Ifla Journal

IFLA IFLA JOURNAL

Ofﬁ cial Journal of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Volume 32 (2006) No. 4, pp. 273–395. ISSN 0340–0352 SAGE Publications

CONTENTS

Editorial: Success in Seoul! Stephen Parker ...... 275 Libraries: prime movers for the age of knowledge and information Dae-Jung Kim ...... 278 Information Literacy Education in Asian Developing Countries: cultural factors affecting curriculum development and programme delivery Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman ...... 281 Using Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning: an IFLA Workshop Leslie Murtha, Eileen Stec and Marilyn Wilt ...... 294 Intellectual Property: benefi t or burden for Africa? Denise Rosemary Nicholson ...... 310 Women and Confl ict in the New Information Age Bukky O. Omotayo ...... 325 The Role of a National Library in Supporting Research Information Infrastructure Warwick Cathro ...... 333 Governmental Libraries Development: an experience of strategic collaboration in the fi eld of social sciences Maria Elena Dorta-Duque ...... 340 Government Information and Centers of Business and Legal Information in Russia Emma Voskanyan ...... 345 Cooperation on Local History and the Concept of Network Building between Libraries, Museums and Archives in China Wu Shushi ...... 356 Measuring the Impact of Knowledge Management Jong-Ae Kim ...... 362 REPORT Libraries on the Agenda! The President-Elect’s Planning Session in Seoul Wolfgang Ratzek ...... 368 NEWS (with separate Table of Contents) ...... 374 INTERNATIONAL CALENDAR ...... 383 SOMMAIRES 384 — ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN 386 — RESÚMENES 389 — Pефераты статей 391 ...... 384 IIndex,ndex, VVol.ol. 332,2, 20062006 ...... 394 NNotesotes fforor CContributorsontributors ...... 395

Visit http://iﬂ .sagepub.com Free access to tables of contents and abstracts. Site-wide access to the full text for members of subscribing institutions. Editorial EDITORIAL Success in Seoul!

Stephen Parker in this regard: How do we defi ne information literacy in a developing country context? How The World Library And Information Congress: do we best determine the educational objectives 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council, of information literacy education in a developing held in Seoul, Korea, from 20–24 August 2006, country context? How can cultural awareness was another success for IFLA and a triumph improve information literacy education? for the National Organizing Committee and the library and information profession in Korea, with The next paper also focuses on information 2,891 full participants, 447 day visitors and 522 literacy education, though from a different separate exhibition registrations, as well as 522 viewpoint. At the World Library and Information accompanying persons. Congress in Berlin in 2003, Leslie Murtha, Eileen Stec and Marilyn Wilt from Rutgers University This issue of IFLA Journal, the fi rst to be compiled Libraries in the United States collaborated on a after the Seoul Congress, includes a number of half-day workshop which focused on supporting papers presented in Seoul, as well as some which enhanced student learning in information literacy had their origins in previous Congresses held in programmes. Their paper, ‘Using Assessment as a Berlin and Oslo. Tool to Improve Learning: an IFLA Workshop’, aims to share the essence of the workshop in the We begin with the inspiring Keynote Address words of the facilitators, each of whom focused on to the Seoul Congress by Dr. Dae-Jung Kim, assessment at a different level – teacher/instructor, Former President of the Republic of Korea, who learner/student, and programmatic/institutional. spoke with conviction about the pivotal roles that The workshop was designed to provide participants libraries have to play in determining whether or with an expanded understanding of assessment, not the age of knowledge and information will and experience with using it effectively as a tool succeed in attaining its aims, and reviewed the to facilitate improved learning. The participants place of libraries in the intellectual and cultural reflected on the assessment processes which traditions of Korea and the efforts which are were either contemplated or already in use in being made to develop these traditions in the their own institutions, and discussed ways to 21st century. strengthen these processes by grounding them in their institution’s mission and goals. The next paper, by Daniel G. Dorner and Gary E. Gorman of the School of Information The next contribution to this issue is based on Management at Victoria University of Wellington, a paper presented at the World Library and New Zealand, takes a critical look at prevailing Information Congress in Oslo in 2004. In her models of information literacy education, which paper, ‘Intellectual Property – benefi t or burden the authors consider to be fi rmly grounded in for Africa?’, Denise Rosemary Nicholson, Western social and intellectual structures. In Copyright Services Librarian at the University their paper, ‘Information Literacy Education in of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, highlights Asian Developing Countries: cultural factors some of the issues affecting access to knowledge affecting curriculum development and programme in South Africa and other African countries, delivery’, the authors assert that, for information as well as the implications of international literacy education to be meaningfully embedded intellectual property agreements, focusing mainly in the educational fabric of a developing country, on copyright. The paper aims to show that most it is important to take account of a range of of these countries are struggling to meet the very contextual variables that affect how and why basic requirements of international intellectual individuals learn. Existing models have often property agreements, yet some of them are being been adopted in developing societies without pressured by developed countries to adopt even considering the contexts in which they are being stricter intellectual property regimes through the applied. The paper addresses three questions Intellectual Property Chapter or ‘TRIPS-Plus’ in

Free Trade Agreements. The paper highlights the support long-term access. The paper describes impact of the some of the TRIPS-Plus provisions the project, Australian Research Repositories on education, libraries, and people with sensory- Online to the World (ARROW), which is devel- disabilities, as well as on public health and oping a solution for institutional repositories development in general, and concludes with an in collaboration with a commercial vendor, exhortation to readers to “challenge developed and the Australian Partnership for Sustainable countries on this issue and to challenge their own Repositories (APSR), where the National Library Governments to do the right thing”, encouraging is helping to develop a sound approach to assessing them to support the Development Agenda for the obsolescence risk of fi le formats, advising on a the World Intellectual Property Organization strategy for including preservation metadata in the (WIPO), the Access to Knowledge Treaty (A2K) repositories, and seeking to infl uence the future and other initiatives designed to help all countries development of open source repository software to participate as equal partners on the global to make use of preservation metadata. stage. The fi rst of two papers dealing with government We remain in Africa with the next paper, which libraries and information services comes next. is also based on a presentation made in Oslo. In In ‘Governmental Libraries Development: an ‘Women and Confl ict in the New Information experience of strategic collaboration in the fi eld Age’ Bukky O. Omotayo, Reference Librarian of social sciences’, Maria Elena Dorta-Duque, in the Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, Obafemi Director of Scientifi c Information at the Higher Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, comments Institute for International Relations in Cuba, on the many wars and other violent confl icts describes the work and achievements of the Comité which have led to the loss of millions of lives in de Coordinación de los Centros que manejan Africa, and notes that a major factor in peace Información Política y Social (COIPS), which building is the creation of clearer channels to is charged with promoting a closer relationship disseminate information between the common among governmental and non-governmental people and policy makers. Women are “inherently libraries and information centres that manage peaceful, capable of preaching, teaching and political, social and economic information and preserving peace”, and women librarians therefore with developing collaborative projects, stimulating have key roles to play in the provision and partnership, and the cooperation and coordination dissemination of useful and accurate information of specifi c tasks. on peace and peace movements and women’s groups, as well as fi ghting for freedom of access The second paper on this subject. ‘Government to information and improving the reading habits Information and Centers of Business and Legal of women and children, among other things. Information in Russia’, by Emma Voskanyan of the African governments have to ensure access to Department of Offi cial Publications at the Russian current information by African women through State Library in Moscow, describes how, building the provision of functional libraries and Internet on the solid base of existing libraries, government facilities for them to be properly informed and reformers created business information centres, participate in global discussion and for them to legal information centres, combined centres of be empowered. legal and business information, electronic centres of legal and business information and centers of The remaining papers in this issue were all public access throughout the Russian Federation presented in Seoul. The first, ‘The Role of which, since the beginning of the programme in a National Library in Supporting Research 1993, continuing to function very effectively up Information Infrastructure’, by Warwick Cathro to the present. of the National Library of Australia, describes the National Library’s role in a national programme Cooperation is the keyword in the next paper, to improve the nation’s research information by Wu Shushi of the National Library of China. infrastructure. The National Library has worked to In her paper, ‘Cooperation on Local History digitize research resources, developed integrated and the Concept of Network Building between discovery services, actively participated in three Libraries, Museums and Archives in China’, the research information infrastructure projects, and author outlines the cooperation in document worked with partners to develop solutions to the conservation and cataloguing that has occurred problem of sustaining university repositories to between archives, libraries and museums in China.

276 Editorial

It briefl y describes The Digital Local History such as return on investment, balanced scorecard Project constructed by the National Library of approach, qualitative case studies, and the success China and proposes the concept of cooperation case method to aid practitioners to identify and between archives, libraries, and museums in develop the evaluation frameworks, and lays a digitizing local history. foundation for further research and development in this fi eld. We close this issue, as we began, with a contribution from Korea. In her paper, ‘Measuring the Impacts of We hope that this collection of papers will refl ect Knowledge Management’, Jong-Ae Kim of Dongbu at least a part of the enormous range of topics Information Technology Company discusses the and covered at the Seoul Congress as well as the need for frameworks for evaluating the impacts wide geographical coverage of the papers. There of knowledge management on organizational performance and provides an overview of was truly something for everyone in the Seoul approaches to evaluating the contributions of programme, as there is at every World Library knowledge management implementations to and Information Congress. Come to Durban in organizational performance. It presents methods 2007 and see for yourself!

277 Libraries: prime movers for the age of knowledge and information

Dae-Jung Kim Abstract Keynote Address to the World Library And Information Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference And Council, 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, in the Opening Ceremony. Outlines the pivotal roles that libraries must perform in determining whether or not the age of knowledge and information will succeed in attaining its desired goals. Reviews the place of libraries in the intellectual and cultural traditions of Korea and efforts to develop these traditions in the 21st century. Keywords: Libraries; Korea (Republic)

The World Library and Information Congress Seoul, Korea, Mr. Alex Byrne, President of the International Federation of Library Associations, Mr. Shin Ki-nam, Chairman of the Organizing Committee, Mr. Kim Myung-gon, Minister of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Korea, Mr. Oh Se-hoon, Mayor of Seoul, Mr. Han Sang-wan, President of the Korean Library Association, Dae-Jung Kim was the 15th President of the Republic of Korea distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen, and 2000 Nobel Prize Laureate for his life long dedication to I would like to congratulate the World Library and Information democracy and human rights in Congress on its opening today. I wish this magnifi cent gathering South Korea and in East Asia in every possible success. general and also for the profound success of the 2000 Inter-Korean Ladies and gentlemen, Summit Meeting. By choosing the long road of democracy, human The early ancestors of mankind subsisted by hunting and gathering, rights and peaceful reunifi cation, wandering from place to place for a long time. Some 10,000 years Dr. Kim had to endure many ago they started building agrarian societies in the fertile plains and years of imprisonment, exile and valleys along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the Indus River and house arrest. Though his life the Yellow River. From these agrarian communities were born was constantly under threat, he overcame all oppression. During city-states, where rulers and administrators maintained security his time of imprisonment, he read and order for their citizens, attending to public administration and hundreds of books on various living environments. Amid such development knowledge arose, topics, ranging from history, education spread, and libraries emerged here and there. philosophy and economics to literature. Dr. Kim wrote many The old agrarian societies began their transitions to industrial books. His book, Prison Writings, societies in the mid-18th century. Expansion of intellectual activities which is a book of letters that in industrial societies, such as industrial production, international he wrote to his family after trade and transactions, and technological advancement, stimulated he was sentenced to death in mass distribution of education and creation of libraries. Industrial 1980, was published in many production required land, labor and capital goods, which were all countries around the world. His election in 1997 as the Republic’s visible resources. Industrial societies continued their enormous President marked South Korea’s material development throughout the 20th century. defi nitive entry among the world’s democracies. Now, in the 21st century, the age of knowledge and information is in its high gear. In a knowledge and information-oriented society, creative brains become leaders of the economy and knowledge workers, not manual workers, are in great demand. This is an age when invisible knowledge and information take the role of prime movers leading all sectors.

I think the time has come for libraries to assume a upward mobility. And libraries are taking a central role that is unprecedented in importance. Needless role in this notable movement. to say, libraries performed many important roles in the past agrarian and industrial societies. But The world will never achieve genuine harmony those roles were only secondary and limited in and peace without hope of eliminating poverty. scope. In the 21st century, libraries will perform Poverty lies at the roots of today’s global unrest pivotal roles in determining whether this age of and raging terrorism. Those who are fi lled with knowledge and information will succeed or not anger and despair over their impoverished in attaining its desired goals. circumstances serve as hotbeds for terrorism, sheltering terrorists. Some partake in violent First, libraries should be repositories for all of terrorism even at the cost of their lives. They the knowledge and information accumulated need to see hope emerge from poverty by taking by humankind. They will have to store all kinds advantage of library resources. Those who are and forms of material and information. Today’s now drowned in the swamp of desperation advanced information technology is enabling will then turn their backs on terrorism. Stern libraries to accomplish this immense task. measures against terrorists must be accompanied by charitable hearts showing the poor the way to Second, libraries should fulfi ll more dynamic fi nd hope in their everyday life so they can resist roles. They should exchange knowledge and temptations of terrorism. information with users inside and outside their country, thus going beyond their traditional Sixth, libraries should be expanded into open reference and lending services. arenas for dialogue among civilizations. The ongoing confrontation between Christianity and Third, libraries should upgrade their services Islam in the Middle East is driving the entire as “ubiquitous libraries” by digitalizing their planet into insecurity and destruction. Mutual resources for online use. These services should understanding, reconciliation and cooperation be accessible to anyone, regardless of time or between the two civilizations will be impossible location, through digital communication devices without dialogue. Instead, misunderstanding, including personal computers, mobile phones and distrust and hate will just continue to pile up. As DMB (Digital Multimedia Broadcasting). a consequence, armed confl ict and terrorism do not cease for a single day in our world today. Fourth, it so far has largely been the privilege of the haves to receive a good education and attain All library organizations in the world should knowledge of high quality. Nowadays, however, work harder to increase mutual understanding, individuals around the world, no matter how poor friendship and cooperation through dialogue they may be, can access whatever knowledge and and information exchanges between Islam and information they need by visiting libraries via the Christianity, suffering Africans and people of Internet such as the U.S. Library of Congress and advanced nations, and East and West. These the National Library of Korea. All they need is a efforts will contribute signifi cantly to uprooting single personal computer. In the 21st century, the terrorism and leading the world to peace, not to paramount role of libraries must be to provide mention eradicating poverty. Libraries should economically handicapped individuals and become a driving force toward peace. And nations with opportunities for intellectual contacts libraries should also become training centers for at the highest level. No other institutions can take democratic citizens of the world to promote global this crucial role in removing dark shadows of the cooperation amid diverse civilizations. “information divide.” Distinguished participants, ladies and Fifth, libraries of the 21st century can help fi ght gentlemen, poverty and narrow the gap between rich and poor. The economy of our times depends no longer Now, I would like to speak briefl y about the on visible resources and capital goods but on intellectual and cultural traditions of the Korean invisible knowledge and information. Therefore, nation and our efforts to develop these traditions poor nations as well as poor individuals can in the 21st century. create wealth through active contacts and use of knowledge and information. For the fi rst time in In Korea the fi rst library was founded in the fourth history the world is offering the poor invaluable century by King Sosurim of the Goguryeo Dynasty. opportunities to increase property and realize The following centuries saw the installation of 279 Dae-Jung Kim

many repositories for books and documents in an undaunted power to fi ght against political the royal palace, Buddhist monasteries, Confucian dictatorship for almost fi ve decades. Hundreds academies, public offi ces and private households. of people lost their lives and thousands of At the same time documentary culture continued others were imprisoned and tortured in harsh to make remarkable development. Korea invented persecution. I had to face death no less than four the world’s fi rst movable metal types in the 12th times and spent six and a half years in prison and century, contributing radically to its print culture another 20 years in exile abroad or under house in terms of quality and quantity. The Annals of arrest and surveillance. But we never succumbed the Joseon Dynasty, a vast amount of records to dictators as we were armed with unshakeable covering some 500 years beginning in the 14th confi dence and burning aspiration for democracy. century, is now included in the UNESCO List of And we finally overcame the legacy of three the Memory of the World Register. Our ancestors successive authoritarian governments with the established Jiphyeonjeon, a palace institute power of people. Korean democracy has thus been for academic research, the Gyujanggak palace fi rmly set up on the rock. library and Sadae Mungo, the Four National Archives, to preserve their intellectual resources. In this new century, Korea stands on the forefront At Hongmungwan, the Offi ce of Special Advisers, of the global wave of an age of knowledge and Seonggyungwan, the National Confucian and information. Underneath this dynamic Academy, public offi cials and students actively advancement of Korean society is the nation’s made use of these intellectual assets to hone their proud intellectual heritage and educational scholarly abilities. tradition and, no doubt, the power of people that won democracy through unrelenting struggle. I The civil service examinations, called gwageo, did my best to realize an age of information during greatly contributed to development of knowledge my tenure as president. Now I believe the world and education in ancient Korea. Our nation is recognizing our accomplishments. never had a system for hereditary government posts. Even the son of a fi rst state councilor, or My government successfully implemented a policy yeongeuijeong, the equivalent of today’s prime to network all libraries across Korea and turn their minister, could not join the government without resources into digitalized databases. New search passing state entrance examinations. This system systems were developed and electronic libraries was markedly different from Europe, where were constructed. Through these efforts the noble titles have been passed from father to son. foundation was laid for the “ubiquitous library” As the state examinations were the only paths with a nationwide service system that can be easily to offi cialdom, young men had to study hard to accessed by anybody, anywhere, with any type of pass them and they needed library resources for equipment. Today, library services are available their studies. everywhere – in farming villages, mountainous areas and remote islands. Buddhism and Confucianism from China introduced ancient high culture to Korea. Most of Distinguished participants, ladies and gentlemen, China’s neighbors who accepted China’s advanced culture were Sinicized. Even the Manchus who Let me emphasize once again. The 21st century established the Qing Dynasty and ruled over is an age of knowledge and information. And this China for almost three centuries were almost age calls for libraries to play a pivotal role in order completely assimilated into Chinese society. It to realize its ideals. As I have already mentioned, was an inevitable phenomenon of annihilation successful libraries will make a successful world. that occurs when culturally less developed people Libraries are the reservoirs for storing knowledge come in contact with advanced culture. Koreans and information. Libraries are the locomotives were an exception, however. Our forebears pulling history forward. And you have the vital passionately embraced Chinese high culture but mission to drive these locomotives. they subjectively absorbed and re-created it. Thus they established their own schools of Buddhism I hope that this congress will lead to historic and Confucianism enriched with their indigenous momentum for libraries around the world so thoughts and cultural traits. they rapidly progress in their activities toward faithfully completing their mission in the 21st The clear cultural identity and popular zeal for century. I hope that you all have a pleasant and education among the Korean public evolved into fruitful time in Korea.

280 Information Literacy Education in Asian Developing Countries: cultural factors affecting curriculum development and programme delivery

Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman Abstract The prevailing models of information literacy education (ILE) are contextually grounded in Western social and intellectual structures. For the most part these models follow the taxonomy developed in the 1950s by Bloom, which has been adopted as appropriate for developing societies without considering the contexts from which they are derived, and in which they are being applied. For ILE to be meaningfully embedded in the educational fabric of a developing country, it is important to take account of a range of contextual variables that affect how and why individuals learn. Focusing on ILE through the lens of cultural contextuality, this paper addresses three questions in relation to ILE in developing countries: How do we deﬁ ne information literacy in a developing country context? How do we best determine the educational objectives of information literacy education in a developing country context? How can cultural awareness improve information literacy education? Keywords: Information literacy; Information literacy education; Devel- oping countries; Cultural context; Geert Hofstede

Introduction

Culture, maintains Cutler (2005) is like an onion, multi-layered and increasingly intense as one peels away each layer. The outer skin consists of subjective elements such as visible behaviour, relationship styles, thinking and learning styles, organization and work styles, communication styles. Beneath this surface layer are value systems and norms, shared values and accepted standards of behaviour; and at the deepest level are core cultural assumptions, what Cutler terms “basic ‘truths’ about human identity and purpose, space, time, social organization, ways of thinking and communicating that, for the most part, groups and their members are wholly unaware of” (Cutler 2005, vol. 1, p. 76).

In our view this way of visualizing culture is instructive and About the authors: page 293 informative, and in the context of this paper may in fact be the key to what we are seeking to understand – the way in which information literacy education models and techniques appear to be imported from one culture (i.e., typically ‘developed’ and ‘Western’) to another (i.e., typically ‘developing’ and ‘Southern’). The onion-image of culture can be applied at many levels: groups, organizations, institutions, regions, nations, etc. But each level tends to anchor its sense of culture at a different layer. For example, a teaching team culture (or indeed any ‘team’ of individuals) exists primarily at the level of behaviour (the outer layer of subjective culture) and much less at the level of core cultural assumptions, whereas “national culture often resides less in practices and more in taken-for-granted values and assumptions” – that is, the inner layer of core cultural assumptions (Cutler 2005, p. 77).

