Archaeology and Cumorah Questions

Volume 13 Number 1 Article 15

7-31-2004

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms

BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Clark, John E. (2004) "Archaeology and Cumorah Questions," Journal of Book of Mormon Studies: Vol. 13 : No. 1 , Article 15. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol13/iss1/15

This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Book of Mormon Studies by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Title Archaeology and Cumorah Questions

Author(s) John E. Clark

Reference Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 13/1–2 (2004): 144–51, 174.

ISSN 1065-9366 (print), 2168-3158 (online)

Abstract The archaeology of New York—and specifically the Hill Cumorah—is persuasive evidence that Book of Mormon peoples did not live in that region. By implication, the Cumorah of the golden plates is not the Cumorah of the final battles—Mormon’s hill and Moroni’s hill are not one and the same. These conclusions follow from a few basic points and assumptions that the author explores in this article. ARCHAEOLOGYARCHAEOLOGY & CUMORAH QUESTIONS

144 VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1–2, 2004 JOHN E. CLARK JOURNAL OF BOOK OF MORMON STUDIES 145

Moroni Delivering the Golden Plates, by Gary Kapp. Opposite: Joseph Smith Lifting the Rock Revealing Gold Plates, by Dale Kilbourn. © Intellectual Reserve, Inc. IF KNOWN TRUTH WERE ACCEPTED, JOSEPH SMITH’S RECOVERY OF THE GOLDEN PLATES FROM THE HILL CUMORAH WOULD RANK AS ONE OF THE GREAT- EST ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS OF ALL TIME; COUPLED WITH THE SUBSEQUENT TRANSLATION OF THIS GOLDEN RECORD INTO THE BOOK OF MORMON, THERE IS NOTHING COMPARABLE IN THE ANNALS OF HISTORY. THE STORY OF THE COMING FORTH OF THE BOOK OF MORMON REVEALS A CONSTANT TENSION BETWEEN THE MIRACULOUS AND THE MUNDANE—ANGELS AND INSCRIBED GOLDEN PLATES ON THE ONE HAND, AND ON THE OTHER THE WORK OF LIFTING AND CARRYING HEAVY OBJECTS, PERIODICALLY HIDING THE PLATES, AND TRANSLATING A PORTION OF THEM CHARACTER BY CHARACTER. SURELY THERE MUST HAVE BEEN EASIER WAYS. IF DIVINE INTERVENTION WERE NECES- SARY, WHY NOT HAVE AN ANGEL JUST HAND YOUNG JOSEPH AN ENGLISH COPY OF THE SACRED TEXT AND BE DONE WITH IT? WHY THE DRUDGERIES OF EXHUMATION, TRANSLATION, AND TRANSCRIPTION, LINE FOR LINE? WAS IT NECESSARY THAT JOSEPH DEAL WITH ANCIENT ARTIFACTS AND SPEND MONTHS WITH PALPABLE RELICS DICTATING PARAGRAPHS TO SCRIBES? APPARENTLY SO.

We await answers for most questions evoked employed to identify its location. The hill the plates by this miracle of divinely supervised archaeologi- came from is not at issue; the question is whether cal toil. What we do know is that Joseph Smith Jr. this final resting place is the same hill where the found the golden plates and other relics in a stone ending battles occurred. Many serious scholars have box in a hill near his home, a prominence now attempted to prove that the Palmyra hill was the known as Cumorah. And as many believe, Cumo- battle hill, but to little avail, largely because they do rah was also the place of the final battles described not understand archaeology as an inexact science. in the Book of Mormon that destroyed the Nephites They argue that the Palmyra hill and its surround- and, centuries earlier, the Jaredites. If any place ing area once had tons of convincing evidence that merits archaeological attention, it is Cumorah. The has long since been destroyed or carted away. very word elicits a series of empirical questions that Most proposals for the location of Mormon’s fi- can only be addressed through archaeology. nal stand fall into one of two possibilities: either the Things are rarely as simple as labels make them Palmyra hill or one in Middle America 2,000 miles appear. For the past 50 years, some scholars have to the south. Here I consider reasons for questioning suggested that common Latter-day Saint usage of the case for a New York location. I am unaware of Cumorah confuses two different places and that the any archaeological investigation of the hill itself, but modest hill where Joseph Smith recovered the plates sufficient information is available for the surround- is not the eminence of the genocidal battles. Fur- ing regions to make a critical assessment. Mormon’s ther, the Cumorah battlefield is seen by many schol- hill and Moroni’s hill are not one and the same. ars as the key for identifying the location of the What does archaeology reveal about the im- ancient lands described in the book. Hence, much mediate environs of the New York hill? Is there evi- rests on its correct placement. All these observa- dence of habitation by the millions involved in the tions lead to a paradox explored here: before archae- final battles? Did ancient fortifications ever stand ology can reveal Cumorah’s secrets, it must first be on the Palmyra hill? Currently, few general works

