emphasis on serial rather human notions of morality are likely and morality. Leslie Newson and than parallel sessions, promoted the rooted in evolved mechanisms of interchange of knowledge and ideas pathogen avoidance. In keeping with colleagues followed with mathemati- across discipline boundaries, during this theme, Lisa DeBruine reported cal models used to explore the evolu- coffee breaks, and further still into that women’s preference for male tion of cooperative breeding. Shakti Lamba finished the session by ques- the evening as delegates mingled and facial masculinity (an indicator of tioning conventional perused more than 60 poster presen- disease resistance) is inversely re- models of large-scale cooperation, tations over wine. lated to the health of a nation. The using a combination of ecological conference Scientific Committee and experimental data from 16 small The triumph of the 2010 confer- judged Lisa DeBruine’s abstract as scale societies. ence is credit to the local organising the best of the conference. committee. Special thanks are also extended to the Galton Institute, John Lazarus discussed the bene- The final part was split into two Lower Silesian Voivodship Marshal, fits of ‘cheap talk’ in kick-starting the parallel sessions. Lewis Dean, Jamie

SPRING 2011 8 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER Tehrani and Anne Kandler addressed in Papua New Guinea. This was fol- facial width and perceptions of un- aspects of cultural evolution, cover- lowed by two presentations describ- trustworthiness. ing results obtained from public ing areas as diverse as social cogni- In the final plenary talk. Alexandra goods games: Tunde Paal discussed tion, phylogenetics and language Alvergne provided a fascinating tour the effects of Machiavellian decision- shift, respectively. Meanwhile Paul of her research addressing the proxi- making strategies whilst Ulrich Frey Matthews, Charlotte Stormer, and mate and ultimate factors shaping described a strategy that could facili- Jenni Pettay took a behavioural ecol- variation in paternal investment, tate success at climate conferences. ogy slant in addressing questions presenting evidence from both hu-

relating to fertility, life history and man and non-human primate popu- sexual selection. The last session again split into lations. This won her the EHBEA two streams. One track was devoted New Investigator Award. to behavioural adaptations, with Day 2 presentations from Matt Grove on The third plenary talk by Stephen This was followed by talks on pa- hominin behavioural plasticity, Gwe- Shennan examined the interesting rental loss and remarriage in the his- nael Kaminski on kinship detection, relationship between the emergence torical populations of Krummhoern Diana Fleischman who discussed of huge wealth and power inequali- and Quebec by Kai Willfuhr, and dif- disgust sensitivity, and ties in human societies and strategies ferential in child on the evolution of political organi- associated with maximising repro- education by Annette Scheunpflug. sation. The other covered women’s ductive success. Mathias Franz and sexual strategies, with Katerina Jeremy Kendal then described the The final session again split into Klapilova discussing the effects of use of modelling techniques to in- two parallel tracks. One covered sex- hormonal contraceptives, Boguslaw vestigate the evolution of social ual selection in humans (with pres- Pawlowski examining prenatal in- learning. entations from Alex Courtiol, Gert vestment, and Markus Rantala con- Stulp, and Thomas Pollet), whilst sidering body hair preferences. After coffee, attention turned to Jeffery Stevens, Jenny Volstorf and reproductive decision making. Re- Michele Belot discussed memory and becca Sear presented a systematic Day 3 cooperation. review of reproductive decision mak- The penultimate plenary was by Jo- ing suggesting that kin influence fer- seph Call, who discussed the impor- The prize for the Best Student Talk tility, but that the precise effects are tance of temporal and non-temporal from all conference attendees went dependent on kin category and ecol- aspects of inhibitory control in evolv- to Shakti Lamba for the presentation ogy. Mirkka Lahdenpera reported ing patience; Ben Jones examined entitled “Demography and ecology findings of reproductive conflict be- the relationship between facial cues drive variation in cooperation across tween generations of pre-industrial of dominance and gaze-following in human populations”, and the prize Finns. Evelyne Heyer described a humans and Zanna Clay ended the for the Best Poster to Anke Bullinger method that can be used to evaluate session with a talk on the strategic for poster entitled “Chimpanzees’ the cultural transmission of fertility use of copulation calls to indicate Coordination in a “Stag Hunt” with genetic data, whilst Martin social status in bonobos. Game”. Fieder presented data showing birth month effects on women’s reproduc- Attention then turned to hor- The above is a shortened version of tive performance. mones. Indrikis Krams and Fhionna the report which appears on The Moore presented experimental evi- European Behaviour and Evolution- The first of the afternoon sessions dence examining the relationship website, written by Cara Evans began with ’s plenary, between sex-hormones and male (University College London). which examined the evolutionary facial attractiveness. Meanwhile, foundations of strong reciprocity, Anna Ziomkiewicz explored the rela- EHBEA would like to thank The employing experimental methods to tionship between testosterone and Galton Institute who helped sup- distinguish between competing ap- female social dominance, whilst Mi- port this conference with a grant of proaches among indigenous groups chael Stirrat presented data on male £1,000.