Might the same situation hold when we investigate Subjective differences between the culture of what is culture essentially Western information literacy education and indigenous cultures in developing countries? And if this is found to be the case, does it not mean Norms and values that information literacy education so conceived will never be more than superfi cial in developing countries, focusing on outer behaviours rather Core cultural than core values? Aikenhead and Jegede (1999, assumptions p. 269) answer this for us when they state that a 21st century priority for educators is “…to develop culturally sensitive curricula and teaching methods that reduce the foreignness felt by students” – note the reference to both curricula and pedagogy. Objective In our view this issue of cultural infl uence on culture information literacy education in particular has received insuffi cient attention, yet it has major Figure 1. Cutler’s Cultural ‘Onion’. impact on the entire enterprise – from how we defi ne information literacy, to how we seek to structure programmes, and to how we deliver In terms of information literacy education in information literacy content. The purpose of this developing countries these two quite different paper is to open dialogue on such issues by raising sets of cultural assumptions may well be setting questions for consideration. up educational efforts for failure. A Western- influenced information literacy curriculum, based on Western norms and taught according to Question 1: How Do Western pedagogical practices, may not succeed We Defi ne Information Literacy when it focuses on behavioural changes (as in a Developing Country Context? indeed it must, according to how we currently assess educational results in terms of outcomes). We begin with the defi nition which has widest This is because, beneath the outer layer of visible acceptance in Western countries as a standard behavioural styles, and learning and thinking guide to what is meant by ‘information literacy’. styles, the core cultural assumptions, which may As stated by the US Association of College and well run counter to the surface changes, remain Research Libraries (ACRL), the defi nition focuses untouched. And it is these core values which on specifi c skill-based outcomes: ultimately determine the long-term ‘success’ of any education. a set of abilities requiring individuals to recognise when information is needed and In other fi elds of education – school-level science, have the ability to locate, evaluate and use for example – this issue has received considerable effectively the needed information [our attention over the years, with a common view being emphasis] (ACRL 2000). the disparity between science and daily cultures. This was put most succinctly by Aikenhead and On a superfi cial level this defi nition cannot be Jegede (1999, p. 269), citing Maddock (1981), faulted – information literacy is indeed a set Aikenhead (1997) and Jegede (1995) of abilities, and the whole concept is certainly built around an information need. From a One major infl uence on science education pedagogical standpoint the outcomes could not identifi ed by students in developing countries be clearer: ‘locate’, ‘evaluate’, ’use’. And yet, like is their feeling that school science is like a others in recent times, we feel uneasy about this foreign culture to them (Maddock, 1981). defi nition because of its inherent limitations and Their feeling stems from fundamental constraints. differences between the culture of Western science and their indigenous cultures Simmons (2005), Norgaard (2004) and Luke and (Aikenhead, 1997; Jegede, 1995). Kapitzke (1999), among others, have recently

282 Information Literacy Education in Asia highlighted what they regard as fatal fl aws in this to integrate and evaluate information in complex defi nition. We tend to agree with Simmons that the situations and within communication structures. defi nition fails to question some basic assumptions Instead of a “skill-based paradigm that surely about ‘information’, and instead assumes that it is continues to haunt information literacy”, we need naturally A Good Thing. In particular, according to conceive information literacy as “a process- to Simmons (2005, p. 299), oriented literacy” which puts it “in a far better position to communicate its inherent intellectual Helping students to examine and question vitality and larger social and ethical relevance” the social, economic, and political context (Norgaard 2004, p. 221). for the production and consumption of information is a vital corollary to teaching Luke and Kapitzke (1999) carry this criticism the skills of information literacy. Additionally, into the lair of the supposed ‘experts’ in their facilitating students’ understanding that they critique of the infl uential work of Breivik and can be participants in scholarly conversations Gee, Information Literacy: Revolution in the encourages them to think of research not as Library (1989). In Luke and Kapitzke’s view, a task of collecting information but instead Breivik and Gee see knowledge as an external as a task of constructing meaning. phenomenon, something the learner can reach out and grasp: “Seekers of ‘Truth’ can track it Such questioning and raising of issues is the down and capture it either in the confi nes of the way in which information becomes knowledge, library or in a limitless cyberspace” (Luke and and is this not the ultimate goal of information Kapitzke, 1999, p. 483). Using this approach, literacy? (When we examine Bloom’s taxonomy information literacy educators manage to avoid this will seem to be the case.) Information does the principal concerns regarding knowledge – the indeed exist in a context, and not to understand social construction and cultural authority of that is ultimately not to understand information, knowledge, the political economies of knowledge and thereby fail to use it effectively in knowledge ownership and control, and the development generation. Information literacy, despite what of local communities’ and cultures’ capacities many information professionals may believe, to critique and construct knowledge (Luke and is not the simple collection of vast amounts Kapitzke, 1999, pp. 483–484). of information – this is akin to the aeroplane mechanic collecting the various pieces of a jet Of course, Breivik and Gee are not alone in engine and placing them in neat rows. This does this narrow, context-neutral, functional view not make a jet engine. Rather, it is the constructing of information literacy, as anyone familiar with of meaning from information that has true value current information literacy writing and resources – of learning how to fi t the engine pieces together can attest; the evidence ranges from such ‘big into a workable jet engine – and this is what business’ approaches as the ‘Big Six’ – take a information literacy must do if it is to be effective, look at the marketing of this information literacy most especially in developing countries, where programme at http://www.big6.com/ – to some information is increasingly recognized as a key of the most recent books on the subject: almost tool for development. at random, we have N.P. Thomas’ Information Literacy and Information Skills Instruction: The alternative view, and one which is fostered by Applying Research to Practice in the School Library the ACRL defi nition, is that information literacy Media Center, 2nd ed. (Libraries Unlimited, 2004), is explained as a set of measurable skills (‘locate’, D. Duncan and L. Lockhart, I-Search for Success ‘evaluate’, ‘use’) – much like the traditional view of (Neal-Schuman, 2005), etc. its parent discipline, literacy. “Literacy is too often conceived of in normative terms along a defi cit All well-meaning, but with Luke and Kapitzke we model (literacy, of course, being something we would argue that “ought” to acquire). In such a model, information literacy can easily be reduced to a neutral, …these emergent information literacy technological skill that is seen as merely functional frameworks are part of the problem – at best or performative” (Norgaard 2004, p. 221). anachronistic and dysfunctional, at worst counter-productive in their avoidance of the Instead of these merely functional skills, we central questions facing students, teachers should see information literacy as learning how and librarians about:

283 Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman

• the social construction and cultural authority • to understand how to integrate relevant and of knowledge appropriate information with what they • the political economies of knowledge ownership already know to new construct knowledge that and control increases their capacity to improve their daily • the development of local communities’ and living or to resolve needs related to specifi c cultures’ capacities to critique and construct situations that have arisen. knowledge (Luke and Kapitzke, 1999, pp. 483–484). Question 2: How Do We Best In summary, then, in our view there are serious Determine the Educational Objectives shortcomings with the defi nition of information of Information Literacy Education in a literacy when it is applied to developing countries. Developing Country Context? To begin with, it tends to reduce the process to a group of ‘skill sets’, and more particularly reduces it to a functional technological skill. Further, it It is widely recognized that Benjamin Bloom’s does not question the basic assumptions about classic work, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives information, and how it becomes knowledge, (1956) is the framework behind, as far as we can assuming the latter to be some thing external that determine, nearly all information literacy education can be tracked down and captured like small wild programmes. His taxonomy has led to recent animals. derivatives, such as Anderson and Krathwohl’s A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing Along with Luke and Kapitzke (1999), we believe (2001). The characteristic categories in Bloom’s the corollary to be that an effective, robust Taxonomy are based on his understanding of the defi nition for developing countries is one that cognitive process, which he and his apostles see recognizes the social construction and cultural as a series of six levels (Figure 2). authority of knowledge, and works within this paradigm (wherever it may be). Further, Know information literacy, or information literate individuals, must become intimately familiar with Understand the political economy of knowledge ownership and control, and this will determine their ability Apply to access and understand information/knowledge throughout life. And fi nally, information literacy Analyse in developing countries in particular must involve the development of a capacity within Synthesize local communities and local cultures to critique existing knowledge found by means of effective Evaluate information literacy and to construct new Figure 2. Categories in Bloom’s Cognitive knowledge on the basis of this critique. Process.

Thus we are left with this operational defi nition of Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) may use different information literacy in developing countries: terms, but the intention remains unchanged. That The ability of individuals or groups is, learning and educational outcomes are achieved in this process through a series of linked steps; one • to be aware of why, how and by whom moves from knowing (knowledge of specifi cs) information is created, communicated and to understanding (interpreting, extrapolating) to controlled, and how it contributes to the applying to analysing (elements, relationships) to construction of knowledge synthesizing (producing a communication or plan) • to understand when information can be used and, fi nally, to evaluation (judging the results). to improve their daily living or to contribute to the resolution of needs related to specifi c We believe that Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) is used situations, such as at work or school as a framework for constructing information • to know how to locate information and to literacy education programmes without thought critique its relevance and appropriateness to being given to cultural aspects of education. their context Indeed, according to Anderson (2005, p. 107), 284 Information Literacy Education in Asia the original purpose of Bloom’s taxonomy was to that learners exist in some sort of intellectual reduce the amount of work involved in preparing and cultural void and that they all learn in the annual comprehensive examinations. The same structured ways (logically and consistently reduction of labour in education was extended proceeding through the six steps in Figure 3). through the taxonomy to teaching in general by Second, it assumes that all learners are suitably establishing an heuristic approach for teachers refl ective and individualistic in their learning to produce the learning objectives needed for styles (Figure 3, steps 4–6 in particular). Third, specifi c curricula, courses or classes, the learning such a model fails completely to take account of activities required to achieve those objectives, culturally and socially determined differences, and the forms of assessment/evaluation tasks especially between developed and developing needed to determine how well the students countries. Fourth, and in agreement with Luke achieved the learning objectives. The taxonomy and Kapitzke (p. 484), the model represents “…a and its derivatives are, as mentioned earlier, used linear-scientifi c method that [is] being superseded extensively in information literacy education by other modes of inquiry, thinking and analysis programmes. We contend that because Bloom’s currently being invented by, among others, taxonomy was intended to achieve effi ciency of students, researchers and scientists, teachers and the teacher’s effort in a Western cultural context, librarians”. ILE programme designers elsewhere forget to consider the importance of culture. These culturally and socially determined differences, we must remember, refl ect the ways Although later in this paper we will criticize in which people feel, communicate and learn (as this taxonomy and its deductive-style cognitive Figure 1 highlights). When we ignore these factors, process, this is not to say that it lacks value we are forgetting how cultures differentiate and in information literacy education. Indeed, we distinguish groups, and seek to impose a single wish to emphasize that Bloom’s Taxonomy of cultural model that fails to account for these Educational Objectives is quite consistent with differences. Admittedly speaking of international the nature of information literacy education students studying overseas, Zhai clearly highlights and its desired outcomes, and that it provides a the stresses among students caused by “…different valuable foundation (though not necessarily a teaching methods, fast-paced class sessions, two- rigid template) for developing more individualized way interaction with professors in the classroom, information literacy educational taxonomies more student participation in the class, more grounded in local cultural understandings. For classroom and group activities, more reading example, one might use Bloom’s Cognitive Process and writing assignments, and more class study” to create an information literacy education model (Zhai, 2002). similar to that in Figure 3. The same would apply to a Bloom-based Identify the information need information literacy education process that might be used in a developing country – a kind Access information of educational imperialism, or at least a highly insensitive approach to education. The results Organize information of such an approach are well-documented in the literature of education in other disciplines. Construct new understanding In their study of science education, for example, Waldrip and Taylor (1999, pp.289–290) found that Apply new understanding programmes tend to be ‘imported’ without change, and certainly without due consideration for local Communicate and reflect on culture. The results are what one might expect: the end product there is a ‘school view’ of the world, or at least Figure 3. An ILE Cognitive Process Model the world of a specifi c discipline or learning style, following Bloom’s Taxonomy. that is essentially a Western view; students ‘put on’ this view when they are in school and learning, As clear, orderly and logical as this seems, and it has little to do with their culturally-based we detect a number of issues arising from an worldviews and therefore has little meaning. In attempt to impose this sort of structure outside a effect, ‘this is what I am taught in school, yet this Western context. In the fi rst instance, it assumes is the way life really is’.

285 Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman

In common with other investigators, among them recognized as a valid means of understanding Aikenhead and Jegede (1999) and Waldrip and the impact of cultures on behaviour (including Taylor (1999), we believe that what occurs in teaching and learning), on values and on core this situation is a downward spiral to educational cultural assumptions – and here it may help to failure, or rather the failure of classroom learning refer again to Figure 1. The investigator we refer to become embedded in the learner’s way of life. to is Geert Hofstede, and his Five Dimensions First, a disparity develops between the learners’ of Culture as articulated in his seminal works, worldviews and their school views; this gives Culture’s Consequences: International Differences rise to conﬂ icting sets of values, one from within in Work-Related Values (1980), and Cultures and the culture, one imposed from without. To cope Organizations: Software of the Mind (1991). with this, the learners compartmentalize their values, as suggested above, with one set for the For those who may be unfamiliar with Hofstede’s classroom, and another, real set for the world. Five Dimensions of Culture, these are: Thus ‘real life’ learning fails – and whether we are discussing science education or information 1 Power Distance literacy education, above all else educators want 2 Individualism and Collectivism their programmes to be embedded in ‘real life’ 3 Masculinity so that understanding becomes part of a lifelong 4 Uncertainty Avoidance learning process. 5 Long Term Orientation

As this discussion suggests, we believe that a Much of the following is derived from, and new approach to the structure and delivery of explained in detail on, Hofstede’s website information literacy education in developing (http://feweb.uvt.nl/center/hofstede/index.htm) countries is imperative. Such an approach needs and in his numerous writings noted in the list of to incorporate understanding of how people learn references. in different environments, understanding of how culture affects the way we learn and teach, and Power Distance (PD) refers to the degree of an ability to contextualize information literacy equality, or inequality, between people in a society. education within the culture and society for which It is the extent to which the less powerful members it is intended. of organizations and institutions (for example, the family) accept that power is distributed unequally. Question 3: How Can Cultural This represents inequality as deﬁ ned from below, Awareness Improve Information not from above. It suggests that a society’s level Literacy Education? of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. A high Power Distance ranking for a country or society indicates strong This, in fact, is the most important question inequalities of power and wealth, whereas a low for those of us from developed countries who seek to contribute to the implementation of Power Distance ranking suggests that society more robust information infrastructures in places much less emphasis on differences between developing countries through information power and wealth. literacy and information literacy education. And as information professionals we start with some Individualism (IDV) – with its opposite, major disadvantages: most of us are neither Collectivism – refers to the degree to which trained teachers nor anthropologists, yet the skills a society reinforces individual or collective of both professions are valuable in understanding achievement and interpersonal relationships. how cultural awareness can contribute to ‘better’ Individualism addresses the degree to which information literacy education, and the training individuals are integrated into groups. A high of information literacy educators in developing Individualism ranking suggests a society in countries. To overcome these inherent weaknesses which the ties between individuals are loose, and in our professional capabilities, we must rely on the everyone is expected to look after his and his expertise of colleagues in cognate disciplines. family’s needs above all else. A low Individualism ranking suggests a collectivist approach, with In the last two decades or more, the work of one people from birth onwards integrated into strong, particular investigator has become increasingly cohesive in-groups, often extended families which

286 Information Literacy Education in Asia protect them in exchange for unquestioning least convincing of Hofstede’s categories, and he loyalty. does indicate that this was derived differently from the other four categories. Masculinity (MAS) focuses on the degree to which society reinforces the traditional masculine What does this cultural categorization look like role model of male achievement, control and in practice? The simplest way to answer this power. Masculinity (and its opposite, femininity) is to compare the profi les of three countries as refl ects the distribution of roles between genders. determined by Hofstede – New Zealand, Thailand According to Hofstede, (a) women’s values differ and South Korea, for example. Looking at Fig- less among societies than men’s values; (b) men’s ure 4, we see that New Zealand is characterized values from one country to another contain a by a low PD (or PDI, Power Distance Index) and dimension from very assertive and competitive a high IDV; that is, for New Zealanders there (seen as ‘masculine’), to modest and caring (seen is little distinction between people’s power and as ‘feminine’). Women in feminine countries have wealth, and they value individuality very highly. the same modest, caring values as the men; in the In Thailand and South Korea, on the other hand, masculine countries they are somewhat assertive a high PDI and low IDV indicate that there are and competitive, but not as much as the men, so strong inequalities based on power and wealth, and that these countries show a gap between men’s and that individuality is less valued than collectivism. women’s values. Thus a high Masculinity ranking The remaining three dimensions show equivalent suggests a high degree of gender differentiation, disparities between New Zealand and the two with the masculine role model dominating, and Asian countries. While the disparities across low Masculinity ranking indicates a low level of the dimensions of culture are not consistently differentiation between the genders. different between Western countries and Eastern ones, we can see in Table 4 the similarity between Uncertainty Avoidance (UA, or UAI for Uncertainty Thailand and South Korea and the difference of Avoidance Index) addresses a society’s tolerance those two with New Zealand. for uncertainty and ambiguity, and indicates to what extent a culture programmes its members 90 to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in 80 unstructured situations. Unstructured situations 70 are ‘novel, unknown, surprising’, and uncertainty- 60 avoiding cultures seek to minimize the possibility 50 of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety 40 and security measures, and by maintaining that 30 ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’. In 20 contrast uncertainty-accepting cultures are more 10 tolerant of opinions different from the norm, and 0 they try to have as few rules as possible. A high PDI IDV MAS UAI LTO Uncertainty Avoidance ranking refl ects a society’s New Zealand Thailand S. Korea low tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity, while a low Uncertainty Avoidance ranking suggests Figure 4. New Zealand, Thailand and that a society is more fl exible and accepting of South Korean profi les. varied opinions. Factors such as these begin to highlight specifi c Finally, Long Term Orientation (LTO), according issues related to the use of Western or Western- to Hofstede, deals with ‘Virtue regardless of Truth’. derived ILE models and pedagogical methods in Values associated with Long Term Orientation are developing countries. In the remainder of this thrift and perseverance; values associated with paper, we shall examine these issues in the context the opposite of LTO, Short Term Orientation, are of Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture. In Culture’s respect for tradition, fulfi lling social obligations, Consequences (2nd ed., 2001) Hofstede examines and saving face. A high LTO ranking would mean the implications of the dimensions on a variety that perseverance and thriftiness predominate in of life situations – some that relate specifi cally a culture or group, whereas a high STO ranking to a particular dimension (e.g., masculinity and would suggest that respect for tradition and social femininity in gender roles) and some (e.g., the obligations predominate. In our view this is the family, work) that relate to all of the cultural

287 Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman

dimensions. Of particular interest to us is his groups (p. 234). In the individualist society “group examination of the implications of four of the formation among students is much more ad hoc dimensions for schools and educational systems, according to the task or to particular friendships and of’ the fi fth dimension – Long Term/ Short and skills” (p. 235). Saving face and maintaining Term Orientation – on ‘ways of thinking’, which harmony are extremely important in the collectivist also relates closely to our discussion here. classroom, whereas in the individualist classroom “confrontations and open discussions of confl ict We shall now examine what Hofstede says about are sometimes considered salutary” (p. 235) the implications on schools and educational – that is, very important to the learning process. systems and ways of thinking, and then ask In a collectivist society it is important not to lose questions about how these views apply to the face; therefore, students do not speak up in class. cognitive process for ILE as derived from Bloom’s Conversely, in the individualist society the notion taxonomy so that we can respond to the question, of losing face is not an issue, so speaking up in How can cultural awareness improve information class is considered desirable, and good teachers literacy education? “are supposed to reinforce students’ self-esteem” (p. 235). According to Hofstede (2001, p. 100), the Power Distance dimension has large implications in Of greatest importance to our discussion of conceptualizing any educational endeavour. He information literacy education is the difference in points out that the basic values from parent-child the perceived purpose of education in individualist relationships are reflected in teacher-student and collectivist societies. Hofstede states that relationships. Therefore, in a society with a “in the former, education is seen as aimed at high PD score, there is a large distance between preparing the individual for a place in a society parent-child and teacher-child “that caters to of other individuals. This focus means learning to the need for dependence well-established in the cope with new, unknown, unforeseen situations” student’s mind” (p. 100). In a society with a low (p. 235). In collectivist societies, on the other PD score, teachers treat students as relative equals hand, “education stresses adaptation to the skills and expect to be treated similarly by students, and virtues necessary to be an acceptable group and “the system is based on the students’ well- member. This focus leads to a premium on the developed need for independence” (p. 101). The products of tradition” (p. 235). In collectivist teaching process in a high PD society is teacher- societies education is reserved for the young, centric, with teachers outlining with the students ‘who have to learn how to do things’ in order to “the intellectual paths to be followed” (p. 100), participate in society, and in individualist societies whereas in a low PD society it is student-centric, it is ‘not so much about how to do things as it is with learners being expected to determine “their to know how to learn’, because learning never own intellectual paths” (p. 101). And the quality ends and people need skills to get along in today’s of a student’s learning in a high Power Distance world (p. 235). society “is virtually exclusively dependent on the excellence of his or her teachers”, whereas Masculinity and femininity impact on education in the low Power Distance society it is largely in terms of evaluation, among other things. “determined by the excellence of the students” Brilliance and academic reputation, from (p. 101). Hofstede’s perspective, are used for evaluating the performance of teachers in highly masculine The Individualism dimension affects not only societies, as opposed to friendliness and social students’ willingness to act individually, but also skills in highly feminine societies (Hofstede 2001, the ease with which they interact with others and, p. 303). For students, academic performance is used ultimately, their reasons for learning. As Hofstede as the main criterion for evaluating performance notes (p. 234), a person’s relationship with groups in societies with high Masculinity ratings, whereas is established in his or her consciousness during the students’ social adaptation is used in highly the early years with family, and developed and feminine societies. “Failing in school is a disaster reinforced further at school. In a collectivist in a masculine culture …. Failure in school in a society students form in-class subgroups based on feminine culture is a relatively minor incident” ethnic or clan backgrounds, which makes it more (p. 303). Public praise, awards for excellence, and diffi cult than in an individualist society to assign competitiveness (including competitive sports) joint tasks that will lead to the formation of new are used in high Masculinity countries, whereas

288 Information Literacy Education in Asia in feminine countries teachers do not generally success or failure to external factors such as good praise good students (though they may encourage or bad luck, whereas in low UA countries students weaker students through praise), and competition are more likely to attribute success or failure to is not actively encouraged (competitive sports are internal factors such as their own effort or ability extramural activities). – or lack thereof.