146 VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1–2, 2004 on the archaeology of Pennsyl- question were brought under vania or New York exist, so seri- cultivation. The plow destroys ous students must consult local the sword in this case. Possibili- histories, articles, and technical ties and probabilities of destroyed reports for details. These are evidence have become an excuse particularly difficult to read and for avoiding serious archaeologi- interpret. There is one old but cal research altogether. But the excellent source for New York early reports, which give glowing compiled by E. G. Squier in accounts of wonderful finds—and 1851.¹ Another, which is almost of the destruction of the sites 40 years old, was written by from which they came—can only William A. Ritchie and most re- be considered as hearsay. Wil- cently revised in 1994.² Overall, liam Ritchie’s work is telling. He the paucity of published sources provides a complete archaeologi- and archaeological projects in cal sequence for New York, with western New York reflects a lack nothing missing. He relies on of interest in this region by the acceptable techniques of dating archaeological community. Per- materials through radiocarbon haps one reason for the meager and through changes in artifact treatment and low interest is styles. For our interests, Ritchie’s that the archaeology of this re- account shows that the Nephite- gion for ancient time periods is equivalent period in New York is relatively dull compared to that Above: Title page of E. G. Squier’s 1851 archaeo- one of relatively low population. logical survey of New York. Courtesy of L. Tom of adjacent regions to the south Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young Subsequent research in New York and west. This circumstance is University. and adjacent regions is substan- rather telling and involves con- Below: Squier in Peru, circa 1863. Courtesy of tiating the historic patterns de- siderable irony because western the Latin American Library, Tulane University, scribed by Ritchie.³ Sites dating New York was one of the first Squier Collection. to Nephite times are represented regions to receive archaeological in Ritchie’s work, but there are attention in the early 1800s, the not that many of them, and they time of the Smiths’ residence are unimpressive. His findings do there. not support expectations derived Early settlers’ accounts of from the Book of Mormon. upstate New York describe nu- What about site destruc- merous trenched and walled tion? Can we account for the fortifications, weapons, and discrepancies in the number and mass graves of disorderly size of sites reported for New bones—the latter presumably York and our expectations from casualties of war. However, not the Book of Mormon account all is as it seemed. One of the by considering how many were interpretive challenges is that plowed under? No. In practical apparently much of the evidence terms, the only way buried sites either has been destroyed or can be found is when they are would not have survived normal partially destroyed during normal processes of decay to the present urban or rural activities, such as day. In addition, it is possible a sewer line encountering buri- that much of the evidence for als in downtown Salt Lake City. early fortifications, battlefields, Archaeologists are drawn to land weapons, and war dead was disturbance like moths to a light destroyed when the lands in because they have a chance to