Morphometrics is becoming an tion lies at the heart of the Morphometrics and increasingly important methodologi- ‘Biometric’ school founded by Karl Statistical Shape Analysis cal and theoretical framework ap- Pearson, Walter Weldon and Francis plied across the natural sciences, Galton. Indeed, the two-point shape Second UK one-day meeting held palaeontology, medical sciences and coordinates system - rediscovered by at the University of Kent, Canter- bioengineering. Francis Galton’s sta- Fred Bookstein and widely used for bury, 7th June 2010 tistical approach to quantifying and registering two-dimensional land- understanding morphological varia- mark configurations - was originally

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 9 SPRING 2011 developed by Francis Galton. importance of a common language across time. By fitting a series of cu- for discussion between practitioners bic and quadratic functions to the However, modern morphometrics and statisticians. The second presen- resultant shape curves it is possible and the statistical analysis of shape tation was by Professor Chris to quantify differences in growth tra- have developed far beyond the Klingenberg, a biologist from the jectories. He went on to discuss other original Euclidean methods devised University of Manchester, on the new and innovative methods of at the turn of the twentieth century. quantitative genetics of shape varia- shape analysis, such as geodesic Today, morphometric methodologies tion. He illustrated with great effect curves and shape space splines. The are applied routinely by students the importance of an accurate mor- last talk of the day was by Dr. Sarah across many disciplines, thanks to phometric protocol for capturing the Elton and Dr. Andrea Cardini from the aid of fast computer processors fine-scale biological shape changes the Hull-York Medical School, which and user-friendly software. Due to associated with microevolutionary showed how geometric morphomet- the rapid expansion in the applica- phenomena such as short-term natu- rics techniques can be effectively em- tion of these techniques, it is impor- ral selection. The third talk by Dr ployed to understand the eco- tant to maintain regular dialogue Graham Horgan from Biomathemat- morphological variation of closely- between the two communities of ics and Statistics Scotland discussed related African primates. As well as morphometric practitioners and the a series of agriculture-related appli- illustrating how useful morphomet- statisticians at the forefront of devel- cations of various morphometric ric methodology is for capturing the oping new analytical techniques. methods. For example, it is possible fine-scale morphological variation to morphometrically quantify the related to ecological zones, the pres- shape of pea stipules rather than re- entation also raised some interesting The aim of this one-day meeting lying on the bewildering array of questions about future developments (funded by the Galton Institute and qualitative descriptors currently used in the practical application of mor- the Royal Statistical Society) was to by horticulturalists. This presenta- phometrics to cranial material. bring together the diverse audience tion was particularly illuminating in of morphometricians and statisti- terms of showing how statistical pro- All six presentations stimulated cians with the view to stimulating cedures are being applied to a new many questions from the audience discussion and debate across these set of biological questions, previously and sparked interesting debate communities. Six speakers, com- divorced from morphometric proto- throughout the day. One of the main prised of three applied morphomet- col. outcomes of the meeting was the ricians and three shape analysts, widespread recognition of the signifi- were invited to give 30 minute pres- Professor Norman MacLeod, cance of having regular forums for entations to an audience of over 60 Keeper of Palaeontology at the Brit- discussion. It is important that bio- participants from the UK, Ireland, ish Natural History Museum gave a statisticians communicate their com- the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, fascinating perspective on the utility plex mathematical models to practi- Spain, the USA and Australia. In ad- of morphometrics within palaeontol- tioners of the methods, while those dition, registrants were encouraged ogy, pointing out that taxonomic and working with applied methods need to present their own research in the systematic questions relating to ex- to keep abreast of new and develop- form of posters. A total of 11 posters tinct species must rely on accurate ing techniques which allow them to were presented and the schedule al- morphometric quantification in the address shape-related questions in lowed ample time for poster viewing absence of any genetic data. He pre- novel ways. It was agreed that these and discussion. sented data that showed that the meetings should become a regular analysis of morphometric variables fixture within the UK and discus- The first speaker was Professor was more likely to lead to accurate sions are currently underway regard- Kanti Mardia, a senior statistician and repeatable conclusions as re- ing the venue for a meeting in 2011. from the University of Leeds, who gards taxonomic affiliation of Fo- spoke about the possible future di- raminifera than human experts. Pro- fessor of Statistics at the University rections of shape analysis from an Noreen von Cramon-Taubadel, of Nottingham, Ian Dryden gave the analytical perspective. Some of the lecturer in , last statistical talk of the day, focus- new methods being developed in- University of Kent. clude the matching and alignment of sing on the question of how to model shapes with different numbers of curves in shape space. These meth- non-homologous landmarks, which ods are particularly useful for onto- The Galton Institute helped sup- has exciting potential applicability in genetic analyses in biology, where port this conference with a grant of the analysis of protein folding. Pro- the question of interest is not how £1,000. fessor Mardia also urged the use of a individuals vary from each other at a