Interestingly, and of great relevance to information As mentioned earlier, Hofstede (2001) does literacy educators, Hofstede notes that in a study not examine the implications of Long Term of three literacy skills (reading, writing and Orientation (LTO) on schools and education. numeracy), “respondents in masculine countries Rather he focuses on its implications for “ways rated themselves as excellent more often than did of thinking” (p. 362). The discussion is complex equally skilled respondents in feminine countries” and includes, for example, reference to the impact (p. 304). Hofstede (p. 305) point outs that fi eld of LTO on how cultures think about good and dependence is a feminine characteristic, possessed evil, and about equality and justice. Considering by individuals who generally rely on external that the top fi ve positions in the LTO index of 23 frames of reference as guides to behaviour. Field countries (Hofstede, p. 356) are held by East Asian independence, on the other hand, is a masculine countries and that Western countries (at least from characteristic possessed by individuals who a cultural perspective) such as Germany, Australia, perceive an object separately from its and their New Zealand, the United States and Great Britain environment. Field-dependent individuals (and are all located in the bottom half of the scale, we therefore students in highly feminine societies) can see that differences in LTO between East and possess better social skills, whereas field- West are quite strong. independent individuals (and therefore students in highly masculine societies) possess better Of importance to our current subject is Hofstede’s analytical skills. discussion of how the different logics of “East and West followed different paths … in developing Uncertainty Avoidance, according to Hofstede science and technology” (p. 364). Hofstede (2001), is a dimension that relates to the amount contends that Western Truth derived from an of structure desired in education activities. He ideal of rights-based individualism and stimulated explains that “when uncertainty avoidance is analytical thinking, whereas Eastern Virtue relatively strong … both students and teachers derived from an ideal that emphasized the inter- favour structured learning situations with relatedness of individuals and led to synthetic precise objectives, detailed assignments, and thinking (p. 364). As an example, he talks about strict timetables” (p. 162). In societies with the success of Japanese companies in taking weaker Uncertainty Avoidance, structure is Western analytically-derived technologies and despised by students and teachers who instead putting them into practice by making use of their prefer “open-ended learning situations with own synthesizing abilities. He goes on to point out vague objectives, broad assignments, and no that “high-LTO cultures prove to be well equipped timetables at all”. Students in societies with high for solving…well-defined problems; low-LTO Uncertainty Avoidance prefer assessment with cultures seem to try more heuristic approaches, only one correct answer and expect recognition even where problems can be basically structured.” for accuracy, whereas those in low Uncertainty Thus, while Asian students tend to do very well Avoidance societies believe that “where there in basic mathematics which requires solving can be only one correct answer is taboo … [a]nd well-defi ned problems with clear paths to correct they expect to be rewarded for originality” (p. and incorrect responses, they are less successful 162). In high UA countries, students expect in scientific subjects which require solving teachers to be experts ‘with all the answers’ who more open problems where the correct answers use cryptic academic language and should not cannot be determined by following a clear-cut be challenged; but in low UA countries students path. Students in low LTO countries do better in respect teachers who admit to not knowing all the structured problem solving, whereas those in high answers and who use simple language to explain LTO countries perform better in fuzzy-problem complex concepts. Students in low UA countries solving (p. 367). consider intellectual disagreements with teachers as stimulating academic exercises. In high UA We can now examine each of the steps in the countries students are more likely to attribute their Information Literacy Taxonomy as we ask the

289 Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman

question, How Can Cultural Awareness Im- to prepare students to take their places in a prove Information Literacy Education? To answer society of individuals – therefore, it makes sense this question we begin by examining each of pedagogically to teach students how to identify the steps in the Information Literacy Taxonomy their information needs as individual problems (Figure 5). so that they can learn to fend for themselves and get along in the world. Following Figure 5, the fi rst step in the taxonomy is Identify information need. A New Zealand teacher In New Zealand, with a moderately high value on might well say “we need to take a problem-solving the Masculinity index, it may make good sense approach here so that each student can relate for teachers of information literacy to develop the concept of an information need to a problem learning activities in which students relate that he or she has. Each student can then address identifying an information need to a competitive the problem and solve it”. Based on framing the challenge to which they must apply their analytical fi rst step in this way, the New Zealand teacher skills. New Zealand’s relatively low Long Term will develop learning activities around tasks that Orientation score also makes it appropriate for focus the students on gaining an understanding an information literacy teacher to demonstrate to of information literacy as a process that starts by students skills such as how to conduct searches equating their individual needs with problems to of library catalogues, online indexes, full-text be solved through the application of information. databases, the World Wide Web and so on, and The fi rst step in the taxonomy then provides the to show the students how to use software such as logic for creating the ‘plan of attack’, which leads EndNote to organize information, and to explain into Steps 2 (Access information), 3 (Organize how to analyse it to derive the most relevant information), 4 (Construct new understanding) information to come to a new understanding and and 5 (Apply new understanding). In a country to solve the problem. such as New Zealand, which has a low Power Distance value, it may make perfect sense Thailand and South Korea have low scores pedagogically to frame the fi rst step this way. in Individualism and Masculinity – in other However, we need to ask, does framing the fi rst words, Thai and South Korean cultures exhibit step in this way make sense pedagogically in all characteristics of high collectivism and high cultures when we consider the Dimensions of femininity. They also have relatively high LTO Culture? scores. Therefore, we need to ask, In East Asian nations such as Thailand and South Korea would In New Zealand teachers expect students to cooperative group work be more pedagogically ‘develop their own intellectual paths’, and sound for learning than competitive individual the students themselves expect and want to tasks? Would it be better for the teacher to explain be asked to solve their own problems as a how to identify an information need (Step 1 in means of achieving independence. Given New Figure 5) by providing the students with a clear Zealand’s high Individualism, the expectation of example of a situation or problem that they as teachers and students is for the learning process a group can improve or resolve through the use

Information Literacy Taxonomy Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture Identify information need 1. Power distance Access information 2. Individualism Organize information 3. Masculinity Construct new understanding 4. Uncertainty avoidance Apply new understanding 5. Long-term orientation Communicate and reﬂ ect on the end product

Figure 5. Dimensions of culture and the information literacy taxonomy.

290 Information Literacy Education in Asia of relevant information? Recall that in countries Zealand students live in a culture with low Power such as Thailand and South Korea, which have Distance, high Individuality, moderately high high Power Distance ratings, Hofstede (2001, p. Masculinity, moderate Uncertainty Avoidance, 100) suggests that students will be familiar and and low Long Term Orientation. Taking these comfortable with a teacher-centric approach factors into consideration, it may well be to learning and will be accustomed to learning appropriate to hold information literacy classes through the provision of clear paths to follow. or tutorials during the period when the students Therefore, we are compelled to ask whether are working on their assignments, and to ask the students in Thailand and South Korea would students to discuss and share their successes and learn about Steps 2 through 5 (Figure 5) better failures with respect to the various steps related if the teacher provided an example of a situation to information literacy. or problem, i.e., an information need, for which a group followed clearly defi ned steps: to locate In addition to the actual assignment for the course information, to organize it, to come to a new that was used to embed information literacy understanding through the process of synthesis instruction, it might also make good pedagogical by relating the found information to what they sense to require the students to maintain a already knew, and fi nally to apply to the situation journal about their efforts and experiences as they or problem. progressed through the steps in the Information Literacy Taxonomy – reporting matters such In a country such as New Zealand, with a as where they searched for information, how relatively low Uncertainty Avoidance score, it successful the searches were, the criteria they used is not surprising to fi nd that university library to determine relevance, how they organized the staff will seek the cooperation of academic staff information and so on, and ultimately to refl ect to embed information literacy education in the on what they learned with respect to the process. curricular, teaching, learning and assessment The journal would help them refl ect on what they processes. The rationale here is that students have learned because in an individualist culture will learn about information literacy much better in the context of a real information need. like New Zealand’s, education is about knowing In a country such as South Korea, which has a how to learn – which, after all, is what information high Uncertainty Avoidance score, we must ask, literacy is all about. In New Zealand, which has a How would the students react to a library-based relatively low LTO score, in a fi nal class or tutorial programme being embedded in their ‘academic’ in an information literacy programme after the courses, and affecting their fi nal assessments? assessment activity has been completed, it might From the organizational perspective it is possible be useful pedagogically to have the students for librarians in New Zealand, which has a low discuss the heuristic approaches they used to Power Distance rating, to request academic resolve their information needs. staff to work with them on information literacy education. The librarians and academic staff are We need to ask, what is the best way to teach relatively equal in status and power; therefore, students to communicate and reflect on the they are comfortable working cooperatively. In resolution of their information need? The fi nal South Korea, which has a moderately high Power step in the taxonomy must relate back to what Distance rating, the ability to embed information the students experienced through the learning literacy education in the curricular, teaching, activities. Whereas embedding information learning and assessment processes might not be literacy education into the curriculum of core possible because of the barriers to cooperation subjects might be sound pedagogical practice in posed by inequalities between library and New Zealand, it might not be so for students in academic staff. South Korea or Thailand, countries which have high Power Distance, low Individuality, lower The fi nal step in the Information Literacy Tax- Masculinity characteristics, moderate to high onomy is to communicate and refl ect on the end Uncertainty Avoidance, and high Long Term product. As already discussed, in a country such Orientation. Would embedding information as New Zealand it might make pedagogical sense literacy into core academic courses and making to embed information literacy programmes in the it a part of the courses’ assessment cause undue actual curriculum, with specifi c learning activities stress for the students, and perhaps lead to based on the students’ individual information information anxiety? Information anxiety is needs for actual assignments in their courses. New caused by the inability to access or understand the

291 Daniel G. Dorner and G.E. Gorman

information one needs, by information overload, Our discussion has led to more questions than by lack of clear organization of information and by answers. To continue the quest for answers to the inability to incorporate it into what is already these questions, it is necessary for fi eldwork to known. Would students in classroom discussions be conducted in developing countries. Indeed, or in individual journals share their experiences immediately after this conference we will begin about unsuccessful, as well as successful, strategies such research on the cultural dimensions of because of fear of losing face? information literacy education in Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. The results of our fieldwork In countries such as South Korea and Thailand, investigations will be reported in a subsequent and indeed in developing countries everywhere, paper. we need to ask, how do cultural dimensions of a country, region or community affect the manner in which the students learn to be information References literate? What would be good pedagogical strategies in individual cultures for teaching Aikenhead, G.S. (1997) Toward a First Nations cross- cultural science and technology curriculum. Science information literacy? Clearly, programmes derived Education, 81: 217–238. directly from Western countries such as New Aikenhead, G.S., and Jegede, O.J. (1999) Cross-cultural Zealand, Australia or Britain would not provide science education: a cognitive explanation of a cultural good pedagogical practices for application in East phenomenon. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Asian countries. 36: 269–287. Anderson, L.W. (2005) Objectives, evaluation, and the improvement of education. Studies in Educational To answer the question, ‘How do cultural dimen- Evaluation, 31: 102–113. sions of a country affect the manner in which the Anderson, L.W., and Krathwohl, D.R, eds. (2001) A tax- students learn to be information literate?’ we need onomy for learning, teaching and assessing: a revision to ask questions such as the following: of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Complete ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. • What is the best defi nition for information Association of College and Research Libraries. (2000) literacy in developing countries? Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. http://www.ala.org/acrl/ilcomstan. • What is the best way to frame the initial html (accessed 11 Feb 2006). identifi cation of the information need? Bloom, B.S., et al. (1956) Taxonomy of Educational • Would students gain understanding more Objectives: the classifi cation of educational goals. quickly by working in groups or as individuals Handbook 1: cognitive domain. New York: Longmans, on information literacy activities? Green and Company. Breivik, P.S., and Gee, E.G. (1989) Information literacy: • Would students learn more effectively about revolution in the library. New York: Collier Macmillan. information literacy if the teacher provided Costa, V.B. (1995) When science is “another world”: examples to follow rather than requiring relationships between worlds of family, friends, school students to ‘learn by doing’? and science. Science Education, 79: 313–333. • Would student learning be more successful in Cutler, J. (2005) The cross-cultural communication trainer’s embedded contexts than in artifi cial ones? manual. 2 vols. Aldershot: Gower Publishing. Geert Hofstede Cultural Dimensions. (2006) http://www. • What is the most effective way to encourage geert-hofstede.com/ (accessed 11 Feb 2006). Note that students to communicate their results and to this is not a site authorized by Hofstede and in fact has refl ect on the outcomes? been the subject of litigation. While of some value, it contains errors and should be used with caution. In this paper we have begun to reassess our Hofstede, G. (1980) Culture’s consequences: international understandings of information literacy education differences in work-related values. Newbury Park, CA: in a developing country context. We have focused Sage Publications. Hofstede, G. (1986) Cultural differences in teaching on three main questions: and learning. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10: 301–320. • How do we defi ne information literacy in a Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture’s consequences: comparing developing country context? values, behaviors, institutions and organizations • How do we best determine the educational across nations. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage objectives of information literacy education in Publications. Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and organizations: software a developing country context? of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. • How can cultural awareness improve infor- Hofstede, G., and Hofstede, G.J. (2005) Cultures and mation literacy education? organizations: software of the mind. Intercultural

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cooperation and its importance for survival. New http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla72/papers/082-Gorman_ York: McGraw-Hill. Dorner-en.pdf Jegede, O. (1995) Collateral learning and the eco-cultural paradigm in science and mathematics education in About the Authors Africa. Studies in Science Education, 25: 97–137. Luke, A., and Kapitzke, C. (1999) Literacies and libraries: Dr Daniel G. Dorner is Senior Lecturer in the School archives and cybraries. Curriculum Studies, 7, 3 : of Information Management at Victoria University 467–491. of Wellington. In relation to this paper he has Maddock, M.N. (1981) Science education: an anthro- considerable experience of information needs and pological viewpoint. Studies in Science Education, training in Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam, 8: 1–26. Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. He is particularly Norgaard, R. (2004) Writing information literacy in the active in metadata applications, digitization classroom. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 43, and related issues. He has written substantial 3: 220–226. papers and presented several workshops related Simmons, M.H. (2005) Librarians as disciplinary discourse mediators: using genre theory to move toward critical to metadata, Dublin Core and other issues that information literacy. portal: Libraries and the Academy, affect knowledge organization and management. 5, 3: 297–311. With Professor Gorman he is currently preparing a Waldrip, B.G., and Taylor, P.C. (1999) Permeability of monograph on information needs analysis. E-mail: students’ world views to their school views in a non- [email protected] western developing country. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36, 3: 289–303. Professor G.E. Gorman is Professor of Library Welcome to Geert Hofstede’s Homepage (2006) http:// and Information Management in the School of feweb.uvt.nl/center/hofstede/index.htm (Accessed Information Management at Victoria University 10 May 2006). This is Hofstede’s ofﬁ cial website of Wellington. He has considerable experience in and contains very useful information on the Five Vietnam, having taught and lectured there since Dimensions of Culture. Zhai, L. (2002) Studying international students: adjustment 1988, and has also been responsible for two major issues and social support. San Diego, CA: University of projects for Vietnamese information professionals. California, Ofﬁ ce of Institutional Research. In addition he has managed or participated in workshops for information workers in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. He and Dr Dorner are currently part Note of a team delivering information literacy education Paper presented at the World Library and Information training in Laos-Northern Vietnam and Cambodia- Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council, Mekong Delta Vietnam. Professor Gorman is also 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, in session 82 Division Chair of IFLA’s Regional Standing Committee for Asia of Regional Activities. Available on IFLANET at and Oceania. E-mail: [email protected]

293 Using Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning: an IFLA Workshop

Leslie Murtha, Eileen Stec Abstract and Marilyn Wilt Three librarians from Rutgers University Libraries collaborated on the program ‘Using Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning’ at the 69th IFLA General Conference and Council in Berlin, Germany in 2003. The workshop was designed to provide participants with an expanded understanding of assessment, and experience with using it effectively as a tool to facilitate improved learning. The presenters framed the workshop with a pre-workshop assessment and post-workshop assessment. The responses from the pre-workshop assessment supported the workshop’s design, provided an initial understanding of the individual participants’ contexts and experiences, and formed the basis for the workshop’s small group activities. The post-workshop assessments offered valuable suggestions for future programs. The article shares the essence of the workshop in the words of the facilitators, each of whom focused on assessment at a different level. The three modes discussed are teacher/ instructor, learner/student, and programmatic/institutional. Keywords: Information literacy; User education; Library instruction; Assessment; Evaluation; Testing; Learning; Teaching; Planning; Best practices

Introduction

A workshop program entitled ‘Using Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning’ was presented at the 69th IFLA General Conference and Council in Berlin, Germany, in August 2003. The half-day workshop focused on supporting enhanced student learning in information literacy programs and on creating programs and structures that ‘ﬁ t’ into an institution’s organizational context and support multiple styles of learning and pedagogy.

The workshop was planned and facilitated by the authors of this paper. Approximately 40 librarians from around the world attended the workshop, which included multiple discussion groups and active learning activities. Two weeks before the workshop, pre- registered participants were asked to respond to a short series of open-ended questions about their experience with assessment. The responses to the survey were used to support the design of the session; they provided the facilitators with an initial understanding of the individual participants’ contexts and experiences, and formed the basis of one of the workshop’s small group activities. The post-workshop assessment, administered at the end of the session, consisted of a small number of open-ended questions about the participants’ experience of the workshop. The responses contributed to a shared understanding of the ideas that emerged About the authors: page 307 from the workshop, and offered suggestions for future programs at subsequent conferences.

In preparing and conducting the workshop, the facilitators modeled the use of the iterative ‘Assessment Cycle’, which is centered on

Copyright © 2006 Authors. IFLA Journal 32(4): 294–309. 294 IFLA ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035206074066 Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning the successful achievement of goals and intended outcomes (see Figure 1). Assessing the Teacher/Instructor

Leslie Murtha Gather evidence When we attempt to assess student learning, we are taking the most direct possible approach to measuring the success of our instruction efforts. Interpret Learning is, after all, the desired outcome. There Mission/Purposes evidence are, however, many factors that infl uence how Educational well students learn. One of the most important Objectives factors that infl uence learning is teaching. Identify outcomes Librarians have for many years engaged in activities to assess various aspects of library Implement instruction, but until recently little attention has change been paid to the quality of teaching. In recent years, research, theory, and practice relating to this topic have begun to emerge in the library literature, but there is not yet a signifi cant body Figure 1. Assessment Cycle, developed by of work that can provide a solid basis for study. Peggy Maki (2004, p. 5), PhD, of the American In order to develop a framework for thinking Association for Higher Education. Reproduced about the assessment of teaching, it is necessary by permission of the author and publisher. to turn to the literature of the fi eld of education. Here, one fi nds an abundance of research, and the The four stages of the cycle relate to the imple- challenge is to fi nd appropriate ways to apply it mentation of the workshop as follows: to the practice of library instruction.

• Gather Evidence = Pre-workshop Assessment Most of the available research is based on practices • Interpret Evidence = Workshop Design in schools, which makes its direct application to • Make Decisions … = Facilitated Learning, the assessment of teaching in libraries problematic. Small Group Activities Teaching practices appropriate for adult learners • Implement Outcomes … = Post-workshop are not well addressed, and the frequently made Assessment assumption of a sustained relationship between instructors and learners does not often hold The workshop was designed to provide participants true for library instruction. Additionally, most with an expanded understanding of assessment, of the literature originates among the wealthier, and experience with using it effectively as a tool to developed nations, and takes little account of the facilitate improved learning. After an introductory extreme disparities in available resources, and overview of the three basic types of assessment the extraordinary diversity of cultural contexts (prescriptive, formative, and summative), and their uses in a variety of contexts and environments, to be found in the international library world. the workshop moved into discussions of effective Nonetheless, many strategies used in school assessment from three perspectives: teacher/ settings can be adapted to the library classroom. instructor, learner/student, and programmatic/ institutional. In this way, the facilitators and In a systematic approach to the assessment of the participants collaborated in constructing teaching, there are generally five steps to be the emergent learning from the workshop. Each undertaken: participant received an extensive bibliography, to offer resources to explore following the 1. determine the purpose of the assessment workshop. 2. deﬁ ne and describe what ‘good teaching’ means in the context of the program To capture the experiences of each section of the 3. select the methodologies to be used workshop, here are descriptions of each in the 4. develop or select tools with which to apply the facilitator’s own words. methodologies 295 Leslie Murtha et al.

5. develop standard processes and procedures what makes it good. Descriptions of good teaching for implementing and interpreting the are highly subjective and incorporate both assessment. tangible and intangible elements (Barrett, 1986). It is generally agreed that good teaching means effective teaching, but learning is not a product Assessment Purpose that can be delivered intact from teacher to learner. It is very important that all parties concerned Students share responsibility for the construction understand the purpose to which the results of the of their learning. Good teaching depends also on assessment will be put. Three general purposes for context. As Barrett notes, methods and techniques undertaking to assess teaching are: may differ from subject to subject. They may also be constrained by circumstance and resources. In 1. Prescriptive or diagnostic assessment: used to an international context, it is also important to determine the level of competence or expertise note that approaches to teaching are embedded in of the teacher, to pinpoint problems or areas in culture, and what is effective in one environment need of development. Prescriptive assessment is may not work in another. commonly utilized when working with novice or student instructors, but might also be used Any defi nition of good teaching will be a synthesis to determine progress in the development of professional and institutional values, generally of instructors. Uhlenbeck, Verloop, and accepted characteristics, and local factors. Arnold Beijaard (2002) discuss research that suggests (1998) suggests that the process of crafting a that teachers pass through defi nable stages defi nition, although challenging, is an inherently of development from novitiate to expertise. valuable exercise. Some common categories that Applying this idea to library instruction might may be incorporated into the defi nition are: yield some interesting results. 2. Formative assessment: used to provide • organizational abilities the instructors with feedback about their • planning and preparation teaching in order to support their professional • knowledge of subject development. While it may be used to pinpoint • knowledge of education theory problems or areas for development, it also is used • communication skills to track progress and affi rm accomplishments. • classroom management skills It is inherently a collaborative, rather than • pedagogical repertoire a judgmental process, and is appropriate • use of assessment for instructors at any stage in their career • fairness or development. Most of the discussion of • quality of feedback teaching assessment in the library literature • concern for students’ needs revolves around formative assessment. • respect for diversity. 3. Summative assessment: used to provide administrative support for decisions about Assessment Methodologies instructor abilities or competence. In a library setting, summative assessment results could A number of methodologies can be used to assess be used to match teachers to classes, as well teaching. Each has its strengths and weaknesses, as for making personnel decisions. As will and some are better suited to one purpose than be seen later, most of the approaches used another. Ideally, a program of assessment would for formative assessment can also be used for include several complementary approaches, summative assessment, though they would in order to provide a multi-dimensional be implemented differently. Neal (1988) and representation (Neal, 1988). A brief description of Rifkin (1995) discuss the diffi culties involved in the approaches commonly employed is provided attempting to make assessment strategies serve below. For a more comprehensive overview, see a dual purpose, and the issues that are inherent Knapper and Cranton (2001). in the assessment of teaching. Personal refl ection is essential to all thoughtful teachers. Critical refl ection may be an individual Defi ning Good Teaching effort, or a group activity, and can be structured Teaching is a complex behavior, and no consensus into a formal assessment process. Probably the exists on precisely what teaching is, much less on best resource on the topic is Brookfi eld (1995).