JOURNAL OF BOOK OF MORMON STUDIES 147 view what is beneath the surface and display in collections the without digging blindly. Opin- artifacts they find. Such artifacts ions among archaeologists on are removed from sites but not the benefits of destruction, such from sight—quite the opposite. as those voiced by Squier in the In his study of New York, Ritchie opening lines of his early study makes frequent use of observa- on fortifications in western New tions from private collections. York, are not uncommon: Naturally, one should not The Indian tribes found in expect silk, linen, roast beef, possession of the country perfume, honey, feathers, or now embraced within the lemonade—or the like—to sur- limits of New England and vive long in the archaeological re- the Middle States have left cord under New York conditions. few monuments to attest their In turn, stone, bone, gold, copper, former presence. The fragile and shell survive under most con- structures which they erected ditions. Turning to the Book of for protection and defense Mormon, given the cultural fea- have long ago crumbled to the tures and events described in the earth; and the sites of their record, what kinds of archaeolog- ancient towns and villages are ical evidence would be preserved? indicated only by the ashes What things were made of stone, of their long-extinguished shell, wood, gold, or cement? And Excerpts from Squier’s Antiquities of the State of where should we find them on fires, and by the few rude rel- New York highlighting ancient settlements. ics which the plough of the the Book of Mormon landscape, invader exposes to his curi- and for what time periods? Per- ous gaze. Their cemeteries, haps significantly, the archaeolog- marked in very rare instances ical record of New York is full of by enduring monuments, are evidence for wooden structures, now undistinguishable, except so claiming that buildings were of where the hand of modern wood and would leave no traces improvement encroaches upon is a poor argument. Of course, the sanctity of the grave.⁴ most of the evidence consists only of floor plans as marked by post- True, many features of holes of ancient buildings rather these sites, such as posthole than their superstructures. patterns and earth embank- It is always possible that ments, can eventually become many sites have not been discov- too scrambled to detect. But ered because they have not had evidence of the site will not van- the dubious fortune of being par- ish. The issue here is of visibility tially destroyed. No archaeologi- vis-à-vis site disturbance. Those cal record is completely known, who have collected arrowheads so there are always sites, or fea- know that the best places to tures at known sites, yet to be dis- look are plowed fields, erosion covered. An important concern in channels, and other sites where dealing with an archaeological re- surface vegetation is removed cord is its representativeness. Do and where subsurface deposits sites of the various periods have are exposed or churned to the an equal chance of coming to the surface. The same principle applies to site visibility. attention of the archaeological community or of be- Weekend collectors and pothunters tend to preserve ing reported in print? Clearly not. Archaeological

148 VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1–2, 2004 reporting is biased to archaeological visibility. Large scape. New York lacked cities and cereal agriculture sites are easier to find than small ones, and most until after AD 1000 and is thus not the place where mound sites are easier to identify than non-mound the events described in the Book of Mormon took sites. Sites with pottery and chipped stone are easier place. We are not missing archaeological evidence to find than those without such diagnostic artifacts. of indigenous peoples, their settlement patterns, Sites with exotic artifacts and burials are reported or subsistence practices for the time periods under more rapidly and frequently than those without. consideration. These are reasonably well known for Sites in areas of frequent human activity are easier each period from a variety of evidence, and they to find than those in remote places; thus, sites simply do not fit the requirements specified in the located in valleys, along river floodplains, on lake- Book of Mormon.⁵ shores, or on tilled land are easier to find because The largest Nephite cities and towns of the of increased human disturbance. Knowing these Book of Mormon narrative were located in valley things, one can compensate for underrepresenta- settings, necessarily in areas with good agricul- tion of some sites by assessing the ebb and flow of tural land. Some areas were occupied for centuries regional histories. Most places within the continen- and experienced periodic building and rebuilding. tal United States, however, have now had sufficient Some had temples and other religious structures, archaeological activity that the basic outlines of pre- walls, gates, and dwellings. In archaeological terms, history are known. Future efforts will be directed to these sites should be spatially extensive and thick, filling in details and making minor adjustments. In with significant stratigraphy. These are the types short, what we see in the New York archaeological of archaeological sites with the highest potential record is probably a representative sample of what for visibility and the greatest probability of being once existed there. located and consistently reported. We would not ex- I am not an expert on New York archaeology, pect evidence of their size or date to be annihilated, nor am I likely to be, but I took a few hours to pe- even with several centuries of plowing. Rather, such ruse some of the literature and learned that the gen- activity would make them easier to find—more eral course of prehistory outlined for New York fits visible. They should have been part of the early set- comfortably and logically with the histories of adja- tlers’ descriptions. New York and Pennsylvania lack cent regions and that it makes good anthropological sites that fit this description. Finding a 2,000- to sense. The inferences made from archaeological ob- 4,000-year-old city in New York State would be so servations appear reasonably supported by known novel that it would be reported quickly in all scien- facts. When we pay attention to time and to cultural tific outlets. It has never happened, and it will not context, it becomes clear that the events described happen. The most likely locations for such cities are in the Book of Mormon did not occur in New York. already archaeologically well known because they The Book of Mormon makes hundreds of clear are also the prime locations for modern occupation. cultural and chronological claims. Here it will suf- The archaeology of the midcontinental and fice to touch on just a few principal ones. The dates northeastern United States covers a long time inserted at the bottom of each page of the modern period. The Book of Mormon time period corre- publication of the Book of Mormon provide the sponds to the archaeological phases of the Late Ar- needed chronological frame. As to cultural prac- chaic (Jaredite), Adena (Jaredite and Nephite), and tices, the Book of Mormon describes for all its peo- Hopewell (Nephite) periods. But evidence of prehis- ples, even the Lamanites, a sedentary lifestyle based toric occupation at the right time is not the same as on cereal agriculture, with cities and substantial evidence of occupation by Book of Mormon peoples buildings. Thus, we should be looking for evidence and their civilizations. Civilization is a technical of city dwellers, permanent populations, kings, term with a special meaning in archaeology, usually farmers, and grains, among other things. These meaning societies complex enough to have lived in should start in the third millennium before Christ cities and to have been ruled by kings—a basic re- and persist at least until the fourth century after quirement that matches the Book of Mormon. his death. There should be some climax and nadir The term civilization is an appropriate inter- moments in developments and demography, and pretation of the text but not for northeastern U.S. these should occur in specific places on the land- archaeology. For this area, the Adena and Hopewell