pragmatic approach to statistical given point in time, but rather how shape analysis and recognised the the same individual changes shape

SPRING 2011 10 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER the challenges it has to offer. I sup- Genetics at this level is still consid- THE TEACHING OF pose I was once one of them. ered to be a difficult area of study, so introducing greater complication GENETICS IN Among these are the geneticists of might well inspire the best but SECONDARY SCHOOLS tomorrow. They deserve the extra equally may only serve to discourage encouragement which the best teach- their weaker brethren. ers offer. However, will these top A- I expect most of us first encoun- level students want to invest The teaching of molecular genetics tered the science of genetics in sec- £27,000 in a degree which offers no is probably 25 years out of date. ondary school. guarantee of a job at the end while There is certainly no expectation of Maybe it was a fascinating experi- the medics and dentists have a clear schools to consider DNA methylation ence and helped us to appreciate career path? This is my main con- and even ‘introns and exons’ get little more of what’s ‘in the news’. But was cern. If this small group shrinks more than a passing reference. Prac- it a solid foundation for undergradu- much further, what is to be gained tical work in this field is also difficult ate study and beyond? More impor- from working outside the stated cur- because of cost implications and lack tantly, is it any different today? riculum? Teach the syllabus well, of technical expertise. I’m fortunate I have taught Biology in secondary and let the results speak for them- enough to have a very capable tech- school for 36 years, having studied selves. nician so that our A-level biologists genetics under Philip Sheppard, Ar- To help solve this problem of a lack can experience gel electrophoresis and PCR, but I expect we are in a thur Cain, Cyril Clarke and Brian of ‘real’ genetics in secondary minority. Charlesworth at the University of schools, I would prefer to see the Liverpool. I was fortunate enough to GCSE and A-level specifications Many university departments offer have learnt from the best. move with the times. one-day courses in these advanced techniques, but places are limited However, when I started teaching There are plenty of 14-16 year olds and costs are often prohibitive. Some genetics as part of O-level (now who study only ‘core science’ at GCSE) and A-level Biology sylla- GCSE. The closest they come to of the best sixth formers can apply to win Nuffield bursaries to spend one buses, I soon realised that what I was studying genetics is a few lessons’ month of their summer holidays expected to deliver was a stylised and worth of work on ‘cloning, genetic working alongside professional sci- greatly over-simplified view of this engineering and GM crops’. How- entists but they cannot choose in most absorbing of subjects. Sadly, ever, they spend weeks on ‘how hu- which field they study and must take little has changed since I began all mans affect the