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Interviews are relatively easy to plan and over time. This longitudinal approach can implement, but their value and validity are provide information about achieving long-term, influenced by the skills and biases of the meaningful goals, but it is also diffi cult to attribute interviewer. Interviews are most effective when the achievement to any isolated factor, such as used in conjunction with other methodologies teaching quality. In most cases, this approach (Barrett, 1986). is most valuable as part of a multi-faceted programmatic assessment. Competency tests usually measure minimum competence in the areas of testing (Barrett, 1986). Portfolios have long been used to document Tests can be used to demonstrate either theoretical professional development for teachers. Academic knowledge of teaching or subject knowledge. librarians and others who prepare packets of Testing as a way of assessing teaching in libraries exemplary materials for reappointment, tenure, is currently limited almost exclusively to school or annual review will be familiar with the libraries. In the US, some states have developed portfolio concept, but the idea of preparing a their own tests for school media specialists, and portfolio focused on teaching is relatively new others employ the standardized Praxis series to libraries. Information about the process of (Perritt, 2000). developing a teaching portfolio can be found in Doolittle (1994), Lally and Trejo (1998), Erazo Observation has the advantage of supplying and Beck (1998), and Chapman, Perrway and direct information about classroom interaction, White (2001). but is also particularly vulnerable to subjectivity and bias. In order to achieve meaningful results, Developing Tools for Assessment observers must be trained, and provided with a structure for their observations. Valuable insights Having chosen a methodology – or preferably, into practical and ethical considerations relating a set of complementary methodologies – for to instructor observation can be found in Rifkin conducting an assessment of teaching, the next (1995), Boyd (1989), and Neal (1988). step is to adapt or develop an instrument with which to conduct the assessment. An assessment Learner evaluation surveys are the most using learning outcomes would employ whatever commonly used method of assessing library instrument was used to measure student learning, instruction (Ragains, 1997). They are generally but it would still be necessary to determine how held to supply limited data about learning, but to interpret the results as a refl ection of teaching can provide interesting insights into the classroom effectiveness. For most other types of assessment, environment. They can be used to measure the the instrument would generally take the form of learners’ attitudes toward and perceptions of the a list of questions or statements that refl ect the instructional experience, as well as the learners’ values expressed in the defi nition of good teaching self-effi cacy, or perception of their ability to use articulated by the organization. Accompanying the content of the lesson. Used in combination this list of questions or statements would be a with other measures, learner surveys can supply list of appropriate answers, exemplary behaviors, valuable information about the affective dimension characteristics, and/or documents that would of the learning experience. When used to assess be considered evidence of good teaching. Even instructors, it is important to note that the validity for a relatively informal, collegial approach to of the data derived from such surveys is infl uenced assessment, some form of guidelines would be by the fact that it derives from the perceptions of needed to give structure to the process. novices (Rifkin, 1995). When developing or adapting an instrument for Measurements of student learning outcomes any type of assessment, there are three important may be employed as a determinant of teaching concepts to be considered: effectiveness, but cannot be the sole criterion for making judgments about the quality of teaching, 1. instrument validity – the instrument truly because many factors beyond the control of the measures the quality of teaching instructor affect student learning. When combined 2. instrument reliability – it will return the same with other measures, learning outcomes represent results consistently under similar conditions an important dimension of teaching quality. A 3. instrument objectivity – it measures teaching related approach is to look at learner achievement fairly, without privileging or disadvantaging any

297 Leslie Murtha et al.

individual, environment, or valid approach to Assessing the Teacher/Instructor: Conclusion pedagogy. While establishing formal programs for the Since teaching is complex, improvisational, and assessment of teaching in library instruction is highly personal, it is diffi cult to ensure that all not a simple process, a well-designed program these criteria are met, but if they are disregarded, can pay dividends both by supplying information the assessment is meaningless. about the overall quality and success of the instruction programs and by supporting the There are few standardized instruments for ongoing development of instructors in the measuring teaching in libraries, but a number of program. Examples of teaching assessment resources can aid in the development of questions programs for user education can be found in Isbell or checklists, as well as in the defi ning of good and Kammerlocher (1994) and Middleton (2002). teaching. A list of 84 profi ciencies for instruction Additionally, a number of libraries have established librarians developed by a subcommittee of peer-coaching systems for instructors, taking the Bibliographic Instruction Section of the formative assessment programs a step further, to Association of College and Research Libraries create long-term supportive relationships between (Shonrock and Mulder, 1993; Wittkopf, 1990), instruction librarians (Burnam, 1993; Levine and has never been published in its entirety, but 25 Frank, 1993). are listed by Shonrock and Mulder (1993). Arnold (1998) supplies a valuable correlation of traits To review: key considerations when developing a with teaching behaviors. From a project at the program assessing good teaching are: University of New Mexico, Botts and Emmons (2002) provide a list of teaching competencies for • be clear about the purpose; develop clear instruction librarians, and Ware (2002) discusses criteria for evaluation the adaptation of a freely distributed standardized • involve the instructors in the process instrument to the assessment of teaching in • provide clear guidelines for administering the libraries. Another valuable resource is the list of assessment (including models), and training for competencies for teacher librarians issued by the the instructors and evaluators Association for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada • use multiple, complementary methodologies and the Canadian School Library Association • get help from other departments with experience (1997). in assessment • regardless of the purpose of the assessment, Assessment Implementation and Development be sure that you provide feedback to the of Process Evaluation Standards instructors. The last stage of the process is the actual implementation of the assessment. To prepare for this, it will be necessary to establish conditions and Assessing the Learner/Student procedures for the collection of data. Depending on the methodologies to be employed, and the Eileen Stec purpose of the assessment, decisions will need to be made about who will collect the data, and This section provides brief descriptions of tools who will have access to it. Schedules will need to used for assessment and evaluation of learners be developed, and conditions for the collection or students. These tools can also be used for of data agreed upon. Any necessary equipment teacher and program evaluation. They are must be obtained, and if manipulation of numeric described under three categories: prescriptive, data is expected, programs must be prepared for formative and summative. Many of them can be data entry. Participants should be trained in the used interchangeably for different purposes; for techniques of data collection that are to be used, example, summative assessment results may be as well as in ethical considerations. If the project used prescriptively to inform the next semester’s is expected to result in any form of publication, the learning plan. A critical point to remember is institution’s requirements for research with human that all assessment should be linked to learning subjects should be reviewed, and arrangements outcomes. If you create learning outcomes, the made to meet any pertinent requirements. assessment should fl ow from those outcomes.

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Prescriptive or Diagnostic Tools do not indicate what the participant learned. A very useful article by Williams (2000) demonstrates the Surveys creation of different types of questions requiring One popular method of assessment used – indeed, the learner to choose from limited selections, as overused – by librarians, is the survey. Surveys are well as questions to which the learner responds useful to determine students’ feelings or opinions in his or her own words. about a teaching method or their perceived skill levels. They do not assess learning. Objective Tests

Surveys can tell us what people plan to do in the This method can be used to test large numbers of future, or what they recall having done in the past. students effi ciently and quickly. Diffi culties can People’s intentions may not accurately predict arise when members of the test group who do not their actions and a person’s memory may not share the same understanding of the meanings of be accurate. Many librarians learn to use some words, or who come from different cultures, give latitude in assessing the information that a patron different correct answers. For example, during supplies during the reference interview. the workshop there was no universal agreement regarding the use of the term assessment, versus Surveys can be open-ended, like these three evaluation. Had a multiple-choice question questions that participants were asked to answer been administered to this group using the before the workshop: word ‘assessment’, the results would refl ect this confusion, rather than testing the knowledge of 1. How would you like to use assessment in your the participants. library? 2. Please describe your library and the people who A set of objective test questions testing use it. information literacy skills, known as Project 3. Briefl y, describe one assessment technique you SAILS (Standardized Assessment of Information have tried. Was it successful? Literacy Skills), has been prepared by a group at Kent State University, and is currently being The answers to these questions revealed that retooled (Radcliff et al., 2006) at universities in workshop participants had different levels of the United States and Canada. research experience. Some had never assessed before, and others were ready to embark on Interviews and Focus Groups institution-wide assessment. Because they are facilitated, focused conversations, A survey can be used to ask participants what individual interviews and focus groups can actions they have taken or expect to take, to provide unexpected information. They can be very elicit opinions, and to determine self-effi cacy. In valuable, but require time, skill and resources to one example, graduating seniors at the University complete successfully. Kitzinger (1995) stresses the of California at Berkeley were asked which importance of using an outside person to facilitate specifi c library research tasks they believed they or observe the group. Using an outside facilitator could accomplish. The researchers then tested reduces the possibility that the researchers will the students’ actual knowledge with objective direct the discussion, and also reduces the possible questions. The combined results showed that introduction of bias because the participants students believed that their skills were more perceive the researchers as representatives of the advanced than the objective results proved library. (Maughan, 2001). For those who have not begun formal assessment, Surveys may use various scaling systems to provide another way to anticipate the skill level of learners numeric equivalents for the respondents’ beliefs is to read the information literacy literature, or opinions. A web resource published by William and gather anecdotal accounts from other Trochim (2002) demonstrates the concepts behind library instructors. Proceed with caution; not all different scaling systems. anecdotal information or ‘shared beliefs’ among colleagues are accurate. Occasionally you come Surveys can help to identify the parts of the upon a gem like the Mind Set List created every instruction that a learner ‘liked’ or disliked. They year by the staff at Beloit College, in Wisconsin

299 Leslie Murtha et al.

(USA). This list prepares the faculty to look at the of the class at different times during the lecture. world through the experiences of the new fi rst year Students see the question displayed followed by a class of students. Items review technology that screen telling them to ‘answer now’. The results are has ‘always existed’ for the 18 year olds entering instantly tabulated and the instructor knows if the school, cultural icons the faculty know about, but class understands the material being presented. the students do not, and experiences the students are likely to have had, but that the older members Carol Kuhlthau (2004) requires students to create of the faculty are not. Examples from the 2003 and submit a research log. Students identify the list include such wisdom as “Travel to space has titles of books or articles they have discovered, and always been accomplished in reusable spacecraft;” show the instructor how they found the citations “they [the students] have spent more than half (and that they can fi nd them again) through a call their lives with Bart Simpson;” “Yugoslavia has number, web address or journal title. In addition, never existed” (Beloit College, 2002). While this the student rates how useful the material will be list is mostly appropriate to US culture, readers are for the fi nal research paper. encouraged to look for these jewels within their own communities. E-mail lists allow material like A concept map helps students identify research the Mind Set list to be discovered and shared. topics and add ideas as they are discovered in the literature. The map provides a pictorial representation of topic development. This visual Formative tools representation seems more helpful for some Formative tools require either that some time students than writing about or verbally describing elapse between instruction sessions, to reassess their research. A web exercise created by librarians the learner’s progress, or that quick changes to the at Pennsylvania State University (C. Wright et al., instruction can be made during class to match the 2002) has been used by the author in many classes learner’s needs. Most readers are probably familiar to support students in clarifying their research with the short quiz during a class, but in the online questions. world new opportunities are developing. For example, one librarian described monitoring the Summative tools progress of students using her online tutorial, TILT (Texas Information Literacy Tutorial) (Dupuis, Portfolio reviews have become very popular Simpson and Fowler, 1998). As the students work at the author’s university, though they are yet through the section on preparing a search strategy, to be used for information literacy assessment. they are required to create and type keywords into Portfolio reviews require the instructor to develop a dialog box on the web page and hit a submit a scoring rubric. A rubric is a standardized button. These answers are stored in a database tool used to measure learning. Mertler (2001) and reviewed by the librarian to see if students categorizes scoring guides or rating scales into are developing appropriate keywords. She can two categories, holistic and analytic. Citing expect certain words and not others because Educational Assessment of Students, by A. J. each student has chosen a tutorial covering a Nitko, he explains that “a holistic rubric requires specifi c subject, for example, Internet business the teacher to score the overall process or product or security and privacy (Dupuis, 2002, personal as a whole” (2001, ¶ 2). Citing works by Moskal communication). and Nitko, Mertler goes on to describe how, in an analytic scoring system, “… the teacher Annotated bibliographies can be prepared several scores separate, individual parts of the product or times during a course, before a fi nal research paper performance fi rst, then sums the individual scores is due. The course instructor or librarian can to obtain a total score” (Mertler, 2001, ¶ 2). The quickly discover if a student is fi nding appropriate template shown in Table 1 describes the basic form material. This technique is particularly helpful for a holistic rubric (Mertler, 2001, Table 1). early in the course. To see how the holistic scoring rubric in Table 1 The audience response system used in some might be used in practice, imagine an instructor medical schools in the US is particularly helpful reviewing a student assignment in which the in a large lecture course. Each student is given a student is required to provide complete citations, keypad as they enter the lecture. The instructor has call numbers and locations for three books and prepared questions to display on a screen in front locate and list catalog subject headings associated

300 Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning

Score Description 5 Demonstrates complete understanding of the problem. All requirements of task are included in response. 4 Demonstrates considerable understanding of the problem. All requirements of task are included. 3 Demonstrates partial understanding of the problem. Most requirements of task are included. 2 Demonstrates little understanding of the problem. Many requirements of task are missing. 1 Demonstrates no understanding of the problem. 0 No response/task not attempted.

Table 1. Template for holistic rubrics. with the same books. A score of 5 would must prepare a list of citations for their papers indicate that the student completed all the tasks to fulfi ll the requirements of the assignment. The (provided all the information and the subject authenticity of the data makes this a very powerful headings matched the books selected). A student assessment tool. who included correct citations for additional materials not required for the assignment would Faculty comments on the quality of student be assessed as showing advanced ability and research or the effectiveness of library instruction effort. By comparison, a score of 3 would indicate are very diffi cult to obtain in any detail. Their that an important element of the assignment was focus is to get on with their classes. Ask for their missing (or wrong); either call numbers, citations comments as a courtesy, but informal discussion or subject headings, but not all three. may not provide suffi cient detail to be useful. Generally, comments like “great job” or “it An example of an analytic scoring rubric is the helped the students” are too vague for assessment ‘Web Site Evaluation Checklist’ (Anderson et al., purposes. 1999). This walks a student through the process of evaluating individual parts of a website. Individual Tools under development criteria either add or deduct a point value. For example: Several groups are developing assessment tools for information literacy. Among those are 2. Is original posting date given? Y/N. Y = 1 the previously mentioned Project SAILS. The pts. N = -1 pts. (Anderson et al., 1999, p. 1) Educational Testing Service, based in Princeton, NJ, is working with several American college The additive scores rate a website on a scale and university systems to develop a method for ranging from Poor to Excellent. This rubric could the online assessment of information literacy also be used by the instructor to evaluate the and digital technology skills (Educational Testing students’ understanding of the various criteria. Service, 2003); in Australia, the Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL) has also For additional information and resources on been developing information literacy standards creating and scoring rubrics, see Moskal (2000) (Appleton, 2002). and Nitko (2001).

Citation analysis can be used to review the ﬁ nal product of the student’s learning. The analysis Assessing the Program/Institution would examine the breadth, depth, and authority of the sources cited by the students. One big advantage is that the students don’t have to do any Marilyn Wilt additional work in order for the librarian to obtain Assessment at the institutional level is designed data. It is not an intrusion on their time. Students to determine whether students can demonstrate

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the integration of learning from individual courses 1. developing the assessment plan into a coherent whole (their undergraduate or 2. educating all stakeholders concerning their graduate experience). Programmatic assessment roles and responsibilities in the assessment examines an academic or co-curricular program, process such as a library instruction or information 3. building a shared understanding of the process literacy program, to discover its infl uence on and the intended outcomes, so as to encourage student learning. Assessment at either the all constituents to support or ‘buy into’ the programmatic or institutional level attempts to process measure the extent of student learning, both in 4. designing strategies for applying the results of individual courses and in the overall program. The the assessment assessment plan may incorporate an examination 5. providing feedback to all stakeholders, of teaching effectiveness, and may also scrutinize including students, faculty, administrators, the institutional services and resources that trustees and directors, alumni/ae, and the support student learning. Ideally, assessment of surrounding community. the information literacy program is an integral part of the institution’s systematic assessment of Three scholars who provide valuable models for all curricula. program- or institution-wide assessment plans are Maki, Palomba and Banta. Maki (2004) provides The scholarship of assessment suggests that there visual depictions, concise, coherent descriptions are six key elements to success in programmatic of processes, concrete examples, and exercises or institutional assessment: to aid institutions in initiating or improving their assessment plans. Banta (2002) provides and 1. broad-based involvement of stakeholders illustrates a list of characteristics of effective throughout the institution in both the design outcomes assessments, and together with Palomba and the implementation of the plan (1999) synthesizes assessment scholarship with 2. mutually agreed-upon goals and objectives for practical advice. learning 3. a well-designed, thoughtful assessment plan Maki portrays the institutional assessment process 4. multiple, fl exible data collection methods visually in the ‘Iterative Assessment Cycle’ (2004, 5. broad communication of the fi ndings to the p. 5, Figure 1.3). The cycle centers the assessment academic community, and timely development process on the institution’s mission/purposes, and implementation of recommendations based objectives/goals and intended outcomes. Evidence on the fi ndings is gathered, analyzed, and interpreted. The data 6. timely monitoring and ongoing re-examination is used to inform decisions regarding of the full assessment process. • program improvement The process of developing and implementing a • enhanced student learning and development program- or institution-wide assessment plan • enhanced institutional services and resources is an inherently collaborative one. Maki (2004, • appropriate budgets, institutional policies and p. 181) states that “a commitment to assessing procedures. for learning translates itself into institutional practices that visibly represent an institution’s As the resulting changes are implemented, the level of commitment.” Similarly, Palomba and cycle begins anew, identifying outcomes of the Banta suggest that the assessment plan “captures changes, and gathering new evidence (Maki, agreement about what matters, gives direction for 2004, p. 5). actions, provides means to determine if progress is being made” (1999, p. 8). Banta (2002, pp. 262–263) defi nes the institutional assessment process in three phases: planning, In order to be successful, institution-wide implementation, and improving and sustaining. assessment needs to have a clearly defi ned purpose In the planning phase, she stresses the importance that is grounded in the institution’s mission and of starting where the institution is – at the point goals. All stakeholders should be included in when the need for assessment has been identifi ed. the development and design of the assessment The planning process must allow suffi cient time process and in its implementation. Open-ended for development of support, and for educating and ongoing communication is key to: stakeholders in their roles and responsibilities

302 Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning in the emergent plan. The planners need to be enables the planners/designers to build on their patient, and, at the same time, persistent and experiences working with the plan, potentially focused in pursuing their intended results. adding new elements, deleting others, checking Effective communication is considered vital in all both internally and externally for feedback and phases, but particularly in planning. guidance. Palomba and Banta (1999) stress the importance of regular reexamination of Planners must educate and engage the community, the assessment process itself. Some measures building a shared understanding of the process should be used repeatedly over time to provide and its intended outcomes, and enlisting support continuity, while others may be dropped, and and cooperation. The function of this broad-based new ones added. Palomba and Banta see a dual stakeholder involvement is to develop consensus purpose for institutional assessment; the results across participating groups as to the purpose of the of the process may be used both to “improve assessment, while enabling them to have a voice programs and [to] communicate with the public” in shaping the plan. The results of the assessment (1999, p. 18). Institution-wide communication have both formative and summative functions; as part of the improving and sustaining phase they provide information for improvement, and builds understanding and encourages support for also support decisions for future planning and continued assessment. allocation of resources (Palomba and Banta, 1999). Both models of institutional assessment are non-linear, with interesting parallels. Banta’s Palomba and Banta suggest the incorporation of planning phase, beginning with an identified multiple levels (e.g. course, program, department) need, corresponds with the process of identifying into assessment plans, and emphasize the outcomes and defi ning methods for evidence importance of “link(ing) results to other gathering that is described in Maki’s cycle. educational processes, such as curricular review Banta’s implementation phase, working with the and planning and budgeting” (Palomba and Banta, plan and adjusting as necessary, parallels Maki’s 1999, p. 9). The assessment methods should be progression from gathering, interpreting and “linked to the goals and objectives for learning analyzing the evidence to making decisions about and to the instructional activities that support the potential changes, based on the analysis of the goals” (1999, p. 11). data. Finally, Banta’s improving and sustaining phase corresponds with Maki’s description of The implementation phase, as described by Banta implementing changes in policies, services, and (2002), is characterized by working with the plan, curricula, developing new intended outcomes making adjustments as necessary – a dynamic and appropriate methods for gathering evidence process. Institution-wide communication is also (Banta, 2002; Maki, 2004). critical in this phase, as the planners share with the stakeholders information about what is working While scholars of assessment emphasize the and what is not, and ask for their feedback. importance of establishing an iterative cycle that connects assessment to improvement, a cautionary Palomba and Banta (1999) suggest that both note is sounded by Ewell, who observes that direct and indirect data collection methods be “most campus assessment activities continue to employed; doing so will help to ensure that a rich be implemented as additions [italics original] to and multidimensional picture will emerge from the curriculum, designed for purposes of program analysis of the data. Examples of direct methods evaluation rather than being integral to teaching include objective tests and performance measures; and learning” (2002, p. 16). Ewell further suggests both qualitative and quantitative data may be that an emphasis on the assessment process as an collected. Indirect methods include surveys and end in itself disassociates the assessment from the interviews. Using multiple methods ensures goal of improvement and divorces the process fl exibility, and adds to the reliability and validity from the routine concerns of the university of the assessment process. Decisions that fl ow community. from a broad-based analysis will be supported by stronger and more persuasive evidence. As an aid to understanding how assessment may be applied to an information literacy program, The third stage, which Banta (2002, p. 263) or to an institution-wide context, here are characterizes as “improving and sustaining,” two examples of assessment projects in higher

303 Leslie Murtha et al.

education. Characteristics described in the campus’ improvement processes and also to models developed by Maki (2004) and Banta provide aggregate data that may be used by SUNY (2002) can be traced in the State University of as a whole to address public concerns about New York’s assessment of its general education accountability (Francis and Steven, 2003). curriculum (including information literacy), and the University of Wollongong’s development and Beginning in the academic year 2006–2007, all assessment of its information literacy program. SUNY campuses will be required to conduct a Strengthened Campus-Based Assessment in basic communication (writing), critical thinking, State University of New York [USA] and mathematics. This system-wide assessment System-Wide Assessment of across these three subject areas will be in addition General Education Courses to existing campus-based assessment (State The State University of New York (SUNY) is a University of New York, 2006). state-supported comprehensive higher education system encompassing 64 institutions, including For more details about the SUNY assessment 2-year, 4-year, graduate-level, technical, and initiative, check out: distance education programs. Planning was initiated in the late 1980s for the system-wide http://www.cortland.edu/GEAR/ assessment of general education courses at http://web.alfredstate.edu/assessment/ SUNY. This initiative came in response to the OFFICE%20OF%ASSESSMENT_2005.htm Provost’s call for “revitalization of assessment http://www.geneseo.edu/~assess/gened/ plans” throughout the system. The stated goals of this initiative were to “improve institutional The SUNY assessment process is dynamic, performance” and “demonstrate effectiveness in incorporating lessons learned as the plans are undergraduate education” (Tutzauer, 2005). implemented. The development of the process included elements of all three phases of institutional During the 1990s, as part of the planning process, assessment that Banta (2002) identifi es, including the University ran a series of symposia designed providing adequate time for the development of both to educate the various constituencies and to a shared understanding of the process among all provide a forum for dialogue on general education. stakeholders. The implementation process readily By the end of the decade, it was concluded that fl ows into the improving and sustaining stage. assessment at the campus level was probably more effective and fi scally feasible than system-wide Information Literacy and the Assessment of assessment (Francis and Steven, 2003; Tutzauer, its Integration into the University Curricula 2005). at the University of Wollongong, Australia

The dialog initiated in these symposia continued The University of Wollongong is a comprehensive as a special task force was established to explore research institution situated in New South Wales. the assessment of undergraduate learning. The The integration of information literacy into the process that emerged from this dialog among curricula at the University has been anchored faculty and other stakeholders, known as in the University’s mission statement since1990 Strengthened Campus-Based Assessment, builds (L. Wright, Lipu and Smithers, 2006), and on an existing campus assessment plan entitled continues to be refl ected in current planning General Education Assessment Reporting documents. Research skills, communication skills, (GEAR). This plan includes the use of external computer literacy, skills in logical exposition, instruments such as the National Survey of and competence in the use of statistical concepts Student Engagement (NSSE) as well as locally will be expected of all graduates (University of developed instruments. The combination of Wollongong, 2004). standardized and local instruments enables the analysis of the data to support system-wide The University has integrated tertiary literacy and national comparisons while situating the (which they define as “academic literacy, results in the context of the academic climate of information literacy, computer literacy, statistical the particular campus. Communication of the literacy, and professional practices”) into many assessment results is guided by fi ve principles that of their curricula, and has identifi ed it as an are designed to refl ect the uniqueness of individual important component of the academic program.