JOURNAL OF BOOK OF MORMON STUDIES 149 cultures are particularly attractive candidates for been found on flood plain or lake plain sites Book of Mormon peoples because they represented during this time period. There are a number of the most sophisticated cultures on their time horizon camps recorded for the upland, though the site in the United States. They were the first cultures in density there is still the lowest. The population this area to build burial mounds and mound enclo- probably remained stable. . . . The basic stabil- sures, they engaged in long-distance trade, and they ity in lifestyle continued despite the adoption fabricated artistic items that they buried with select of new technology (including ceramic pots and individuals. According to reports, some individuals smoking pipes) and ideology (as seen in the were buried with thousands of pearls. Adena and elaboration of mortuary ceremonialism of the Hopewell peoples lived in Pennsylvania and western Middlesex and Meadowood phases in line with New York, but this region represented the impover- influences reaching the Genesee Valley from the ished fringe of their culture. Adena Tradition heartland in Ohio). What is the basic cultural sequence for this region? This pattern continued and intensified dur- I take the following succinct summary statements of ing the following Middle Woodland Period [500 cultural periods and their typical cultural practices BC–AD 1000]. Subsistence of the Point Peninsula from a masterwork on Pennsylvania archaeology:⁶ Tradition was still based on hunting and gath- • Archaic period (7000–1000 BC): “Bands of ering, and mortuary ceremonialism reached hunters and gatherers, following patterns of re- its fullest expression in exotic grave goods left stricted seasonal wandering.” in burial mounds of the Squawkie Hill phase, • Transitional period (1800–800 BC): “Far rang- patterned after those found in Ohio (Hopewell ing bands of hunters and gatherers, occupying Tradition). Verified mound sites are all on the temporary hamlets; heavy dependence on riverine valley slope overlooking the flood plain, as is resources.” often the case for contemporary mounds found • Early Woodland (1000–300 BC): “Bands of in the Illinois and Ohio Valleys. Although only family units living in scattered households; persis- one site was found on the lake plain in the tence of hunting and gathering, with a possible shift highway sample, others did exist in the lower in some areas to semi-sedentary settlement due to a Genesee River basin. . . . Point Peninsula site more stable economic base.” density was greatest on the flood plain as op- • Middle Woodland (500 BC–AD 1000): “Incipi- posed to the valley slope. This could show a ent tribal village life in western Pa. [Pennsylvania], shift in subsistence focus, but small sample size supported by horticulture, hunting and gathering; may be a controlling factor here. However, the bands in eastern Pa. living in scattered hamlets, number of known sites and total site density practicing hunting and gathering.” drops from the Early Woodland Meadowood • Late Woodland (AD 1000–1550): “Seasonally and Middlesex phases to the Point Peninsula sedentary tribes; villages and hamlets (some stock- Tradition and Squawkie Hill phase. This implies aded villages); horticulture, hunting and gathering.”⁷ that a population decline took place during the For the nearby Genesee Valley in New York, Middle Woodland Period.⁹ Neal L. Trubowitz gives detailed information from an intensive survey carried out in conjunction with These findings support Ritchie’s earlier reports the construction of a recent highway.⁸ For the wide for New York. The population of the Genesee Valley strip of land involved, there is 100 percent coverage, was always small and dispersed in small bands. The so the information for relative changes in occupa- food quest involved hunting and gathering of wild tion is unusually good, as such things go in archae- plants, fruits, nuts, and berries. During the key time ology. Trubowitz’s information is more recent than period (ca. AD 100–400), the Genesee Valley suf- Ritchie’s summary. fered a decline in an already sparse population. No large sites are found here for any time period. Corn Hunting and gathering as a way of life contin- agriculture did not become a significant factor here ued into the Early Woodland Period [1000–300 or elsewhere in the midcontinental or the south- BC], with land use still centered on the valley eastern United States until after AD 1000.¹⁰ With the slope above the Genesee-Canaseraga junction commitment to corn agriculture, population and as in the previous period. Very few data have

