THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE GEOGRAPHY CURRICULUM AS A SUBJECT FOR THE SENIOR YEARS OF STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLING IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1917 to 1997 By WILLIAM JOHN MORTIMER Bachelor of Applied Science, Bachelor of Education, Master of Education Administration, Doctor of Education A thesis presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The University of Western Australia Graduate School of Education 2020 ABSTRACT This thesis provides the first comprehensive study of senior secondary school geography curricula in Western Australia for the period 1917-1997. It was conducted in relation to four sub-periods: 1917-1944, 1945-1957, 1958-1974 and 1975-1997. The focus was on three main research questions: what were the background developments that influenced the process of constructing what came to be the dominant approach to the subject?; what was the construction of the subject in the sense of ‘construction as product’, particularly in terms of the stated aims, content and assessment approaches?; what were the issues, conflicts and compromises that arose following the introduction of the subject for senior secondary schooling in each sub-period? Further, the emphasis was on the ‘preactive curriculum’ as represented in the officially prescribed syllabi in order to increase understanding of the influences and interests functioning at that level. The results of the study are considered in relation to three hypotheses. The first hypothesis states that “curricula, both ‘whole curricula’ and ‘subject specific curricula’ including in relation to geography in Western Australia, have been influenced by international trends, nation-wide developments and State developments”. It was deemed to be largely upheld though not totally, for senior secondary school geography in the State for the overall period studied. The second hypothesis holds that “the subject geography was a field rather than a form of knowledge with shifting sets of sub-groups all pursuing different objectives and that in that process school geography lagged behind academic geography”. Regarding school geography in Western Australia, the hypothesis was upheld in relation to each sub-period studied. The third hypothesis states that “historically the role of the teacher of geography in Western Australia, and growth in the quality of education, moved through Beeby’s four key stages: the ‘Dame School Stage’, the ‘Stage of Formalism’, the ‘Stage of Transition’ and the ‘Stage of Meaning’. The hypothesis was not upheld in relation to the first stage in the model, namely, the Dame School Stage. That was because by 1917 schooling in the State had already progressed to the next stage. Overall, however, it was upheld in relation to the other stages. The study contributes to the existing corpus of international research on the history of curriculum and particularly the history of geography as a senior secondary school subject. It also provides a framework for investigating the construction of senior secondary school geography curricula in other constituencies and could act as a model for engaging in further research in curriculum history for other school subjects State wide, nationally and internationally. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis was always a ‘retired gentleman’s project’ that seemed like a good idea back in 2013 when I talked about it with my friend Tom in a café. Since then a single quote has been a mantra for me that has sustained my journey through all the usual highlights and tribulations of higher degree by research: “If you can dream it you can do it and the only way to fail is to quit.” I was the lad in 1962 who was expected to fail the Junior Certificate Examination. I had a record of less than average academic achievement while at West Leederville Primary School where being disciplined by the dreaded cane for my silly misdemeanours was frequent. I went on to Perth Modern School, formerly a selective high school that by then had just become a local (Subiaco) comprehensive high school. I loved it because high school was so very different from primary school and besides Perth Mod still retained its traditions. I suddenly ‘grew up’ as they say. I decided then that the one thing I did not want to do in my life was work in a factory and there were many not far away in Leederville where as a kid I used to sell an evening newspaper. Awful, that is, total incomprehension of arithmetic meant I was destined for the lowest subject stream: no physics, no chemistry and no French language classes for me. Instead I was relegated to the lower stream of subjects meaning that I could never matriculate. Fortunately, however, I showed above average ability in athletics, swimming and rugby and that attracted the attention of some of my teachers who also offered encouragement. Now with a sense of purpose I was also better behaved, even being elected class prefect each year and finally one of six male School Prefects in a school of 1500 students. Despite extra tuition mainly in maths, I still failed to comprehend. To this day mathematics remains a mystery to me. To everyone’s surprise I passed and was awarded a Junior Certificate in 1962. Fortunately, my parents agreed to enrol me in 4th Year (Year 11) and on to 5th Year and a Leaving Certificate. I had inspirational teachers at Perth Modern School who encouraged me and set me off on a journey of lifelong learning (Jerry Haire, Bill Towers, John Graham, Tom Draber, Bruce Lyons and Jim Clarko were outstanding in their encouragement). At the time going on to upper school I thought was normal but I soon realised that my mother had gone back to work night shifts as a Registered Nurse, just to fund my education. My father also did overtime work as an internal auditor to gain a little more family income and also fund my education. I then went on to Claremont Teachers College as a ‘bonded student teacher’, meaning I received a stipend that funded my studies and contributed to the household finances. I continued studying throughout my career in school education that ended as principal of senior high schools, along the way earning four degrees including a Doctor of Education at The University of Western Australia. For their faith in me and for their sacrifice and support, this PhD Thesis is dedicated to my Grand Parents and to my Parents, sadly all long ago deceased. The research and writing of a Doctor of Philosophy thesis is certainly a lonely intellectual journey of discovery not limited to the subject matter, for it is also a test of one’s intellect, one’s commitment, one’s strength of character, one’s health and one’s perseverance. The debt of gratitude a PhD candidate owes to many people is enormous and enduring. If I fail to thank everyone that I should, it is not from ingratitude but probably from an ageing brain. I am deeply beholden to my research supervisor Professor Thomas O'Donoghue. Tom did not really want to become involved as my principal supervisor again, having done so before with my other Doctorate, but reluctantly and fortunately agreed. As a prolific author himself, Tom is a hard taskmaster demanding a high standard of intellectual thought and writing. In the latter he is a self-professed perfectionist. Numerous drafts and re-drafts of my chapters were exposed to his formidable powers of critical dissection and logical rearrangement, which is a polite description of his correction and razor-wielding style. As ever, he was always available by telephone and email when I needed advice or encouragement. We also frequently met during weekends in his office that usually ended in a Rocket Fuel Café visit: him for latte coffee and two sweeteners and me for a pot of green tea. For a couple of difficult years during the research Tom patiently nursed me by keeping me working, albeit at a very slow pace until I recovered normal health and self-confidence. We have always been constantly in touch by email and in the last 12 months we both picked up speed and raced to completion. My retirement project was no longer a hobby. Early starts at 0430hrs became normal for me this year. My debt to Tom is immeasurable. We will remain friends forever often meeting for coffee in our autumn years even though I drink green tea or decaffeinated coffee rather than the regular coffee that Tom prefers. I also deeply appreciate my long-suffering wife Magdaline. Maggie has endured loneliness and frustration at her husband's ‘off-in-another-world’ mindset and apparent laziness in not doing his fair share of housework and gardening. She too nursed me thorough the difficult years of ill health and I am forever grateful for her support. Notwithstanding her love of coffee and my love of cake, I was rarely interested in visiting cafés for coffee and idle conversation, nor was I interested in going to theatres or WASO concerts that I used to love. My mind was usually elsewhere living as it was in the geography curriculum of the past. As a result, for years Maggie went alone or with girlfriends to see films and visit cafés. And, just as I had in my earlier higher degree study projects, I again made a mess of the dining room table. Thank you Maggie for tolerating my retirement project. The University of Western Australia Archives Librarian, Ms Maria Carvalho has been cheerful and wonderfully helpful on many occasions. EDFAA Librarian, Ms Sonia Boccardo patiently helped me in the early days to navigate online search techniques as well as to track down references when my efforts failed. Both librarians have been unwittingly encouraging.