304 Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning

Tangible objectives and strategies for achieving and Africa in energetic conversation around these goals were written into the University’s assessment practices that actively support learning Learning and Teaching Strategic Plan 1997–2005 and shared understanding. Using the ‘Iterative (University of Wollongong, 2005). The University’s Assessment Cycle’ as a lens to focus presentation deﬁ nition of seven information literacy standards and discussion, the participants reﬂ ected on the conforms to the Information Literacy Standards assessment processes either contemplated or in of the Council of Australian University Librarians place in their respective institutions, and discussed (Bundy et al., 2004). ways to strengthen their processes by grounding them in their institution’s mission and goals. The planned integration of information literacy They examined assessment from three different into the curricula was tied to a University-wide (but interrelated) perspectives – the teacher/ communication and education process, designed instructor, the learner, the institution. These three to build awareness and understanding of the perspectives are presented in this article to share required skills among faculty, staff, and students. the collaborative learning and to continue the Throughout the 1990s, information literacy was dialogue. integrated into several University core subjects. To assess the extent and effectiveness of this Acknowledgement initiative, the University worked with an external The authors gratefully acknowledge the consultant, and developed a new measurement contributions of Mary W. George and Sandra tool introduced in 2005 to provide expanded Rosenstock, of Princeton University, who read the assessment data (L. Wright, Lipu and Smithers, manuscript and suggested improvements. 2006).

Examination of the documentation relating References to the development of information literacy Anderson, P. F., Allee, N., Grove, S., and Hill, S. (1999) at the University of Wollongong reveals that, Web site evaluation checklist. Retrieved May 12, 2003, throughout the planning and implementation of from University of Michigan, personal website of P.F. Anderson: http://www-personal.umich.edu/~pfa/pro/ the planned integration of tertiary literacy into courses/WebEvalNew.pdf the University curricula, ongoing and broad- Appleton, M. (2002, April 8) CAUL strategic plan: Report based communication among all stakeholders was to CAUL. Retrieved February 7, 2004, from Council of essential to success. As they ‘worked their plan’ Australian University Librarians website: http://www. and introduced assessment tools into their process, caul.edu.au/caul-doc/caul20021info-lit-assess.doc they used what they learned from the collected Arnold, J. M. (1998) "I know it when I see it": Assessing good teaching. Research Strategies, 16, 1–28. data to inform their continued improving and Association for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada and the sustaining of the information literacy program Canadian School Library Association. (1997) Students' and of the assessment process (L. Wright, Lipu information literacy needs in the 21st century: and Smithers, 2006). Competencies for teacher-librarians. Retrieved January 30, 2006, from CASL website: http://www.caslibraries. It would appear that both SUNY and the ca/publications/pub_literacy.aspx Banta, T. W. (2002) Characteristics of effective outcomes University of Wollongong are working to ensure assessment: foundations and examples. In T. W. Banta that their assessment activities are a vital, integral (Ed.), Building a scholarship of assessment . San part of their institutional activities, and not just an Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 261–283. addition to the curriculum, against which Ewell Barrett, J. (1986) The evaluation of teachers. ERIC Digest (2002) so eloquently cautions. 12. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED278657) Conclusion Beloit College. (2002, August 26) Beloit College's Class of 2006 Mindset List®. Retrieved June 15, 2006, from Beloit College Ofﬁ ce of Public Affairs website: http:// The IFLA workshop, ‘Using Assessment as a www.beloit.edu/%7Epubaff/mindset/2006.html Tool to Improve Learning,’ brought together Botts, C. and Emmons, M. (2002) Developing teaching competencies for instructors in the academic library: a three librarians from Rutgers University Libraries case study. Public Services Quarterly, 1 (3), 65–81. (USA) with approximately 40 participants from Boyd, R. T. C. (1989, March) Improving teacher academic libraries from the United Kingdom, evaluations. ERIC Digest 11. Washington, DC: Australia, France, Germany, Scandinavia, ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement, and

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Evaluation. (Eric Document Reproduction Service experience. College and Research Libraries, 62, No. ED315431) 710–785. Brookfi eld, S. D. (1995) Becoming a critically refl ective Mertler, C. A. (2001) Designing scoring rubrics for your teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. classroom. Practical Assessment, Research and Bundy, A., Catts, R., Lupton, M., Peacock, J., Appleton, Evaluation, 7(25). Retrieved December 7, 2003 from M., Orr, D., et al. (2004) Australian and New Zealand http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7andn=25. information literacy framework: principles, standards Middleton, C. (2002) Evolution of peer evaluation of and practice. (2nd ed.) Retrieved August 2, 2006 from library instruction at Oregon State University libraries. ANZIL website: http://www.anziil.org/resources/ portal: Libraries and the academy, 2, 69–78. Retrieved Info%20lit%202nd%20edition.pdf. June 16, 2003 from Project Muse. Burnam, P. D. (1993) Fine-tuning classroom technique: a Moskal, B. M. (2000) Scoring rubrics: What, when, and peer coaching experience at Ohio Wesleyan University. how. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, Research Strategies, 11, 42–46. 7(3). Retrieved Dec. 7, 2003 from http://ericae.net/ Chapman, J. M., Perrway, C., and White, M. (2001) The pare/getvn.asp?v=7andn=3. portfolio: an instruction program assessment tool. Neal, J. E. (1988) Faculty evaluation: its purposes and Reference Services Review, 29, 294–300. effectiveness. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Doolittle, P. (1994, April) Teacher portfolio assessment. Clearinghouse on Higher Education. (ERIC Document ERIC/AE Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse Reproduction Service No. ED308800) on Assessment and Evaluation. (ERIC Document Nitko, A. J. (2001) Educational assessment of students. Reproduction Service No. ED385608) (3rd ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Dupuis, E. (2002, January 20) Personal communication. Palomba, C. A. and Banta, T. W. (1999) Assessment Dupuis, E., Simpson, B., and Fowler, C. (1998) T. I. L. T. essentials: planning, implementing, and improving Retrieved Jan. 5, 2001, from University of Texas System assessment in higher education. San Francisco: Digital Library website: http://tilt.lib.utsystem.edu/ Jossey-Bass. Educational Testing Service. (2003) ETS collaborates Perritt, P. H. (2000) Getting certifi ed in 50 states. School with major universities to assess 21st century skills. Library Journal, 45 (6), 50–72. Retrieved December 8, Retrieved November 11, 2003, from http://www.ets. 2003 from WilsonWeb. org/news/03091.html Radcliff, C., Blixrud, J., Gedeon, J., Salem, J., Thompson, Erazo, E. and Beck, S. (1998) Teaching portfolios. Texas M., and Wiggins, R. (2006) Project S. A. I. L. S. Library Journal, 74, 116–117. Retrieved February 1, 2006, from https://www. Ewell, P. T. (2002) An emerging scholarship: a brief projectsails.org/index.php history of assessment. In T. W. Banta (Ed.) Building Ragains, P. (1997) Evaluation of academic librarians' a scholarship of assessment. San Francisco: Jossey- instructional performance: report of a national survey. Bass. pp. 3–25. Research Strategies, 15, 159–175. Francis, P. L. and Steven, D. A. (2003) The SUNY Rifkin, T. (1995, June) The status and scope of faculty assessment initiative: initial campus and system evaluation. ERIC Digest. Los Angeles: ERIC perspectives. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. (ERIC Education, 28, 333–349. Retrieved Jun 2003 from Document Reproduction Service No. ED385315) http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=trueandd Shonrock, D. D. and Mulder, C. (1993) Instruction b=aphandan=9744021. librarians: acquiring the proficiencies critical to Isbell, D. and Kammerlocher, L. (1994) A formative, their work: 1988 survey of 144 members of ACRL's collegial approach to evaluating course-integrated Bibliographic Instruction Section. College and instruction at Arizona State University West. Research Research Libraries, 54, 137–149. Strategies, 12, 24–32. State University of New York. (2006) Assessment of Kitzinger, J. (1995) Qualitative research: introducing focus student learning outcomes. Retrieved August 1, groups. British Medical Journal, 311, 299–302. 2006, 2006, from SUNY, Office of the Provost Knapper, C. and Cranton, P. (Eds.) (2001) Fresh approaches website: http://www.suny.edu/provost/Assessmentinit. to the evaluation of teaching. San Francisco: Jossey- cfm?navLevel=5 Bass. Trochim, W. (2002) Scaling. The research methods Kulthau, C. C. (2004) Seeking meaning: a process knowledgebase. (2nd ed.) Retrieved from Research approach to library and information services. (2nd ed.) Methods Knowledge Base website: http://www. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scaling.htm. Lally, A. and Trejo, N. (1998) Creating the developmental Tutzauer, C. (2005) History of SUNY-wide assessment. teaching portfolio: a great tool for self-assessment. Retrieved August 1, 2006, from State University of New College and Research Libraries News, 59, 776–778. York at Buffalo, personal website of Carol Tutzauer: Levine, L. and Frank, P. P. (1993) Peer coaching: http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~tutzauer/Assessment/ professional growth and development for instruction history.doc librarians. Reference Services Review, 21 (3), 35–42. Uhlenbeck, A. M., Verloop, N., and Beijaard, D. (2002) Maki, P. L. (2004) Assessing for learning: building a Requirements for an assessment procedure for sustainable commitment across the institution. beginning teachers: implications from recent theories Sterling, VA: Stylus. on teaching and assessment. Teachers College Record, Maughan, P. D. (2001) Assessing information literacy 104, 242–272. among undergraduates: a discussion of the literature University of Wollongong. (2004) Strategic plan 2005– and the University of California-Berkeley assessment 2007. Retrieved August 2, 2006, from University

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of Wollongong, website of the Offi ce of the Vice- committees and task forces of the Instruction Chancellor: http://www.uow.edu.au/planquality/pdfs/ Section of ACRL. E-mail: [email protected] UOWStrategicPlan05–07.pdf University of Wollongong. (2005) Tertiary literacy at the Eileen Stec's position as Instruction and Outreach University of Wollongong. Retrieved August 2, 2006, Librarian at Rutgers, The State University of New from University of Wollongong website: http://www. Jersey, emphasizes involvement of teaching faculty uow.edu.au/about/teaching/tertiary_literacy.html in planning, cooperating and assessing library Ware, S. A. (2002) IDNA for librarians: Assessing instruction conducted for inclusion in their courses. instructional development needs. portal: Libraries and Ms. Stec has practiced her librarianship primarily the Academy, 2, 401–412. Retrieved June 16, 2003 from Project Muse. in higher education since receiving an MS in Williams, J. (2000) Creativity in assessment of library Information Science from Drexel University in 1996. instruction. Reference Services Review, 28, 323–334. She recently published a study assessing library Wittkopf, B. J. (1990) Profi ciencies for BI librarians: who research skills among undergraduate students defi nes them? Research Strategies, 8, 102–131. and teaching skills of experienced librarians and Wright, C., Henderson, T., Sheehy, H., Snavely, L., library school graduate student-teachers. She was Wishard, L., and Zabel, D. (2002) Information literacy involved in Project SAILS Phase III assessment and and you: Defi ning your topic. Retrieved January 10, currently is contracted as a validator for Educational 2002, from Pennsylvania State University Libraries Testing Services Core ICT Literacy assessment. As website: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/instruction/ a former psychiatric social worker, Ms. Stec earned infolit/andyou/mod1/idea3.htm a Master’s degree in Social Work and believes her Wright, L., Lipu, S., and Smithers, A. (2006) Development previous career informs and improves her value as of information literacy at the University of Wollongong. a librarian. E-mail: [email protected] Retrieved May 15, 2006, from University of Wollongong Library website: http://www-library.uow.edu.au/ Marilyn Wilt joined Rutgers University Libraries about/planning/infolit/misc/devment.html as Training and Learning Coordinator in June, 2001. Prior to joining the libraries, Marilyn had About the Authors been director of training and development in both the corporate and not-for-profi t sectors. She is Leslie Murtha is a social sciences and humanities Vice-Chair/Chair-Elect of the Public Relations and reference librarian at Princeton University. She was Marketing Section of the Library Administration and formerly employed as an instructional services Management Association (LAMA), a division of the librarian at Rutgers University, and has been American Library Association. Marilyn has presented involved in user education since 1994. Ms. Murtha locally, regionally, and nationally on a variety of holds an MLS and an EdM in Adult and Continuing subjects. She has management experience in Education, both from Rutgers University. She has both professional music and professional theatre, written and presented on a variety of topics relating including one Broadway credit. Marilyn has an AB to information literacy, and has served as Instruction from Harvard, a Master’s in social work from the Offi cer of the Information Literacy Section of IFLA, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, and a chaired the User Education Committee of the New PhD in human and organizational systems from Jersey chapter of the Association of College and the Fielding Graduate University. E-mail: mrwilt@rci. Research Libraries (ACRL), and served on various rutgers.edu

307 Leslie Murtha et al. icts Most interviewers are not trained Few tests available for library instructors Most instructors meet minimum competence standards May be perceived as threatening May cause or exacerbate personal confl Open to manipulation Instructors need to be in development involved of criteria cult to maintain on Very subjective Very Diffi regular basis Requires practice Dependent on quality of communication direct experience of No competence teaching required Expertise/training Open to bias Assesses only knowledge, not performance open to question Validity Takes time Takes Requires structure Requires coordination Requires training Open to bias Only one participant necessary Personal Based on direct experience Easy to schedule Requires minimal coordination Thoroughness External implementation Objectivity Establish baseline Knowledge Flexible schedule Provides at least one source of expert judgement Based on direct experience Knowledge Interpersonal skills Strategies Teaching Attitudes Attitudes and philosophy Theoretical knowledge Subject/discipline knowledge Communication skills Professional involvement Subject/discipline knowledge Organization and preparation Performance Interpersonal skills Pedagogical repertoire Classroom management Attitudes ection Performance Methodology that can be assessed Activities Advantages Disadvantages Issues Personal refl Interview Experience Competency testing Theoretical knowledge Observation Knowledge base Appendix I. Methodologies for assessing teaching. Appendix 308 Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning May be more highly correlated with popularity than effectiveness Students not equipped to judge some aspects is only one Teaching factor Other factors outside control of instructors is only one Teaching factor Other factors outside control of instructors ect reality of cult to administer cult to obtain data May Takes time Takes Requires training Items selected by instructor May not refl classroom Open to bias questionable Validity May be expensive be expensive Flexible schedule Provides multiple sources of information Items selected by instructor Easy to administer Inexpensive Generally considered reliable Experience and attitudes Philosophy Organizational abilities Communication skills Pedagogical repertoire Creativity Professional involvement Subject/discipline knowledge Interpersonal skills Organization and preparation Effectiveness Direct measure of success Diffi Portfolios Knowledge base Learner evaluation Performance Learner competence EffectivenessLearner achievement Direct measure of success Diffi (Appendix I continued) (Appendix 309 Intellectual Property: benefi t or burden for Africa?

Denise Rosemary Nicholson Abstract This paper highlights some of the issues affecting access to knowledge in South Africa and other African countries, as well as the implications of international intellectual property agreements, focusing mainly on copyright. It will show that the majority of these countries are struggling to meet the very basic requirements of international intellectual property agreements, yet some of them are being pressured by developed countries to adopt even stricter intellectual property regimes through the Intellectual Property Chapter or ‘TRIPS-Plus’ in Free Trade Agreements. The paper highlights the impact of the some of the TRIPS-Plus provisions on education, libraries, and people with sensory-disabilities, as well as public health and development in general. Keywords: Intellectual property; Copyright; Access to knowledge; TRIPS-Plus; Free trade agreements; Africa

Introduction Denise Nicholson is the Copyright Services Librarian at the University of the Witwatersrand, Africa has 34 least-developed countries and 20 developing Johannesburg. She is a member of countries. They are all sovereign states, with different laws and the Advisory Board and Committee jurisdictions. on Copyright and Other Legal Matters (IFLA); the Virtual IP Group South Africa is classiﬁ ed as a ‘developing country’ by the World (Commonwealth of Learning); the Intellectual Property Organization. Although it has a high-tech, IP Project (Electronic Information developed dimension, it has a much larger ‘third-world’ or for Libraries Network); the Copy ‘developing’ dimension, where half the population lives below the South Project (Kent Law School, poverty line.1 There is a high level of illiteracy, and 40 percent UK); the Access to Knowledge unemployment seriously affects development. 54 percent of the total Project (Open Society Initiative adult population has not completed a general level of education,2 for Southern Africa); the Library while 42.5 percent of the total population is under the age of 19 Association of South Africa years.3 Access to information and education are vital for South (LIASA); and the Legal Deposit Committee (SA Ministry of Arts Africa and the region. However, serious socio-economic factors, and Culture). She has drafted together with restrictive intellectual property laws, hamper the position papers, published papers process. If South Africa, ‘the Powerhouse of Africa’ and most and contributed to local and developed country in Africa, is burdened with such problems, international research reports consider how far greater the problems are for the rest of Africa. on copyright issues. She has presented at conferences in Southern and Eastern Africa. What is Intellectual Property? She has also brought the attention of issues affecting Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind and is divided access to information in Africa into two categories: “Industrial property, which includes inventions to the attention of the global (patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications community at various international of source; and Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works conferences, including three IFLA conferences. E-mail: Nicholson. such as novels, poems, plays and computer programs, ﬁ lms, musical [email protected] works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs. Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances; producers of phonograms in their recordings; and those of broadcasters in their radio and television programs.”4

to seek, receive and impart information and The Intellectual Property ideas through any media and regardless of Situation in Africa frontiers.6

African countries have different priorities. For The International Federation of Library most, if not all of them, illiteracy, unemployment, Associations and Institutions (IFLA) and its lack of infrastructure and resources, famine, initiative, Freedom of Access to Information and disease, conﬂ ict, crippling debt, and mere day- Freedom of Expression (FAIFE), state: to-day survival are far more pressing issues than intellectual property, especially copyright. Freedom, prosperity and the development of society depend on education, as well The Western concept of copyright protection is as on unrestricted access to knowledge, foreign to many African countries, since collective thought, culture and information. This right ownership has been their tradition. In many to intellectual freedom is essential to the countries, copyright laws were imposed and creation and development of a democratic implemented under colonial rule and have not society. The state of intellectual freedom in been updated to meet their current needs. libraries is an important indication of the progress of democracy in a nation.7 For industrial property (i.e. intellectual property excluding copyright), there is a cooperative The former South African Minister of Trade and agreement between the World Intellectual Property Industry, Mr. Alec Erwin, stated: Organization (WIPO) and the African Regional Industrial Property Organization (ARIPO), Knowledge is not a commodity, and can the African Intellectual Property Organization never be one. Knowledge is the distillation (OAPI), as well as the African Regional Centre of human endeavour, and it is the most for Technology, which promote protection for profound collective good that there is… rights-owners.5 However, until recently there has Education must embrace the intellectual, been no copyright cooperation or harmonization cultural, political and social development in Africa. Some countries, like South Africa, have of individuals, institutions and nations. This limited exceptions for education and libraries, 'public good' agenda should not be held 9 whilst other countries have virtually none. hostage to the vagaries of the market.” The stricter the copyright law, the more non- compliance there tends to be. Copyright – A Barrier for To date, only eight countries (namely, South Education and Libraries Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Nigeria, Togo, Malawi, Zambia and Uganda) have reprographic rights organizations to clear copyright permissions, but Copyright is a barrier to accessing information and not all of them are fully functional. exchanging knowledge in Africa. Below are some typical examples which educators, librarians and Current copyright regimes in Africa are students are faced with, when applying domestic inappropriate and fail to address the legitimate copyright laws in their countries. The pendulum needs of education, libraries and people with has swung too far in favour of rights owners and visual and auditory disabilities. They restrict or consumers’ rights have been eroded. prohibit access, thus making knowledge available to only those who can afford it. As sheet music may not be copied at all, a lecturer applies for permission to copy a few pages of music for a small group of students. Importance of Access to Information The rights-owner demands a high fee and lays down restrictive conditions. His lecture is Article 19 of the United Nations Universal delayed, and ﬁ nally, he has to use alternative Declaration of Human Rights states: material. Not surprising if he does not apply next time! Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom A distance learner has to pay high copyright to hold opinions without interference and fees for all his study material, as there are 311 Denise Rosemary Nicholson

no copyright exceptions. Unlike many damage these limited resources, since they developed countries, African countries are unable to purchase them for themselves. have not been able to take advantage of the The copyright law prohibits a library from legal fl exibilities in international intellectual preserving the original by reproducing property agreements, due to lack of resources extracts or a section of a book for users to to implement them into their domestic copy from (even if the material is for a short- laws. As a result, there are no provisions for term study assignment). distance learners. The spread of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Copyright law prohibits a blind student from Africa has far exceeded the worst projections. converting his textbook, or even a portion of It has retarded the transformation from it, into a more accessible format, e.g. Braille. illiteracy to literacy. The lack of access to He tries to access an electronic book but information and education has been one copyright technological protection measures of the major factors in the spread of this block the ‘text-to-speech’ software. He tries disease, and the pandemic itself has affected to download an electronic article from an education in a very serious way. Making electronic database to email, but the licence multiple copies of extracts or articles from prevents this, so he is unable to access the copyrighted works is prohibited by copyright information via a voice-synthesizer. He law. In such a catastrophic pandemic, surely cannot browse in the library, since there the nursing sister needing to disseminate vital are no facilities or legal provisions for him information to health-workers and other to convert even a small portion to Braille. relevant groups, should be exempt from Copyright protection measures prevent him having to apply for copyright permission from exercising his fair use rights. and pay licence fees? The urgency and need A deaf person has sign language as a fi rst to distribute essential information for the language, Zulu as a second language and public good surely outweighs commercial English as a third language. She needs interests? to translate and adapt information from A rural teacher knows her class cannot afford various works, before converting it into the high fee to copy a few plays and they have a more visual format for study purposes. Copyright law prevents her from making no library, so she copies them anyway. She any translations, conversions or adaptations believes (rightly or wrongly) that cultural before obtaining copyright permission and development in a developing country far paying royalties. (More broadly, copyright outweighs the commercial interests of a affects translations into indigenous languages. multinational publisher that would not have A third of the world’s languages are spoken had a sale anyway, because the price of the in Africa.10 Consider then, how copyright originals was excessive. (Forty-three percent restrictions hamper translation and exchange of government schools in South Africa do 11 of information for research and teaching not have electricity. Only 19.8 percent 12 purposes on the continent.) have libraries or media centres. The fi gure is far less in other African countries. The A librarian is restricted from digitizing a majority of schools, libraries and resource valuable collection, which is fast deteriorating centres are poorly resourced. High book in condition, as copyright clearance is and journal prices, exchange rates and taxes necessary for each item. Some rights owners make the acquisition of textbooks virtually are untraceable, some refuse permission, impossible. Photostatted material provides some charge high fees or lay down strict an alternative for teachers and learners. conditions. Should copyright restrictions lock However, copyright laws are very restrictive up this valuable knowledge indefi nitely? with regard to reproductions for teaching or library purposes.) Unfortunately due to lack of resources, libraries can only purchase one or two In rural areas, oral communication is the copies of well-used books. This means that main source of information, but the print thousands of students will use and no doubt, medium is essential for advancement to