150 VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1–2, 2004 village sizes increased, and so did tensions. All the systematically destroyed. Second, I presume that known fortified sites and villages in New York date the evidence published for the various regions and to the latest time period, the Late Woodland (AD time periods is accurate—that is, that the majority 1000–1550). Clearly there were many settlements, of archaeologists working in this region are compe- and reports of them go back to the beginning of tent and academically honest in terms of their ar- colonization, with the best report being Squier’s 1851 chaeology. Third, I assume that additional research study, complete with maps. It bears emphasizing that and discoveries will not significantly alter current these fortified knolls and spurs were all quite small understandings of the times or places of prehistoric and would have accommodated only about 100 to occupation nor of the cultural practices involved; 400 people each. They really do not fit large popula- rather, such data will lead to minor adjustments tions, even if they were of the right period. Fortifi- to some of the details of prehistory. Fourth, the cations are found associated with mass graves and archaeological record lacks evidence for cities, sed- large storage pits, some of which still have evidence entism, corn agriculture, fortifications, and dense of stored maize. These are all known features of late populations during Archaic, Early Woodland, and occupation. The archaeology of western New York Middle Woodland times. In accord with these forms a long record of small bands of hunters and general observations about New York and Penn- gatherers (berry eaters) who lived there for millen- sylvania, we come to our principal object—the Hill nia. The record is clear, and I accept it as it stands. Cumorah. Archaeologically speaking, it is a clean In summary, the archaeology of New York is hill. No artifacts, no walls, no trenches, no arrow- persuasive evidence that Book of Mormon peoples heads. The area immediately surrounding the hill is did not live in that region. By implication, the Cu- similarly clean. Pre-Columbian people did not settle morah of the golden plates is not the Cumorah of or build here. This is not the place of Mormon’s last the final battles. These conclusions follow from a stand. We must look elsewhere for that hill.¹¹ The few basic points and assumptions. First, I presume Palmyra hill is still a sacred place and was the re- that the archaeology of New York State, as cur- pository of the golden plates and other relics placed rently published (2004), is a fair representation and there by Moroni. How Moroni made his way to this adequate sample of what is there, and particularly place and constructed his time capsule of artifacts is that the evidence for some periods has not been a historic adventure for another time. !