environment’. what they are given. those years ago. To stimulate real Surely, this cannot be the right bal- interest, teachers must move beyond ance. I am pleased to report, however, the boundaries set by the examina- that population genetics has re- Those students who are fortunate tion boards (and in turn set by QCDA appeared at A-level after an absence enough to have the opportunity to and Ofqual) and dare to teach those follow the three separate sciences at of almost 20 years. Students can areas which have real stimulus and once again study basic Hardy- GCSE, cover the work of Mendel and relevance. I say dare because par- Weinberg equilibrium which I always some very basic monohybrid crosses ents, understandably, want good ex- but the role of DNA gets little more believed to be an excellent way to amination results for their children introduce the study of natural selec- than a mention. Instead, they con- as do head teachers and governors, tion, an area which must play a cru- sider ‘the ethical implications of re- since results determine league table cial part in any A-level Biology sylla- combinant DNA technology and positions, which determine intake bus, especially now that ‘creationism’ stem cell research’. I’m reminded of which determine funding and so and ‘intelligent design’ are rearing a Physics colleague who says that at forth. their heads once more. O-level, candidates would have been It’s a brave teacher therefore, who asked to describe the workings of an The examination boards and hence ventures beyond what MUST be electric motor. Nowadays, at GCSE, QCDA and Ofqual must move with taught (to achieve the best grades) to they are more likely to be asked how the times. They are the driving study the complexities of the subject ‘they feel about the use of electricity’. forces which determine what must with those students who really ap- be taught in school laboratories. It is preciate them. With changes to uni- A-level Biology is starting to move only the dedication of many teachers versity funding, such students are in the right direction but the exam which enables our most talented stu- becoming increasingly rare. In my boards still live in the past, in a dents to experience the excitement own school, Biology has always been world of perfect data. There is no and challenge offered by ‘real’ genet- a popular A-level choice, with a sig- challenge to consider whether data ics. I believe that the Galton Insti- nificant proportion of the students fits expected ratios and certainly no tute has a role in driving these essen- moving on to read Medicine, Den- expectation of schools to perform tial changes in GCSE and A-level cur- tistry, Pharmacy and Physiotherapy their own breeding experiments. ricula. at university. Nonetheless, there has Gone are the days of crossing Droso- always been a nucleus of ‘pure scien- phila and considering the complex By Bob Johnston, Head of Sci- tists’ with no career immediately in data such exercises yield. Even link- ence, St. Mary’s College, Liverpool. mind, but who enjoy the subject and age studies are a thing of the past.

GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER 11 SPRING 2011 EDITORIAL offer a different definition of epige- an Indian Python to wind around netics based upon the etymology: their neck or to stroke a tiger, 'that which surrounds or is on the amongst more mundane things such The Editorship of this Newsletter periphery of modern genetics', hence as watching Archer Fish feed or hav- has passed through several hands in a changing field depending upon ing a chimpanzee join us at table. My the last four years which makes me what is accepted as mainstream father was Curator of the Aquarium wonder whether it is a position to be modern genetics. and Invertebrates and ran the publi- avoided. Nonetheless the sterling One feature of the Institute is that cations which included the journal of work of my predecessors in main- grants are given to encourage meet- Zoology and we lived in A A Milne's 'Superintendants' House' until it was taining the standard of the Newslet- ings of other organizations and it is a pulled down to make way for the ter and even its existence at times pre-requisite that these meetings are Cotton Terraces. At the same time when I am sure they would agree reported on. In this issue we have my grandfather, also Dr Geoffrey they had better things to do, is to be three such reports; that of Noreen Vevers, was living in Whipsnade Zoo applauded. I am somewhat daunted von Cramon-Taubadel is an excellent which he started with Sir Peter but hope that I shall prove an ade- example of such a report and that of quate successor and intend to break the British Society for Population Chalmers Mitchell. I now realise what an excellent education I re- the rapid turnover of Editors. Studies has details of its website ceived and the qualities of the fasci- It is a special event for any institu- where the abstracts of presentations nating people by whom I was sur- tion when one of its members is can be found which is an ideal way of rounded. The scientific world in Lon- awarded a Nobel Prize. Professor making more information available don was smaller than it is now so a Bob Edwards is no ordinary member than is in the report. In terms of wide variety of people passed having served on the council for population growth in developed through my childhood home from many years. His Galton Lecture of countries it will be interesting to Julian and Juliette Huxley, Wilfred 1982 made a great impression upon watch the effect of the financial in- le Gros Clark, Gavin de Beer, Solly me and I make no apology for plac- centives being offered to young Zuckerman, Peter Medawar and Des- ing Professor Martin Johnson's mothers by the Australian govern- mond Morris to Frank Muir and timely appreciation of Bob Edwards's ment. It is called ‘Baby Bonus’ and Raymond Postgate. In the 1960's I Nobel winning career at the front of started in 2004. was made a life member of the Gal- this issue. The Newsletter is dependent upon ton Institute's predecessor the I strongly recommend Bob John- the material available for publication Eugenics Society as a Christmas pre- son's Teaching of Genetics in Secon- and I encourage contributions which sent; later I served on the Council for dary Schools and commend his con- can be sent to Betty Nixon electroni- one term but did not seek re-election clusions. How are the best pupils to cally and they should be signed and as I did not consider I was able to be encouraged into the fascination of consistent with the aims of the Insti- make a contribution. After training genetics if they do not encounter the tute. We aim to produce three issues at Guy's Hospital, London, I worked subject, except in a Bowdlerized a year. and taught there and at other hospi- fashion, before University? St Every institution such as ours re- tals until I joined a large urban gen- Augustine believed in catching chil- quires a pivotal person, but not all eral practice in Berkshire where I dren by the age of 5-7 years; any able have someone of the skill and diplo- had a high proportion of rural pa- teenager can understand the essence macy of Betty Nixon. She has enor- tients. of modern genetics if properly en- mously eased my task and I am very In retirement I follow my non- thused. grateful to her as I am sure are all the clinical interests: I make items from The major event of the Institution’s members who know her. Betty tells silver and, very occasionally, gold; I year is the annual conference and me that I should introduce myself. am active in the Silver Society and there is an excellent account of this This I do with some reservation as I the Bookplate Society of which I am most enjoyable and convivial event believe my role is a backroom one. Secretary and enjoy writing. I have a by Paul Hurd. Epigenetics and epige- longstanding, longsuffering and sup- nomics mean different things to each I was brought up in the London portive wife, Ingrid and two charm- person who uses the terms so Profes- Zoo which engendered a great deal of ing daughters Camilla and Alexan- sor John Beardmore's elegant ac- friendly banter amongst my school dra. count is most welcome. Perhaps as a friends; but they loved my birthday Geoffrey Vevers non-geneticist I may be allowed to parties when they might be offered

THE GALTON INSTITUTE CONFERENCE 2011 To be held at The British Academy on Wednesday, 9th November, 2011

HUMAN AND PRIMATE EVOLUTION Admission free but strictly by ticket

SPRING 2011 12 GALTON INSTITUTE NEWSLETTER