312 Intellectual Property: beneﬁ t or burden

literacy and education. A literacy facilitator b) Change should be allowed only if it is shown therefore offers reading lessons to illiterate to bring economic and social benefi ts; people in a shantytown. These people have c) The burden of proof must lie with the no fi xed addresses, so they cannot borrow advocates of change; from the downtown library. There is no d) Throughout there must be wide public electricity available, so they cannot make consultation and a comprehensive, objective ’fair use’ copies for themselves in terms of and transparent assessment of the costs and the copyright law. Copyright law prohibits benefi ts.”13 her from making multiple copies for them at the downtown library. It also prevents her The WIPO Copyright Treaty also recognizes from making translations, adaptations or the need to “maintain a balance between the derivative works which would be appropriate rights of authors and the larger public interest, for different age groups and different levels particularly education, research and access to of literacy. These people can barely afford information.”14 food and clothing, let alone pay for expensive books or copyright royalties. So what choice So where is the balance? does she have? Make copies and modify works to educate, or perpetuate illiteracy? Information has value for rights-owners, but what about its value for the individual, for communities, Differences in copyright laws, copyright society at large? There is no balance. Copyright awareness and compliance also make cross- has become a tollgate on the information border exchange of information extremely super-highway. Developing countries need the diffi cult. information. Developed countries control the information. The knowledge and digital divides If a healthy bank balance, rather than balanced between the North and the South continue to copyright legislation, is the only key to new widen. and varied information, then how will African countries ever become developed? IFLA states that “overprotection of copyright could threaten democratic traditions, and Where is the Balance? impact on social justice principles … If copyright protection is too strong, competition and innovation is restricted, and creativity stifl ed.”15 In The world-renowned organization, the Royal fact, too many restrictions may just be encouraging Society for the Encouragement of Arts, non-compliance. Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) in its recently launched Adelphi Charter on Creativity, Innovation and Intellectual Property, sets outs the Benefi t or Burden? need for balance in its fundamental principles for global attention, as follows: Is copyright a benefit or burden for African a) The purpose of intellectual property laws is countries? Clearly, it is a burden for African to enhance creativity and innovation; countries. It is not working for Africans, but it b) All intellectual property rights must be is defi nitely working for developed countries. It measured against the public interest; has become a sophisticated income-protection c) The public interest requires a balance to be mechanism for rights owners, particularly foreign struck between the monopoly rights implicit corporations. Rights owners claim that copyright in intellectual property laws and the free encourages creativity and provides an income competition that is essential for economic for local authors. Yet, the main benefi ciaries of and creative vitality. copyright are foreign publishers, not authors nor Africans. In South Africa, apart from textbook The Society also calls upon governments to adopt authors who can earn up to 25 percent royalties the ‘Adelphi Public Interest Test’ as follows: on retail sales, authors can earn between 8 percent and 12 percent royalties, depending on various a) There must a presumption against extending factors.16 However, in practice, most authors earn intellectual property; less than 9 percent royalties on sales and very little

313 Denise Rosemary Nicholson

on copyright reproduction fees. This is hardly an incentive to encourage creativity. International Pressures

Scholarly authors generally have to assign their Despite the burden of inappropriate and restrictive rights to journal publishers (mostly foreign) who domestic copyright laws, African and other claim their royalties. In fact, African educational developing countries have to adhere to very institutions pay several times for the same strict copyright rules and regulations through material. They pay for the research to be done, international agreements, which developed they pay for articles to be published in some countries, like the United States, Britain and journals, and they then subscribe to the printed Japan did not have to, when they were in the journal and/or electronic version, and then pay developing stages. In fact, these countries copyright royalties over and over again, to make actively used subsidies and protective tariffs to copies of their research articles to teach their protect their infant industries, at the expense of students. Also, the majority of works used in other countries.19 This situation is analogous to tertiary institutions are foreign, and the bulk of developed countries ‘kicking away the ladder’ royalties collected for reproductions are paid to from developing countries, which they themselves foreign publishers. used to climb to the top.20 Films, music, CDs, DVDs and e-resources are Developing countries are net importers of controlled by restrictive licences, which mostly intellectual property. South Africa’s research override copyright law. Copyright fees are included in expensive subscriptions for e-databases, which output, for example, is only 0.5 percent of global 21 are payable mainly to foreign rights-owners. research. It is less in other African countries. These countries are dependent on advanced Copyright has become an economic burden for countries for the bulk of their research and educational institutions and libraries in Africa. educational material.

Infringement in educational institutions is Many of them were pressured into signing not generally with criminal intent. Very often international intellectual property agreements communities cannot afford to purchase books even before some developed countries signed or pay for copyright royalties, but they need the them. The US refused to sign the Berne Convention information to become literate and educated. when it was growing its publishing industry. It in In most African countries, there are few, if any, fact benefi ted greatly from other countries in the copyright exceptions for education and often process. Only in March 1989, when it became a the only way these communities can access net exporter of intellectual property and began information to get educated is to disregard the to derive huge economic benefi ts from it, did it copyright laws. The stricter the laws, the more become a signatory to the Berne Convention. Now infringements there tend to be! it dictates how the rest of the world should protect and manage intellectual property. How is copyright benefiting local publishers and authors, if there is such a large outfl ow of In addition to current copyright barriers and currency to foreign publishers each year? How serious problems in accessing information and is copyright benefi ting education, if information exchanging knowledge, African countries are is over-protected, only accessible to the elite, or struggling to meet the very basic requirements of locked up altogether? the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, known as the TRIPS If copyright were serving its true purpose, then Agreement. why is it so highly contested by civil society in developed countries and even challenged in The TRIPS Agreement is one of the most signifi cant constitutional courts?17 There are many examples achievements of the Uruguay Round of the General in the United States, the European Union and Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Signed Australia, as well as ongoing debates on treaties by 124 nations, together with other multilateral in WIPO, for example, on broadcasting, patents trade agreements and the Agreement Establishing and database protection.18 It is not surprising the World Trade Organization, TRIPS is the fi rst then, if copyright is not working so well in the comprehensive intellectual property agreement developing world. ever executed by most of the world’s trading

314 Intellectual Property: beneﬁ t or burden nations. This is an international treaty which products until 2016.28 By adopting TRIPS-Plus, prescribes minimum standards for most forms this whole process would be fast-tracked, causing of intellectual property regulation, including even more socio-economic problems for these copyright, within all member countries of the countries. World Trade Organization.22 It also encompasses the clauses of the Berne Convention. TRIPS is In recent years, Morocco,29 Jordan,30 Bahrain,31 legally enforceable and subject to the WTO dispute Chile,32 Singapore,33 and some Central American settlement system. Non-compliance can result in states,34 as well as Australia,35 have succumbed to serious trade sanctions. The adopted standards this pressure and have adopted the TRIPS-Plus mirror those in force in the industrialized provisions in the Free Trade Agreement with the countries. Developing countries therefore have United States. They have all landed up with much to assume the heavy burden of introducing stricter copyright laws. substantial intellectual property rights reforms.23 The cost of implementing TRIPS is beyond most For some time, the Southern African Customs of these countries’ economic means. They are Union (SACU) (consisting of South Africa, constantly monitored by industrialized countries Namibia, Swaziland, Botswana and Lesotho) and blacklisting is always a threat. In fact, “in the has been engaging in Free Trade Agreement six years since it came into force, there have been negotiations with the United States, the European ever-increasing levels of concern and evidence Union and other developed countries. SACU of social, environmental and economic problems countries are also engaging in multilateral caused by the implementation of TRIPS. Little, agreements, as well as bilateral agreements if any, of TRIPS promised beneﬁ ts of technology with other developing countries, including the transfer, innovation and increased foreign direct Latin American trade bloc Mercosur, India and investment have materialised.”24 China.

If that is not enough, some African countries The Agreement that was of most concern to SACU are now being pressured to sign the General countries for a number of years was the US Free Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS),25 as Trade Agreement. The United States were pressing well as Free Trade Agreements with industrialized for negotiations to be ﬁ nalized by the end of 2006. countries, e.g. the United States, the European The outcome of these negotiations is discussed Union and others. The United States and the later on in this paper. European Union’s Free Trade Agreements contain an Intellectual Property Chapter, hereinafter African Growth Opportunity Act referred to as TRIPS-Plus. “The TRIPS-Plus (AGOA) – Stepping Stone to a Free concept covers both those activities aimed Trade Agreement? at increasing the level of protection for right holders beyond that which is given in the TRIPS Agreement, and those measures aimed at reducing Do the countries in the Southern African Customs the scope or effectiveness of limitations on rights Union (SACU) or any other African countries and exceptions.”26 These Free Trade Agreements need a Free Trade Agreement with the United also force countries to ratify or accede to several States? This is debatable, since many of them other intellectual property related agreements, already enjoy duty-free markets for 95 percent even it they have not reached the developmental of their exports through the African Growth stages to cope with these additional responsibilities Opportunity Act (AGOA), which is a unilateral and ﬁ nancial burdens.27 piece of legislation passed by the United States Congress in 2000.36 To date, the United States By now, all developing countries should have has designated 37 countries for duty-free tariff TRIPS-compliant intellectual property laws. treatment for certain products. These countries However, many have experienced difficulty must have established, or be making progress in achieving compliance. Least-developed towards, a TRIPS-compliant intellectual property countries have until 2013 to provide protection regime. If these requirements are not met, they for trademarks, copyright, patents and other could be blacklisted or expelled from AGOA.37 intellectual property under the World Trade Organization’s agreement. However, they will AGOA is subject to annual review by the United not have to protect patents for pharmaceutical States. Although the programme has been

315 Denise Rosemary Nicholson

extended until 2015, the United States could since developing countries have far different withdraw from it at any stage. Sub-Saharan Africa interests from those of the industrialized countries. (a region of 48 countries with more than 643 Each round takes much longer to negotiate. By million people) has long been a marginal player pursuing free trade agreements outside this forum, in global trade. It accounts for less than 2 percent developed countries can aggressively drive their of US merchandise imports. For those countries global trade policies. The assumption is that what that have been participating in AGOA, there have they do not get in multilaterals, they will get in been reasonable trade beneﬁ ts. However, the bilaterals. main beneﬁ ciaries of AGOA are United States’ companies, which are guaranteed preferential Harmonization vs. Competition access in the region.

Lack of permanence and constant monitoring Developed countries promote TRIPS-Plus as of participating countries, however, perpetuates a necessary mechanism for global intellectual dependence on the United States. AGOA is an property harmonization. However, harmonization obvious stepping-stone to a Free Trade Agreement, to date has been very limited. The United States which would bind countries to a more permanent and the European Union may have the same partnership with the United States. Countries copyright term but their copyright laws are far could lock in AGOA benefi ts, boost confi dence from harmonized. Just one example, the European and attract foreign investment. However, unless Union has strong protection of authors’ moral a Free Trade Agreement accords developing rights, whilst the United States does not. In the countries the right space to respond, fi rst and Australian/US Free Trade Agreement there has foremost, to their fundamental developmental not been harmonization either, for example, needs, this step should not be taken, since poverty the periods covered by copyright extension, fair and inequality would just be intensifi ed.38 dealing vs. fair use, standard of originality and moral rights issues.40 What is a Free Trade Agreement? The US Free Trade Agreements are far from free or fair. Countries that have already signed By definition, a Free Trade Agreement is a these Agreements have had to forfeit a great contractual arrangement which establishes deal to gain access to global markets. They have unimpeded exchange and flow of goods and had to adopt much stricter copyright regimes, services between trading partners regardless of with a 20-year extended copyright term. As a national borders.39 As previously mentioned, the result, Morocco’s copyright regime is anomalous United States and European Union Agreements with most other African countries. This has contain a TRIPS-Plus Chapter, which far exceeds an impact on education, libraries and cross- all current international obligations for all types of border exchange of information. How can this intellectual property. It promotes the controversial agreement be fair, if developed countries are the United States Digital Millennium Copyright main benefi ciaries? How can it be free, if it will Act, the Sonny Bono Copyright Extension Act drastically increase the outfl ow of currency to and aspects of the European Union Copyright developed countries? Are Free Trade Agreements Directive. between developed and developing countries true agents of harmonization? No, they are defi nitely Developed countries promote TRIPS-Plus as not. In fact, they are used as competition tools being benefi cial to developing countries. Yet, amongst rich countries and as bargaining tools it extends the term of copyright, patent, and against poor countries. trademark protections, and expands the scope on what can be protected by intellectual property Agricultural and other trade benefits come rights. It also eliminates traditional limitations with a high price tag for developing countries and exceptions, which are especially intended to desperate to enter global markets. They become promote the public interest. pawns in the ‘carrot and stick’ games played by rich countries. Such unequal bargaining power Multilateral trade negotiations through the World can result in signifi cant restrictions remaining in Trade Organization have become more complex, place, e.g. the European Union’s controversial

316 Intellectual Property: benefi t or burden agricultural policy and the United States’ anti- country, but a net importer of intellectual dumping policy. Rich countries promote free property.45 trade, yet demand higher levels of IP protection, whilst jealously protecting their own agricultural Would a similar agreement be fair for developing markets, where developing countries clearly and least-developed countries in Africa? How have a comparative advantage.41 This so-called could African researchers, teachers and librarians ‘global harmonization’ can best be described as accept an Agreement, which would clearly ‘Americanization’, ‘Europeanization’ or a form of exacerbate the problems of accessing information, ‘Knowledge Colonialism or Imperialism’. and exchanging knowledge on the African continent? The United States is a major global Even though TRIPS-Plus provisions are strongly exporter, whilst Africa as a whole, accounts for criticized by their own citizens, especially in the less than 2 percent of global trade.46 How could United States, developed countries entrench this possibly be an equal partnership? their TRIPS-Plus regimes through bilateral Trade Agreements with other countries. If developing In South Africa, various consumer groups and the countries negotiate disproportionate concessions educational sector made submissions to the South in bilateral Agreements, it may be diffi cult to African Government, objecting to the inclusion rectify the situation multilaterally in the WTO of TRIPS-Plus and other controversial clauses in talks. They will no longer have anything of any Free Trade Agreements. substantial interest to trade away, in exchange for the removal of remaining signifi cant barriers by The outcome of the SACU countries’ Free Trade developed countries.42 Agreement negotiations with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), consisting of Iceland, If negotiations were instead to remain in the Norway, Switzerland and Lichtenstein, was the WTO with no bilateral free-trade agreements, the successful exclusion of the chapters on intellectual smaller countries could at least band together to property, investment and competition from the increase their bargaining power. The result would Agreement.47 be a more equal, and quite likely, closer to total elimination of trade barriers, which would benefi t Discussions with the European Union on free all countries.43 Unfortunately, rich, powerful trade issues have stalled for the moment. countries drive the process. With regard to the SACU/US Free Trade What is of concern is that “Free Trade Agreements Agreement, it was a requirement of US law that might divert the world away from multilateral its country’s trade negotiators bring back US trade liberalization and lead to the development standards of intellectual property protection of large, competing trading blocs such as the through a signed Free Trade Agreement with United States and the Western Hemisphere; the the SACU countries.48 During 2006, however, European Union and nearby countries; and Japan the SACU countries decided not to enter into a and its trading partners in Asia and the Pacifi c Free Trade Agreement with the United States, Rim, a result that would be inferior to multilateral because of insurmountable differences between free trade”, and detrimental to developing the negotiating parties on various issues relating countries.44 to the Agreement. This is seen as a positive step for the region. Unfortunately, governments negotiate Free Trade Agreements behind closed doors, with South Africa’s chief trade negotiator, Mr. Xavier little, if any input, from other stakeholders. The Carim, had said informally that the US Free Trade contents are confi dential and therefore not in Agreement took SACU countries “into territory the public domain. It is believed that the Free where they were not prepared to go. He said Trade Agreement offered to the Southern African SACU countries would not agree to anything that Customs Union (SACU) by the United States was impinged on their development policies”.49 similar to the Australian/United States Free Trade Agreement, which was signed during 2004. This It is believed that the United States will now latter Agreement has been strongly criticized by pursue Free Trade Agreements with other African educators and librarians in Australia, a developed countries.

317 Denise Rosemary Nicholson

authors, ﬁ lm makers and songwriters would all be Impact of TRIPS-Plus on given an extra twenty years of control over their African Countries works – indeed from the grave.51

Free Trade Agreements with developed countries Copyright law is a barrier to digitization projects in cover a wide range of issues, many controversial, educational institutions, libraries (including legal which go far beyond the ambit of this paper. I will deposit libraries) and archives, as adaptations and therefore focus on a few aspects of the TRIPS- conversion to a new format require copyright Plus Chapter in the US Free Trade Agreement, clearance for every item. Copyright clearance which has serious implications for education and is time-consuming and tedious, especially when libraries, as well as for people with visual and rights-owners are diffi cult to trace. If permission auditory disabilities, in Africa. is denied, there would be gaps in collections and access to these valuable works would not TRIPS-Plus provisions impose a 20-year extension be possible. An extended copyright term would of the copyright term, far exceeding the minimum therefore have additional administrative and major standards in international agreements, which most fi nancial implications for these institutions. African countries have adopted. It clearly distorts the traditional balance of interests between Only 7 percent of South Africans have access to copyright owners and users, fundamental to the Internet.52 Only 12.3 percent of government the concept of intellectual property. Education, schools have computers for learning purposes.53 research, access to knowledge and development These fi gures are much lower in other African policies would be seriously affected. countries. TRIPS-Plus provisions would therefore impact signifi cantly on the small percentage of Large foreign corporations would have control Africans who have access to electronic media. over knowledge and cultural heritage for a The availability of online material would be further two decades. Consumers would have less signifi cantly reduced or blocked under TRIPS- material to use, and twenty more years’ royalties Plus. to pay, mainly in foreign currency. The outfl ow of money would be detrimental to the economies In the case of computer software, even more so of these countries, all net importers of intellectual than literature, music, fi lms and television, the property. The increased costs would place a huge length of time for which copyright would subsist financial burden on already under-resourced under TRIPS-Plus, would absurdly exceed the educational institutions. period for which it would be commercially useful.54 Public access to books, fi lms and music would be limited for a far longer period. Works that should To date, cross-border agreements have had to be already be in the public domain would come negotiated to facilitate educational projects in under protection for that extended period. The Africa, because of different copyright laws and burden of copyright regulation would therefore jurisdictions. Shrinking the public domain and extend to works, whether or not authors wanted extending the copyright term will only create them further protected, or commercially exploited. more hurdles for those trying hard to educate Since only about 4 percent of copyrighted works, African people. more than twenty years old, are commercially available, this would lock up 96 percent of 20th Anti-Circumvention Technologies century culture to benefi t 4 percent.50 This would clearly shrink the public domain. The TRIPS-Plus provisions in the US Free Trade Creative authors would have far less works to Agreement propose anti-circumvention measures use as building blocks in making new creations. that exceed countries’ obligations under the World The creation of new works is dependent on a rich Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). and vibrant public domain. Problems in accessing Ironically, these measures were strongly objected and exchanging information, particularly for to when they were included in the US Digital educational purposes, would be exacerbated. Millennium Copyright Act and they remain a TRIPS-Plus makes no distinction between controversial issue in the United States.55 Yet, they research, education and entertainment, so dead are included in the US Free Trade Agreement. These

318 Intellectual Property: benefi t or burden protection measures ban acts of circumvention recognized that the TRIPS Agreement, as an and the distribution of tools and technologies international instrument for the protection of used for circumvention. Rights owners have the intellectual property, should operate in a manner power to unilaterally eliminate fair use rights, that is supportive of and does not run counter to stifl e research and block text-to-speech software the public health objectives of all countries.61 The for blind people. They can institute differential UK Commission on Intellectual Property Rights62 pricing using technological control measures, such explicitly affirmed the DOHA Declaration.63 as lockup or protection codes on electronic books It encouraged developing countries to use and CDs, and content-scrambling or regional compulsory licensing and generic competition, to coding systems on DVDS. These controversial increase access to essential medicines. laws can also create monopolies over devices and equipment that handle digital media.56 Apart from affecting access to information, Technological restrictions are employed on a including health information, TRIPS-Plus also growing number of consumer products such as erodes the DOHA Declaration by eroding DVDs, printer toner cartridges, and garage door TRIPS’ legal exceptions. It limits the ability of openers, etc., that prevent competitors from weaker bilateral or regional partners to promote building interoperable components.57 They have technological innovation, facilitate the transfer the potential to lock up information long after and dissemination of technology, take necessary the copyright term has expired. They also have measures to protect public health and take the potential to lock up indigenous knowledge appropriate measures to prevent the abuse of behind electronic databases controlled by intellectual property rights by patent holders.64 It multinational corporations operating content restricts generic drug competition and the export industries in developing countries. They are also of generic drugs to other countries. Sub-Saharan an impediment to the development of software Africa has more than 70 percent of all cases of industries and open access projects in developing HIV/AIDS in the world.65 If TRIPS-Plus were countries. They are also capable of creating adopted, public health in this region would be barriers for ICT solutions in developing countries. seriously compromised, putting millions of lives The technological restrictions protected by anti- at risk. circumvention laws erode and infringe the public’s rights.58 TRIPS-Plus expands patent protection, which is a perfect way for international corporations to TRIPS-Plus also strongly regulates Internet Service increase monopoly protection, especially in the Providers, even for legitimate purposes. This could pharmaceutical fi eld. It also restricts exclusion place unreasonable responsibilities on educational of inventions from patentability, for example, institutions and libraries in the management of software, business methods and life forms. This their servers. In some instances, this could impact would counter any exclusion clauses in the on freedom of expression, especially where larger patent laws of South Africa and other African corporations unilaterally decide what should be countries. removed from servers. Smaller entities could be open to abuse, harassment or closure by powerful By advocating TRIPS Plus, the United States corporations.59 In this way, large corporations is betraying its public commitment and the maintain their control over information. international consensus reached at Doha to assist developing countries fulfi l their obligation to Developing countries must therefore resist anti- protect public health. It is arbitrarily interfering circumvention laws, since they have a serious with developing countries’ good faith efforts to impact on civil liberties, innovation, scientifi c improve and lengthen the lives of their citizens. research and competition. They restrict or even It should in reality be promoting fl exibility in block legitimate fair use and copyright exceptions, determining appropriate levels of national patent allowed in domestic copyright law. protection, rather than making access to United States markets conditional upon adoption of TRIPS-Plus.66 TRIPS-Plus and Public Health African countries need to prioritize public health The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and and development policies over private commercial Public Health at the World Trade Organization60 interests. They must resuscitate and implement

319 Denise Rosemary Nicholson

the DOHA Declaration and TRIPS ﬂ exibilities Agenda,71 proposed by Argentina and Brazil on as soon as possible. behalf of fourteen developing countries, which include the Africa Group. They should also support the Access to Knowledge Treaty (A2K),72 Should Africa Adopt TRIPS-Plus? which consumer groups, civil societies, IFLA and libraries around the world are calling for through TRIPS-Plus is all about protection and extension WIPO. of monopolies and anti-competition. It therefore has an anomalous position in the Free Trade Copyright Cooperation in Africa Agreement. Adopting any of the TRIPS-Plus provisions in Africa, would substantially limit traditional private copying rights, fair use As rights-owners tighten their control over privileges, legitimate library and archival functions information, African librarians and educators and scientific research. It would seriously have to take up the challenge to protect access to compromise public health and impact negatively information and promote exchange of knowledge. on their economies and development policies. It To address this, some form of copyright cooperation would intensify poverty and inequality. is necessary on the continent.