JOURNAL OF BOOK OF MORMON STUDIES 151 7. R. J. Chorley, “The Shape of requirements, and this is what “An Introduction to the Relevance if a letter is doubled, the meaning Drumlins,” Journal of Glaciology most of the debate is about. See of and a Methodology for a Study of the word changes. Normally, 3/25 (1959): 339–44; I. J. Smalley John L. Sorenson, The Geography of the Proper Names of the Book doubling is indicated by the inser- and D. J. Unwin, “The Formation of Book of Mormon Events: A of Mormon,” in By Study and Also tion in the letter of a small dot, and Shape of Drumlins and Their Source Book, rev. ed. (Provo, UT: by Faith: Essays in Honor of Hugh called a dagesh, the size of the Distribution and Orientation FARMS, 1992). W. Nibley (Salt Lake City: Deseret period at the end of this sentence. in Drumlin Fields,” Journal of 6. Barry C. Kent, Ira F. Smith III, Book and FARMS, 1990), 2:126–35. According to Hebrew grammar- Glaciology 7 (1968): 377–90. and Catherine McCann, eds., 3. All proper nouns in the ancient ians, an r cannot take a dagesh. 8. Martini, Brookfield, and Sadura, Foundations of Pennsylvania world (and even most modern Therefore, when the context Glacial Geomorphology and Prehistory (Harrisburg: proper nouns) have a meaning. requires that the r be doubled, the Geology, 110, 130. Pennsylvania Historical and The meaning may be randomly r is said to be “virtually doubled” 9. J. Shaw, “Drumlins, Subglacial Museum Commission, 1971). applied, such as “Kolob Canyon” and does not receive a dagesh. Meltwater Floods, and Ocean 7. Kent, Smith, and McCann, near Springville, Utah, or it may 11. For example, see Numbers 27:21 Responses,” Geology 17 (1989): Pennsylvania Prehistory, 4. reflect the actual nature of the fea- and 1 Samuel 28:6. 853–56; J. Shaw and R. Gilbert, 8. Neal L. Trubowitz, Highway ture being named, such as “Long 12. See David A. Palmer, In Search “Evidence for Large-Scale Archeology and Settlement Island.” Or it may reflect a posi- of Cumorah (Bountiful, UT: Subglacial Meltwater Flood Events Study in the Genesee Valley tive or negative view of the actual Horizon, 1981), 21, for an example in Southern Ontario and Northern (George’s Mills, NH: Occasional place, such as “Rattlesnake Ridge” of this interpretation. New York State,” Geology 18 Publications in Northeast near Provo, Utah, or “Pleasant 13. Stephen D. Ricks and John A. (1990): 1169–72. Anthropology, 1983). Grove” just north of Provo. Tvedtnes, in “The Hebrew Origin 10. G. R. Whittecar and D. M. 9. Trubowitz, Highway Archeology, 4. As far as I know, Joanne Hacket of Some Book of Mormon Place Mickelson, “Sequence of Till 144–45. was the first to propose this ety- Names,” JBMS 6/2 (1997): 255–57, Deposition and Erosion in 10. Gary W. Crawford, David G. mology. A copy of her unpublished point out many of these difficulties. Drumlins,” Boreas 6 (1977): Smith, and Vandy E. Bowyer, work is currently in my possession. 14. It might be said that both qum 213–17; G. R. Whittecar and D. M. “Dating the Entry of Corn (Zea 5. Royal Skousen, ed., The Printer’s and orah are commands, yielding Mickelson, “Composition, Internal Mays) into the Lower Great Lakes Manuscript of the Book of “Arise, Shine.” The biblical pas- Structures, and an Hypothesis of Region,” American Antiquity 62/1 Mormon, pt. 2 (Provo, UT: sage most like this suggestion for Formation for Drumlins, Waukesha (1997): 112–19. FARMS, 2001), 892–93, 896. Cumorah is Isaiah 60:1, q¥m•<ør•, County, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,” Journal 11. Consult John L. Sorenson, An 6. From a photostatic copy in my pos- containing the feminine command of Glaciology 22 (1979): 357–71; S. Ancient American Setting for session of an original 1830 edition. forms, “arise” and “shine.” But D. Stanford and D. M. Mickelson, the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake 7. As per The Printer’s Manuscript, cum orah lacks the long i vowel “Till Fabric and Deformational City: Deseret Book, 1985), 892, note to line 9, “the spelling marker of the feminine impera- Structures in Drumlins Near 1–95; Mormon’s Map (Provo, UT: Camorah shows that O[liver] tive form and therefore cannot be Waukesha, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,” FARMS, 2000); and The Geography C[owdery]’s u in [the original feminine; and to read both cum Journal of Glaciology 31 (1985): of Book of Mormon Events, manuscript] looks like an a.” The and orah as masculine imperatives 220–28; G. S. Boulton, “A Theory of 209–315, 329–53; also David A. two spellings with o might also requires that orah be an energic Drumlin