How would developing countries benefi t from In 2004, the Southern African Development laws that overly-protect foreign knowledge Community (SADC),73 and the Standing product and hinder growth of fragile domestic Conference for Central, Eastern and Southern knowledge industries?67 How can they possibly African Library Associations (SCECSAL) in benefi t if the concentration of wealth in the North Uganda, supported a recommendation to establish is increased, at their expense? an African Copyright Forum, to address copyright issues and cooperation in Africa. TRIPS-Plus provisions also have serious implications for innovation, privacy and An international conference was held in Kampala, competition. They would also dramatically expand Uganda, from 28–30 November 2005, with the scope of copyright to permit copyrighting more than 130 delegates attending from 23 of facts and data, which would clearly restrict countries. The conference was co-sponsored by access to information in the public domain. A vast the Commonwealth of Learning and IFLA, via universe of technical and scientifi c data, as well as the National Library of Uganda and the Ugandan large classes of facts, such as compilations, would Library Association. The conference fi nale was the be roped off from the public. This would be most establishment of the ‘Africa Copyright and Access damaging to education and libraries.68 to Information Alliance’, which has subsequently been renamed ‘African Access to Knowledge TRIPS-Plus provisions undermine democracy and Alliance’ (AAKA). national sovereignty and contradict the clear will of the public.69 By including this Chapter in any A number of international funding organizations Free Trade Agreement, all chances of developing have expressed interest in assisting this new countries adopting the fl exibilities in international Alliance (AAKA). Once formally registered, AAKA agreements would be permanently overridden. will work closely with the Electronic Information The door to better access to global knowledge for Libraries Network (eIFL.net) and the would effectively be ‘slammed in their faces’. Canadian-based Commonwealth of Learning. An academic from Wisconsin-Milwaukee University Intellectual property protection cannot be seen has offered to assist AAKA with research and as an end in itself. Harmonization of intellectual legal assistance on a ‘pro bono’ basis. AAKA will property laws, whether through multilateral provide advice and assistance to African countries or bilateral agreements, cannot lead to higher when reviewing their copyright laws and will protection standards in all countries, irrespective strongly promote the adoption of legal limitations of their levels of development.70 and exceptions into their domestic laws. It will also encourage educational and library sectors It would therefore be more appropriate for African to be involved in the legislative process when countries to reject the TRIPS-Plus Chapter and their countries review their copyright law. To to continue supporting the WIPO Development date, these important stakeholders have not been

320 Intellectual Property: beneﬁ t or burden included in the legislative process. As a result, should consider legislation similar to that being rights-owners have pressed for the strictest laws, proposed in the United States. without addressing the needs of education or 5. Public-funded research should be made more libraries, e.g. in Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Botswana accessible through open access initiatives. and Mozambique. Swaziland recently indicated 6. Alliances should be established with inter- that it would now include librarians and educators national organizations, addressing issues in discussions before it finalized its Draft affecting access to knowledge in developing Copyright Bill. Since the conference in Kampala, countries. discussions have taken place between AAKA 7. African countries need to work together to ﬁ nd and the Ugandan Law Commission regarding an appropriate copyright solution that works its new Copyright Act, which unfortunately does for Africa. not address the needs of education, libraries and persons with disabilities. In time, AAKA will also In conclusion, I urge readers of this paper, to participate in regional and international fora, such challenge developed countries on this issue and to as the World Intellectual Property Organization challenge their own Governments to do the right and the World Trade Organization, to present and thing. They should encourage them to rather give debate copyright issues on behalf of its member full support to the Development Agenda for WIPO, countries. the Access to Knowledge Treaty (A2K) and other pro-active initiatives to help their countries fast- Challenges and Recommendations track their status from ‘developing’ to ‘developed’, so that they will all be able to participate as equal partners on the global stage. To address the very real problems of access to knowledge in Africa, I earnestly recommend the What a better world that would be for all of us. following:

1. The TRIPS-Plus proposals are not the answer Acknowledgements for African countries. As developed countries The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable were given unrestricted time and space to inputs made to earlier drafts by the Editorial reach their current levels of development, so Committee of the IFLA Journal, Teresa Hackett, developing countries today should be allowed Paul Whitney and Gwen Hinze. to enjoy similar privileges. African countries must strongly resist pressure to adopt TRIPS- Plus or other proposals that strike at the very References heart of their economic and development 1. The World Fact Book. Accessed at: http://www. policies. They must not be coerced into the thewebnewsroom.com/fact-book/factbook/ economically skewed trade liberalization fi elds/2046.html on 5 August 2005. programmes of rich countries. 2. Census ‘96. Statistics South Africa at www.statssa.org. za (Information provided by Project Literacy. ABET 2. International and national intellectual property report.) Accessed at: http://www.projectliteracy.org. laws need to be reviewed, liberalized and za/education.htm on 5 August 2005. harmonized, to facilitate, not restrict, access 3. Email from Frans Boot of SA Statistics (FransB@statssa. to knowledge; to encourage innovation and gov.za) to Denise Nicholson dated 15 November scientific research; to protect indigenous 2005. knowledge; to accelerate development; and to 4. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). enable cross-border exchange of information. What is Intellectual Property? Accessed at: http:// www.wipo.int/about-ip/en on 7 August 2005. In this way, the balance between the just 5. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). demands of rights-owners and consumers Support to NEPAD. Period of report: 2003–2004. would be restored. Accessed at: http://www.un.org/africa/osaa/ 3. Legal fl exibilities in international agreements, cpcreports/30.WIPO_formatted.pdf on 1August including provisions for education, libraries 2005. and people with visual, auditory and other 6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Accessed at: http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html on 5 August perceptual disabilities, must be incorporated 2005. into national laws as soon as possible. 7. IFLA/FAIFE. Libraries and intellectual freedom. p. 1. 4. To address ‘orphan works’, where rights- Accessed at: http:/www.ifl a.org/faife/faife/presen.htm owners are untraceable, African countries on 5 August 2005.

321 Denise Rosemary Nicholson

8. Asmal, K. Knowledge is not a product to be bought consumingexperience.blogspot.com/2006/01/digital- or sold. In: ANC Today, Vol. 3, no. 41, 17–23 October rights-and-intellectual.html; Chapman, Simon and 2003. Accessed at: http://ww.anc.org.za/ancdocs/ Caunt, Dan. Fight for your rights. Accessed at: http:// anctoday/2003/at41.htm#art2 on 2 August 2005. www.legalweek.com/ViewItem.asp?id=27843 9. Languages of the World. Text transcript of languages The Australian copyright regime: See references on the continent: Africa. Accessed at: http://www. under no. 43 above, as well as: Ruddock, Philip. nvtc.gov/lotw/fl ashDemo.html on 3 August 2005. Major copyright reforms strike balance. Media Release 10. Lombaard, Christo. (South Africa. Department of 088/2006, 14 May 2006. Accessed at: http://www. Education). E-mail from [email protected] to ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/MinisterRuddockHome. Denise Nicholson dated 28 July 2005. nsf/Page/Media_Releases_2006_Second_Quarter_ 11. South Africa. 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54. New Scientist. Computer scientists boycott US 64. Avaﬁ a, Tenu. TRIPS and public health: the unresolved over digital copyright law. July 23, 2001. Accessed debate. 15/6/2005. In: Tralac Trade Briefs. Accessed at: at: http://www.newscientist.com/news/news. http://www.tralac.org/scripts/content.php?id=3716 jsp?id=ns99991063 on 5 August 2005, and; Electronic on 5 August 2005. Frontier Foundation. DRM Archive. Accessed at: 65. Consumer Project on Technology. Comment on the http://www.eff.org on 5 August 2005. draft text of the agreement on the Free Trade Areas 55. Domingo. Santo. Why the Americas should resist pres- of the Americas. Human Rights Watch – HIV/AID sure to adopt the FTAA’s Intellectual Property Rights Program, Feb 27, 2003. pg. 3 and 4. Accessed at: Chapter (2004). Accessed at: http://www.ipjustice. http://www.cptech.org/ip/ftaa/hrw02272003.html on org/FTAA/Santodomingo.shtml on 5 August 2005. 2 August 2005. 56. IP Justice. White Paper on FTAA Treaty Chapter 66. Kawooya, D. DMCA-Like Legislations and implications on Intellectual Property Rights. FTAA: A threat to for library-based learning in developing countries freedom and free trade. Pg. 14. Accessed at http:// 2004. (unpublished article). www.ipjustice.org on 5 August 2005. 67. IP Justice. White Paper on FTAA Treaty Chapter on 57. IP Justice. Stop the FTAA information lockdown. Intellectual Property Rights. FTAA: a threat to freedom Delete the IP Chapter of the FTAA. Accessed at: and free trade. p. 26. Accessed at http://www.ipjustice. http://www.ipjustice.org/FTAA on 5 August 2005. org on 5 August 2005. 58. Ibid. 68. IP Justice. Stop the FTAA information lockdown. 59. World Trade Organization. Geneva. Declaration on Delete the IP Chapter of the FTAA. Accessed at: the TRIPS agreement and public health. 14 November http://www.ipjustice.org/FTAA/santodomingo.doc 2001. Accessed at: http://www.wto.org/english/ on 5 August 2005. thewto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindecl_trips_e.htm on 69. Raghavan, Chakravarthi (Ed.). op.cit. 1 August 2005. 70. Proposal by Argentina and Brazil for the establishment 60. Raghavan, Chakravarthi. (Ed.) No! to TRIPS-Plus of a development agenda for WIPO. Accessed at: IP Standards. Accessed at: http://www.twnside.org. http://www.wipo.int/documents/en/document/ sg/tilte2/twr171d.htm on 5 August 2005. govbody/wo_gb_ga/pdf/wo_ga_31_11.pdf on 3 61. Commission on Intellectual Property Rights. Integrating August 2005. intellectual property rights and development policy. Final 71. Access to Knowledge Treaty (A2K). Accessed at: Report. Accessed at: http://www.iprcommission.org/ http://www.cptech.org/a2k/consolidatedtext-may9. graphic/documents/ﬁ nal_report.htm on 1 August 2005. pdf on 1 August 2005. 62. Keayla, B.K. Flexibilities of TRIPs and Doha Declaration 72. SADC (www.sadc.int) includes 14 developing coun- ignored. Accessed at: http://www.expresspharmapulse. tries, namely, Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic com/20050609/edit01.shtml on 1 August 2005. of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, 63. International Intellectual Property Alliance. U.S. Trade Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tools. Accessed at: http:/.www.iipa.com/ago.html Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

324 Women and Conﬂ ict in the New Information Age

Bukky O. Omotayo Abstract Peace is more than the absence of war, violence or confl ict. Between 1960 and 1980 Africa fought 32 wars, which led to the loss of millions of lives whilst over a million people became refugees. These confl icts, which still continue, along with poverty and diseases, have all threatened the stability of the continent. There are many concepts in peace building, among which a major one is creating clearer channels to disseminate information between the common people and policy makers; this is the role of librarians, especially women librarians. Women librarians’ roles include: the provision and dissemination of useful and accurate information on peace and peace movements and women’s groups; fi ghting for freedom of access to information; improving the reading habits of women and children; organizing exhibitions and talks on peace; ensuring life-long education for women and girls, etc. African governments have to ensure access to current information by African women through the provision of functional libraries and Internet facilities for them to be properly informed and participate in global discussion and for them to be empowered. Mrs B.O. Omotayo graduated in 1983 with a degree in special Keywords: Women; Librarians; Peace; Confl ict; Information access; education from the University of Africa. Ibadan, after which she obtained a Master’s Degree in Library Studies (MLS) in 1985 from the Introduction same university. In 2001 she obtained a Post Graduate Diploma In contemporary times, inter-state and intra-state confl icts often (PGD) in Computer Science from result in wars or large-scale violence, involving massive destruction Obafemi Awolowo University, of lives and property as well as disruption of the social, political and Ile-Ife. Her career as a librarian th started in 1985 at Lagos State economic lives of large populations. The 20 century was especially Polytechnic. She has also worked notable for the number of wars and other violent confl icts that at Ogun State University and is took place, and the scale of destruction and disruptions that these currently the Reference Librarian produced. Apart from the First and Second World Wars in which in the Hezekiah Oluwasanmi millions died, the world also witnessed several other inter-state Library, Obafemi Awolowo wars, mostly in the developing countries. In 1996, according to University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. She United Nations sources, about 50 countries were involved in major has published many articles, crises. However, while wars between states were few, wars and locally and internationally. Her violence within states were many. The African continent, especially e-mail address is femibuk@yahoo. from the 1960s, has continued to witness countless intra-state wars co.uk and large-scale violence, from the wars of national liberation to wars of secession and civil wars, and sundry use of armed violence to settle internal political scores. Especially since the Cold War ended in the late 1980s, serial violent confl icts have plagued the African continent, from Liberia to Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea-Bissau and Côte d’Ivoire, to mention a few.

In the past four decades Nigeria has experienced dangerous scenes of incessant dysfunctional confl icts, which have occurred between communities, ethnic groups and religious groups. These confl icts are not confi ned to any specifi c geo-political region of the country. Recent examples include the seemingly unceasing riots in Zango Kataf, Tafawa Balewa, Mangus/Bokko, Ife-Modakeke, Igbo Ora, Tiv-Wukan, Warri, the Niger Delta, Abiabo and Oku Iboku and

Ugep and her neighbours. Other confl ict areas the Darfur region and who are currently taking include the religious confl icts in Kaduna, Kano, refuge in neighbouring Chad are women and Sagamu and Aba. (Ubi, 2001). The oldest intra- children. ethnic confl ict in Nigeria, however, is the Ife- Modakeke crisis. It has been going on for more The time has come for women to be actively than a century (Albert, 1999). involved and integrated into confl ict prevention, confl ict management and peace-making efforts at One distinguishing characteristic of post-Cold War national, regional and international levels. Nothing intra-state confl icts is that they are more violent concrete and reasonable will be accomplished in in the scale and intensity of the destructions peace-making as long as women are excluded and disruption that they cause. Additionally, from participation in decision-making processes they are known to specifi cally target unarmed about peace and good governance that can ensure and defenceless civilian populations. The most lasting and durable peace. The role of great vulnerable groups in the population are usually women in traditional African societies indicates women and children, and they have become the that women have been critical to peace in their specifi c targets and victims of extreme brutality societies, but the modern state seems to have lost and sadism. The world witnessed the horrors of this context. mass violence against women in Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is the submission of this paper that libraries, and Women and children were also victims of the especially women librarians, have a great role to ethnic cleansing in Rwanda in 1994. In these play in promoting peace in the modern information confl icts, women were convenient targets for age. They can bring their knowledge of the past attacks by the various rebel groups that claimed and professional expertise to bear in this regard, to be fi ghting the state. In the Liberian and Sierra through better management of information both Leonean confl icts especially, violence against during and after confl ict situations. women was used as a veritable instrument. Brutal rape, sexual violence, abduction of women and Feminist Theories of Peace girls for sexual slavery, amputation of limbs, especially hands, were directed at women as instruments of the war. Massive and extraordinary The newest approach to peace building places brutalities are also known to be directed at women much emphasis on gender in the process of in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where even confl ict resolution (Mbagwu, 2001). The majority UN peacekeepers have been accused of rape of persons displaced by war are women and it is and other forms of sexual violence against the now understood that they could play an important women they are supposed to be protecting. Similar role in efforts to resolve confl icts. Sylvester (1994) violence against women, including systematic described Athenian women as “beautiful souls” rape, has also been reported in the Darfur crisis loving peace. This is in agreement with feminist in the Sudan. theory, which argues that women are inherently peaceful, capable of preaching, teaching and What has become the incontestable character of preserving peace. Ferris (1992) reviews Birgit contemporary intra-state violence is that women Brock-Utne’s study, which concludes that there is are the victims, though not necessarily the targets, an innate ability in women that makes them prefer of confl icts. In every violent confl ict situation, it non-violent actions. Babbit and D’Estree (1996) is the women that have to bear the brunt. While observed that conflict resolution workshops able-bodied men go to fi ght, it is the women with only women participants produced more that are left behind, unprotected, and saddled constructive discussions than groups with mixed with taking care of the aged and the children in gender. Enahoro (2005) remarked that genius the homestead. They are invariably vulnerable and creativity lie in the recesses of the mind of to violent attacks and raids, disease, epidemics, all womanhood. There is a notion that women hunger and starvation, slow death, violent death, are very trustworthy, dependable, and exhibit a disruption of their lives and internal displacement. high level of honesty and integrity. Women are Women and children often constitute the largest dedicated, reliable and committed to family and number of people who are internally displaced in national aspirations and goals. Women, the life their own countries and refugees in neighbouring givers of the world, therefore have a stake in the states. For example, most of those displaced from pursuit of peace since they exhibit a high level of

326 Women and Confl ict in the New Information Age perseverance, patience and tolerance in achieving a modern defi nition, which affects not only the set objectives. Women have not walked away actions and decisions of governments, state forces unconcerned because of either anger or fear; they and elected representatives, but also political have been proactive in the resolution of confl icts, interactions in societies, communities and our but their roles have not before now been given the homes. The old style of politics that is male prominence and recognition they deserve. dominated and excludes women’s participation is giving way to a new one that gives equal In Mali, Liberia, Nigeria and indeed other opportunity to all. parts of the world, women have demonstrated peacefully as mothers to condemn the killings of Women are being mobilized indirectly in many their husbands and children. But to the dismay African countries with the aim of promoting the of the peace process, women have not been peace process in confl icts. They have used different included at all the levels of peace making. They strategies in order to reinforce the abilities of are excluded and marginalized, their efforts are existing structures to rehabilitate, reconstruct and rendered invisible. Feminist theories believe that reconcile and to protect refugees and displaced women should be involved in peace building at women. African women have used education and high decision making levels as they are more health programmes and taught peace through sympathetic to peace. Certainly women are education, human rights and the knowledge of generally more naturally disposed than men to law. The women of the Darfur region of Western caring for the underprivileged in the family and in Sudan, for example, used songs of peace to build society. The popular saying that ‘when you train peace in their community according to Mohamed a man you have trained one person but when (2004). They also train their children to be peace you train a woman you have trained a nation’ lovers, building in them the culture of peace, while comes to mind. A woman of peace will train her observing that Islam dictates that women ought to family and in turn we will have a peaceful nation. be peace builders. A women’s group, the Women Confl ict resolution programs must be developed General Union (WGU) was quick in responding to empower people to anticipate or stop confl icts to any violent confl ict that took place in Nyala, themselves. Research into and historical analysis Sudan. An initiative of Liberian women in Lagos, of African traditional societies have shown that Nigeria, is another example. They formed a group if women do not have a voice or a say in matters known as ‘Liberian Women for Reconciliation and involving peace, there will be no sustainable cross- Peace’. They have the ambition of developing a gender resolution of the problem of war. Feminist lasting feminine peace culture (Oze, 1997). theories have therefore defi ned more roles for women in Africa; but to perform these roles well, While NGOs like these are now springing up women require information. throughout Africa, it is necessary for governments to evaluate the deeds of women’s movements for peace in Africa in order to ensure that they form Action Plan for Peace in Africa pressure groups to make themselves heard. Every culture has its own diplomacy. Every culture has mechanisms that keep people living side by side African Nations and Feminism without violence. In the armed confl ict areas, such There is no doubt that confl icts have stunted as Burundi, Liberia, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone, the development of Africa. Confl ict resolution Somalia and Sudan, women’s movements for within the African continent cannot be left only peace have made spirited efforts at reconciling in the hands of the international community. warring factions. In Liberia, women had no The problems need to be tackled from within by chance to take part in negotiations and in meetings African initiatives such as the New Partnership held by the different parties, but all the women’s for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). Governments associations and groups were mobilized and must recognize the roles of women and encourage succeeded in making declarations to the United them to participate actively in politics and peace Nations, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) movements. Nie and Verba (1972) defi ne political and the Economic Community of West African participation as those legal activities by private States (ECOWAS) (Diop, 1997). Women have citizens which are more or less directly aimed at also organized peace marches and printed posters infl uencing the selection of government personnel and brochures with slogans on disarmament and and the actions they take. Feminism has pioneered peace. The organization, Sudanese Women’s Voice

327 Bukky O. Omotayo

for Peace, has organized meetings with the aim development and peace. The conference on of restoring dialogue between Sudanese women women in Beijing in 1995 was also a demonstration of the North and South. All these efforts must of mobilization for the struggle for equality, be properly recognized by governments. South development and peace. The remarkable thing African women are also active in peace building, in Beijing was the handing over of the fl ame of though their roles are not adequately recognized peace, symbolizing the daily struggles of women by the government (McKay and Rey, 2001). Even in Africa to promote the settlement of confl icts, so, most African women are unaware of these appeasement, peace building and sustainable activities as they lack access to information. existence. The UN declared the year 2000 as the International Year of the Culture of Peace, and the years 2001–2010 as the International Role of the International Community and Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence Non-Governmental Organizations for the Children of the World. Governments, According to the UN, peace culture is defi ned local organizations and individuals all over the as a set of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour world are using these years to probe deeply into and ways of life that reject violence and prevent the nature and practice of a peace culture. The confl icts by tackling their root causes to solve UN also declared 21 September annually as problems through dialogue and negotiation the International Day of Peace. In the words of among individuals, groups and nations. Kofi Annan “The future of the world belongs to women” (Annan, 2000). For the fi rst time in The road to peace should be out of the concerted history, at the United Nations in Geneva, women effort and concern of all. Third parties serve gathered for 5 days in October 2002 to talk about as mediators with various strategies towards new initiatives aimed at promoting world peace maintenance of peace. Since World War 1, and eliminating the causes that led to confl ict. statesmen have been engaged in initiating peace settlements and establishing an international In spite of efforts by the UN, international confl icts system for the maintenance of peace and security. have persisted and many remained unresolved, The outcomes of these endeavours were the and a plethora of more complex confl icts keeps establishment, fi rst of the League of Nations occurring globally. Article 52 of the United and now the United Nations, whose aims and Nations Charter allows regional organizations objectives are fully set out in the Preamble to its to make arrangements for settlements of their Charter, thus: disputes, and many regional and sub-regional bodies have not relented in their endeavours We the people of the United Nations, on peace-keeping and peace making. We have determined to save succeeding generations seen such efforts being demonstrated by the from the scourge of war, which twice in Organisation of African Unity (OAU) (now our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to the African Union – AU), the Organisation of mankind, and to reaffi rm faith in fundamental American States (OAS), the League of Arab human rights, in the dignity and worth of the States, the Economic Community of West African human person, in the equal rights of men and States (ECOWAS), and the European Union, women and of nations large and small, and to among others. Individual member states have establish conditions under which justice and also made efforts to complement the global efforts respect of the obligations arising from treaties towards peace making and peace building. and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress The United Nations Economic Commission and better standards of life in larger freedom, for Africa (ECA), the African Union and and for these ends to practice tolerance and feminist NGOs have all dedicated themselves live together in peace with one another as to the promotion of the African woman and her good neighbours, and to unite our strength to participation in decision-making, among others maintain international peace and security… for the establishment of peace, the resolution (Onoja, 1996:1) of confl icts and national reconciliation. This is what the international NGO, Synergy Africa, The General Assembly of the United Nations is involved in. Formed by Africans based in declared the year 1975 as International Women’s Geneva, this organization aims at reinforcing the Year with a three fold objective: equality, abilities of NGOs and other African institutions