Formation by Subglacial Palmer, In Search of Cumorah: New indicate that the (so far) unidenti- (a special form of the masculine Sediment Deformation,” Proceedings Evidences for the Book of Mormon fied scribe who wrote that sec- imperative that ends in the long of the Drumlin Symposium: First from Ancient Mexico (Bountiful, tion of the printer’s manuscript vowel å, represented in Hebrew International Conference on UT: Horizon, 1981). mistook Oliver’s u’s in the original orthography by h ) and qum not Geomorphology, ed. J. Menzies manuscript for o’s. Oliver himself be an energic, which is unlikely. and J. Ross (Rotterdam: A. A. [What’s in a Word?] comments that the spelling of the For the energic in Hebrew, see Balkema, 1987), 25–80; J. I. Boyce Pairs and Merisms in 3 Nephi 1830 edition is wrong and should Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, ed. and N. Eyles, “Drumlins Carved by Cynthia L. Hallen with Josh Sorenson have been spelled Cumorah and E. Kautzsch, 2nd English ed., rev. Deforming Till Streams below the not Camorah (Messenger and A. E. Cowley (Oxford: Clarendon, Laurentide Ice Sheet,” Geology 19 1. James T. Duke, “Word Pairs and Advocate 1/10 [July 1835]: 158a). 1920), §48i. While it is also true (1991): 787–90. Distinctive Combinations in the The spelling of Cumorah was that there are three instances in 11. Donald Cadwell (of the New York Book of Mormon,” JBMS 12/2 standardized in the 1837 edition, the Hebrew Old Testament of Geological Survey), personal com- (2003): 32–41. the next-to-last edition that Joseph what look like masculine singular munication to author, 2004. 2. James Strong, ed., New Strong’s Smith himself helped edit. imperatives used with feminine 12. Ehlers, Quaternary and Glacial Exhaustive Concordance of the 8. Both Ugaritic, another Northwest singular nouns, it is possible in Geology. Bible, in The Scriptures: CD-ROM Semitic language closely related to all three instances to explain the Resource Edition 1.0. A widely Hebrew, and Arabic, a Southwest apparent masculine imperative as Archaeology and Cumorah available printed version of Semitic language, contain both a different form. In addition to the Questions Strong’s classic work is The New phonemes and represent them example in Gesenius §110k, note John E. Clark Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance with different characters. In that the feminine ending of the of the Bible (Nashville: Thomas Phoenician, like Hebrew, both imperative is a long vowel and not 1. E. G. Squier, Antiquities of the Nelson, 1990). phonemes are represented by the a consonant. It was therefore rep- State of New York (Buffalo, NY: 3. Calvert Watkins, How to Kill a same character. English and other resented in the script only when Derby, 1851). Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Indo-European languages that I the use of a mater lectionis gener- 2. William A. Ritchie, The Poetics (New York: Oxford Univ. am aware of do not possess either ally came into play. Thus, all three Archaeology of New York State, Press, 1995), 41–46. phoneme. For more on >ayin, instances may have originally been rev. ed. (Fleischmanns, NY: Purple 4. Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon, 45. see my discussion in “The Name feminine, but the long i vowel Mountain Press, 1994). Alma,” JBMS 7/1 (1998): 72. marker was never represented in 3. For Pennsylvania, see Jay F. [What’s in a Name?] 9. In most cases we can determine the text. Suffice it to say, to see in Custer, Prehistoric Cultures in The Name Cumorah whether the Hebrew >ayin derives Cumorah a combination of “rise” Eastern Pennsylvania (Harrisburg: Paul Y. Hoskisson from an original >ayin or «ayin and “shine” is at best plausible, but Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, because the cognate words in unlikely. Pennsylvania Historical and 1. The name Cumorah appears only Ugaritic or Arabic or both pre- 15. Joanne Hackett and Robert F. Museum Commission, 1996). in Mormon 6:2, 4–6, 11 and 8:2. serve the difference. In addition to Smith both have suggested this 4. Squier, Antiquities of the State of 2. For a discussion of which lan- Gomorrah, the place-name Gaza root in unpublished etymologies New York, 7. guages are relevant for producing falls into this category. in my possession. 5. It is important to note that other Book of Mormon onomasticon 10. In Hebrew the doubling of conso- 16. The Assyrian Dictionary of the places in the Americas do fit these etymologies, see Paul Y. Hoskisson, nants is phonemic, meaning that Oriental Institute of the University

174 VOLUME 13, NUMBER 1–2, 2004