328 Women and Confl ict in the New Information Age for the prevention, management and resolution information on all aspects of life is disseminated of confl icts in Africa. It created ‘Women – Africa to people. – Solidarity’ (WAS) for the strengthening of women’s abilities through techniques of training In war situations in enlightened societies, the use and political negotiation. The African Strategic of libraries increases as users fl ock to libraries to Peace and Research Group and others are also fi nd information to guide them. Information that involved in peace movements. All these are can promote peace, unity, progress, peaceful co- noteworthy but they must ensure appropriate existence and harmonious relationship among follow-up to ensure compliance, and make all communities must therefore be available in conscious efforts to make their activities available libraries. In promoting access to such information online. They have to support African countries librarians act as agents of the promotion of as they continue to strive to develop Internet communal peace and reconciliation. In addition connectivity in the continent. The need for all to reports from daily news and newspapers, users these activities to reach the women, both educated want to read books, journal articles and surf the and illiterate, cannot be over-emphasized. Also, Internet. We must also realize that whenever there are wars and confl icts new information materials these agents have to involve the local women in are created, and libraries have to strive to collect any area where they are working so as to carry them and make such information available. In them along. the age of the Internet, libraries could carry out relevant searches and compile and package the The Role of Women Librarians and the results and make them available to users. In doing Sustainability of Peace Efforts this, neutrality must be ensured to give ample opportunity for users to forming independent judgments. If these tasks are well done, the library If African women are to participate meaningfully will in no small way be involved in contributing in peace talks they must be well informed. If they to world peace and helping to build the reading are given the right information they have the culture of users; knowledge debunks myths about potential to excel as peace makers. Presently, lack other people and can humanize other cultures. of information is a major concern; hence librarians have many roles to play as information providers Women librarians should see war, not as a and managers. controversial question which we do not want to dabble into, but rather as a question of Living in an atmosphere of peace and goodwill and fundamental ethics. They are in the best position enlisted in the work of spreading enlightenment, to know how to inform and sensitize other African librarians could be said to take peace for granted. women on matters that concern them; in other Libraries are quiet places; since war and confl icts words they should know the information needs are associated with noise, libraries are adversely of the women in relation to the roles they are to affected by them. Librarians are also interested in play to ensure peace in their community, and be peace and should promote it as a matter of self- able to meet these needs. preservation. A lot of government money which could have been spent on library development One of the tools that would help women move goes on wars. Are librarians just to fold their hands up and be able to contribute to national peace is and watch, or do they have roles to play in the education. Therefore, the education of women world peace movement? should be invested in as a long-term confl ict mechanism strategy. Education is a human right Traditionally, librarians do not want to be seen and an essential tool for achieving equality, as being political and taking sides. Librarians development and peace. The introduction of by training are neutral, presenting materials on the Universal Basic Education programme in both sides of any issue. In confl ict situations the many African countries is a laudable one as it main guiding principle for the purchase of library aimed at increasing the number of literate female materials is that of interested neutrality. The population in the future (Okiy, 2004; Dent library stands only to enlighten the community and Yannota, 2005). As more women become it serves by presenting them with the facts they educated, it is important that they should be given need to be able to make good decisions that will the opportunity to address and deal, not only with foster peace. Libraries are avenues through which their own issues, but also with issues of state,

329 Bukky O. Omotayo

with issues of war and peace, with issues of their of war and the beneﬁ ts of peace, and the roles communities. Africa must realize that the world is women are expected to play. The information at the stage of ‘Peace, Gender and Development’. needs of women during times of conﬂ ict must also Women librarians in Africa should therefore be met because they are usually less informed at ensure that school libraries are developed to cater such times. The truth must be presented as it is. for the needs of the girls in these schools. This will Librarians must take time to harness all sources inculcate in them the habit of reading and seeking of information and be well informed about the information. It will also act as a catalyst to ensure role of women both in their local environment that the education obtained by these females is of and internationally. high quality. Okiy (2004) posited that, in addition, more women professionals would be produced Women librarians could partner with NGOs and to participate in and have an impact on national international bodies like the United Nations to development more than ever before. organize workshops to train women in political skills at the national and local levels. At the local Women librarians could inform local peace level, presentations should be made in local societies that they would welcome lectures and languages. These workshops could be planned to debates on peace questions in the lecture halls in mark important dates like International Women’s their libraries. These lectures need not be directly Day, World Peace Day or World Literacy Day, under library auspices, but might be under the to create awareness. They should be publicized patronage of the peace societies. While public both through the local radio and in social libraries in developed countries generally feature gatherings. Rallies and book talks, which would in social and civic centre movements which use help to improve the literacy level of women, can their buildings for public lectures, meetings and also be organized by the library (Okiy, 2005). debates, this is not so much so in Africa, though Bibliographic sources of information on women things seem to be changing now. For example in should be acquired and made available. Librarians Ghana, literacy classes are beginning to be held should produce bibliographies on women’s in libraries (Adjah, 2005). This way, women are studies to improve access to traditional and non- indirectly being drawn into the library and its traditional sources. resources, creating opportunities for popularizing knowledge of the peace movement and for library The establishment of women’s information cooperation. Librarians need such partnerships; centres is to be encouraged .A good example they have been too much on the lonely side. is the Women’s Research and Documentation Research institutions, universities and NGOs on Centre (WORDOC), which was established by a women’s issues in Africa are generating a lot of group of women in 1987 in the Institute of African information, but this is not being passed on to Studies at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, as women at large. This poses a challenge to women an organic offspring of the activism of women’s librarians in Africa. organizations during the colonial period for Information is a major tool that can redeem independence and for women’s participation in African women (Acayo and Mnjama, 2004; national life. The centre made pioneering efforts Hameso, 1995). Librarians must realize this at the systematic collection of materials on and make conscious efforts to meet the special women’s studies. WORDOC is a special library information needs of women. Both educated set up to cater for the information and research and illiterate women in Africa suffer from lack needs of scholars in the study of gender issues. It of access to information. African librarians need disseminates information by preparing accessions to research the information needs of women lists, compiling bibliographies, displaying and make conscious efforts to provide for them, current periodicals, Selective Dissemination of whether governments like it or not. It is a task that Information (SDI) and the like. It also organizes must be done. African women need information public lectures for women, sometimes in local that will help to eradicate the belief that they languages to reach the grassroots women (Fijabi are non-political citizens whose place is in the and Opeke, 2001). Information is transmitted kitchen. They must be well informed so that they through a variety of channels such as newspapers, can participate in decision making on issues that mail, magazines, pamphlets, books, electronic concern their communities. Libraries can plan and telecommunication media. Sharma (2001) programmes of enlightenment on the effects and Mchombu (1999) discussed African libraries

330 Women and Confl ict in the New Information Age in relation to the information needs of African Women form half of Africa’s population, so women. They also called for more information they must have opportunities to access, use and centres. While educated women need access to master ICTs. Librarians in Africa must themselves modern libraries with Internet services, rural receive training in ICTs and then train other women need information repackaged and delivered women to use the medium to be enlightened to them. African librarians need to advocate for and well informed. The case now is that many more community and modern libraries. According women librarians themselves are not ICT literate to Dent and Yannota (2005), more community because most library managements in Africa do libraries, such as the Osu initiative libraries in not favour women when selecting staff members Ghana and the Kitengesa Community Library in to be trained in ICTs. The world is considered Uganda are now springing up. These initiatives now as a global village. In Africa, the village is a are not funded by the government, but by NGOs community closely knit together in virtually every and international bodies like UNESCO. The roles ramifi cation – socially, emotionally, economically, played by the librarians in these special libraries morally, etc. In the village, everyone knows when include literacy services. When African women a stranger comes in, news spreads fast. Librarians are informed they will be able to fi ght for their should make sure that women are exposed to the rights and participate in politics, decision-making latest news. As information gateways librarians and confl ict resolution, using their God-given must bring information from all over the world abilities as peace loving people. to African women through ICTs.

Information and communication technologies There are many organizations involved in world (ICTs) constitute a powerful learning tool. peace; the librarian can promote their work. They offer a direct and inexpensive means of Information is important for world peace. It communication for women's organizations, creates sensitivity and awareness. Information that enabling them to share knowledge on a quick can promote peace, unity and progress – peaceful and collective basis, and have great potential co-existence and harmonious relationship among to benefi t women worldwide. Global access to all communities – must be made available. information continues to increase and expand, While African librarians download information creating new opportunities and challenges for women in the developing countries from for the participation of women in mainstream developed countries they must also fi nd a way activities for women’s equality and for the of putting on the Internet results from local researchers for the developed world to access. The dissemination of information about women’s problem of creating locally relevant content on the issues in developed and developing countries. Internet needs to be addressed urgently. The 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 stressed the importance of these new Libraries also have a central role in society as technologies to promote greater communication cultural and educational institutions, and as by women. However, access to these new agents for promoting literacy. IFLA considers technologies is restricted, and ensuring that the books and libraries, as well as the promotion of policies that guide their use are gender-responsive the reading habit, essential for better international remains a challenge. Low levels of literacy, limited understanding and as such they are a fundamental technological access and know-how and the precondition for peace, human rights, literacy, often inadequate infrastructure and high cost of intellectual freedom and a better environment connectivity in developing nations prevent many for people. The challenge therefore for women women in Africa from taking full advantage of the librarians in Africa is to ensure good collections opportunities offered by ICTs, even though they of materials in their libraries. are interested in the new technology. Connectivity to remote areas for women to use has the potential Women librarians in Africa should vie for political for empowering them. Educated women can positions. If they are elected, they can lend their only get access in libraries and offi ces that are voice to fi ght for the common good of women connected to Internet, as most homes cannot and the development of libraries. They could afford connectivity. Though cyber cafés provide also form an NGO for peace, made up of women avenues for surfi ng the Internet, many women do librarians. The aim would be to make their impact not fi nd them convenient to use, since it entails felt by sourcing for money to start libraries that leaving the home. will cater for women.

331 Bukky O. Omotayo

Enahoro, A. (2005) Women urge greater attention to Conclusion gender issues. The Guardian, February 27, p. 4. Ferris, E. (1992) Peace-making in the emerging world. Ecumenical Review, 44 (3) 14–20. To have peace in Africa it is mandatory for all Fijabi, A.F. and Opeke, R.O. (2001) An appraisal of concerned – women, men and children – to information dissemination pattern of Women’s be well informed (Abdulrahman, 2001). This Research and Documentation Centre (WORDOC) library, Nigeria. Nigerian Libraries, 35 (1) 33–41. paper has advocated that African governments Hameso, S. (1995) Politics of freedom of information have to ensure access to current information in Africa. Focus on International and Comparative by African women through the provision of Librarianship, 26 (3) 156–164. functional libraries and Internet facilities for Mbagwu, J. (2001) Campaign for women in peace building. Ife Psychologia, 9 (3) 112–117. them to be properly informed and participate in Mchombu, K. (1999) Designing women oriented global discussion and for them to be empowered. information centers in Africa. Information Development, Issues of sexual stereotypes and the cost of 15 (4) 212–216. Internet connectivity need to be addressed. Peace McKay, S. and Rey, Cheryl de la. (2001) Women’s meanings dividends must include good life for the rural of peace building in post apartheid South Africa. Peace and Confl ict: Journal of Peace Psychology, people. That is, improved wellbeing and fulfi lled 7 (3) 227–242. livelihood for women, men and children. Mohamed, A.A. (2004) From instigating violence to building peace: the changing role of women in Darfur region of Western Sudan. African Journal of Confl ict References Resolution, 5 (1) 11–26. Abdulrahman, I. (2001) Management of religious confl icts Nie, N. and Verba, S. (1972) Participation in America. in Nigeria: the form of government intervention. Ife New York: Harper and Row. Psychologia, 9 (3) 59–70. Okiy, R.B. (2004) The Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme and the development of school libraries Acayo, C. and Mnjama, N. (2004) The print media and in Nigeria: a catalyst for greater female participation conflict resolution in Northern Uganda. African in national development. Information Development, Journal of Confl ict Resolution, 4 (1) 27–44. 20 (1) 43– 49. Adjah, O. A. (2005) The information needs of female adult Okiy, R.B. (2005) Libraries and strategies for empowering literacy learners in Accra. Information Development, women for greater political participation in a 21 (3) 182–191. democratic Nigeria. Information Development, Albert, I. (1999) Ife-Modakeke crisis. In: Community 21 (3) 219–225. confl icts in Nigeria: management, resolution and Onoja, Lawrence. (1996) Peace -keeping and international transformation. Otite, O. and Albert, I. Ibadan, security in a changing world. Nigeria, Mono Expressions Spectrum Books. Ltd. Annan, K. (2000) UN Secretary-General Address to the Oze, K.O. (1997) Women and African peace. Vanguard, fourth International Conference to New or Restored May 27, p. 7. Democracies (ICNRD) held in Cotonou, Benin, Sharma, R.N. (2001) Literacy, women and libraries: 4–6 December 2000. an intercontinental collaboration. Library Times Babbit, E.F. and D’Estree, T.P. (1996) An Israeli- International, 18 (1) 3, 9. Palestinian women’s workshop. In : Managing global Sylvester, C. (1994) Feminist theory and international chaos: sources of and responses to international relations in a postmodern era. New York: Cambridge confl ict. Crocker, Chester A. and Hampson, Fen Osler. University Press. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, Ubi, Otu Abam. (2001) Communal confl ict and traditional 521–529. confl ict resolution: the Ugep/Idomi 1992 confl ict Dent, V. and Yannota, L. (2005) A rural community experience. Ife Psychologia, 9 (3) 71–82. library in Africa: a study of its use and users. Libri, 55 (1) 39–55. Diop, Binetta. (1997) Women and confl ict management Note in Africa. In: Empowering women for the 21st century: Based on a paper presented at the World Library and the challenges of politics, business, development Information Congress: 71st IFLA General Conference and leadership. Summary report of the 9th Annual and Council, 14–18 August 2005, Oslo, Norway in the Conference of the Africa Leadership Forum, Accra, Women’s Issues Section session on ‘The role of women Ghana, 27–29 Jan 1997. Nigeria, ALF. librarians in promoting world peace’.

332 The Role of a National Library in Supporting Research Information Infrastructure

Warwick Cathro Abstract The National Library of Australia is collaborating in a national program to improve the nation’s research information infrastructure. These activities have provided a focus for the Library in its engagement with the university community. The Library has developed integrated discovery services, actively participated in three research information infrastructure projects, and worked with partners on the problem of sustaining university repositories to support long-term access. The Library is an active partner in Project ARROW (Australian Research Repositories Online to the World), which is developing a solution for institutional repositories in collaboration with a commercial vendor, and also in the Australian Partnership for Sustainable Repositories (APSR), where the Library is helping to develop a sound approach to assessing the obsolescence risk of fi le formats, advising on a strategy for including preservation metadata in the repositories, and seeking to infl uence the future development of open source repository software to make use of preservation metadata. Keywords: Research infrastructure; Cyberinfrastructure; National Warwick Cathro is Assistant libraries; Resource discovery; Data curation; Institutional repositories Director-General, Innovation, National Library of Australia. His current role involves identifying Introduction and leading significant new strategic initiatives for the This paper is based on the experience of the National Library of National Library. From 2003 to Australia during the past 3 years in working with universities and the 2005 he was Project Director for the development of a major federal Department of Education, Science and Training to improve new online service (Libraries research information infrastructure in Australia. Australia) which provides a single point of access to the collections In Australia in 2001 the federal Department of Education, Science of Australian libraries. He leads and Training launched the Systemic Infrastructure Initiative 1 as the Library’s participation in part of the Government’s ‘Backing Australia’s Ability’ Program. The initiatives funded by the Initiative was aimed at improving the effectiveness of Australian Department of Education, Science research by developing ‘research infrastructure’ services. Such and Training (DEST) concerning services comprise categories such as: the development of research information infrastructure in • collaborative support services (services needed by distributed Australia. Earlier in his career he research teams such as peer-to-peer data sharing, simulation and was responsible for delivering visualization tools, and collaborative annotation tools) network services to the Australian • middleware services (such as federated authentication and library community. Between 1998 and 2003 he led the IT authorization, and digital rights management) which will support Division of the National Library, more streamlined access to the resources that each researcher is where he worked to strengthen entitled to use the partnership between the • services which allow institutions to manage, make accessible and business areas of the Library preserve the outputs of research, such as research papers and and its information technology data sets. activities. E-mail: wcathro@nla. gov.au This third category represents what is termed, in this paper, ‘research information infrastructure’. A more formal defi nition is ‘the set of services that support the discovery and management of research resources and research outputs by the current and future research community’. These services are often developed collaboratively and

are intended to beneﬁ t the whole information • to provide easy-to-use services to discover access system. Examples of research information and access information content, including the infrastructure include: collections of Australian libraries • to ensure that future users will be able to access • content, such as electronic texts, which support online content research in the humanities • to give people efﬁ cient access to the online • services used by researchers to discover resources that they are entitled to use. resources to support their research • institutional repositories which manage Examples of the National Library’s recent research outputs activities in pursuit of these objectives are set out • digital curation and similar services which below. ensure long term access to research outputs.

There are many providers of such services. Developing Digital Content In Australia, there is not yet a fully organized process for achieving inter-operability between The development of digital content by libraries such services, or for identifying and dealing with and other services has a clear ability to support overlaps and gaps. However, there is a formal research of all kinds. It has a particular benefi t process to provide advice to the Department in the humanities, as was explained in a recent of Education, Science and Training on the submission to the Department of Education, future development of research information Science and Training 3: infrastructure. The Department has established an advisory committee (the Australian Research Humanities research data … has to be Information Infrastructure Committee) which collected, primarily from non-digital sources, includes representation from university libraries, and its collection has traditionally been a academics, the Australian Research Council, and matter of individual labour, closely integrated the National Library 2. with the processes of annotation and commentary that transform data into Many services, publicly funded to support information. The labour-intensive processes research, have the potential to deliver benefi ts to by which humanities data is collected the general public. The Internet itself is the most make it expensive to obtain. It is, however, prominent and obvious example of ‘research infrastructure’ which has evolved into public highly reusable, and in digital form it can be information infrastructure. The public, no less preserved and benefi t from a vastly increased than the researcher, requires rapid and easy access capacity for circulation. to information resources that they are entitled to Humanities researchers obtain much of their use. In other words, there is an overlap between ‘research infrastructure’ and ‘national information research data from the collections of libraries, infrastructure’. The National Library of Australia archives and museums. A growing proportion of is interested in identifying and strengthening these these collections, including a range of historical synergies. and cultural records, are being digitized, but the pace of these activities has been constrained by The National Library has a longstanding record of resource limitations. It is possible to identify many support for information infrastructure. Its enabling additional projects which could dramatically legislation gives the Library a mandate to build expand the resources available to the humanities a national collection, to make it available in the and social science researcher. national interest, to provide a record of Australian publishing and other bibliographic services, and An example identifi ed in Australia is the digitization to ‘cooperate in library matters’. In acting on this of a collection of signifi cant newspapers covering mandate over the years, the Library has developed a period of 150 years from the early 19th century. some key components of the national information Such a project, which would cost around AUD 3 infrastructure. These activities support underlying million, would enable researchers to search across objectives such as: the full text of all digitized newspapers. Similar projects have been funded in the United Kingdom • to provide online access to a greater range of by the Joint Information Systems Committee content (JISC) and in the United States by the National 334 A National Library Supporting Research

Endowment for the Humanities. A national digital complex. Mechanisms for discovering information newspaper database could: resources include:

• support biographical and historical research, • Google, including Google Scholar enabling researchers to locate relevant • institutional and collaborative portals newspaper articles far more effi ciently than at • library catalogues and union catalogues present, thus enabling them to focus more on • specialized discovery services, including those unpublished information sources which provide a central point of access to • provide an invaluable resource for longitudinal multiple institutional repositories cultural studies, including media studies • indexes, databases and electronic journal • support longitudinal research in certain aggregation services, subscribed to by university scientifi c fi elds such as ecology and climate libraries, that support access to journal articles, change. conference papers, and similar resources • subject gateways. In 2005 the National Library partnered with the Australian National University (ANU) and other There is a need for collaborative action to simplify universities to prepare a funding bid for such this complex discovery landscape and to ensure a project. The funding bid was not successful, that the various services are interoperable. There but the Library remains convinced that such is also an argument for subsidizing the costs of a service would be a valuable component of these services as part of the national research research information infrastructure. It is therefore information infrastructure. continuing to explore mechanisms through which the project might be advanced. One approach to simplifying the discovery landscape is to enhance the role of union An online searchable newspaper service provides catalogues. By aggregating metadata, union a good example of infrastructure which could catalogues are well placed to aggregate both benefi t both the research community and the supply and demand, thus increasing the chance general public, including historians, family that a relatively little-used resource will be historians and a wide range of other users. discovered by somebody for whom it is relevant. Funding the development of digital research In addition, union catalogues are well placed to resources from a public source will overcome seed metadata on behalf of libraries to public the access restrictions which occur when public search engines such as Google, increasing the domain works are digitized by the commercial exposure of library collections to researchers and sector. In the latter case, even though the works the public. are in the public domain in their printed form, the licenses restrict use of the digitized versions In recent years, a number of union catalogue to authorized, fee-paying users. services have moved to a more open business model. For example, OCLC’s ‘Open WorldCat’ program is making the data in the WorldCat Discovery Services database freely available to web users via popular Internet search, bibliographic and bookselling Researchers and the general public need easy-to- sites. With a similar motivation, the National use services to discover and access information Library of Australia introduced free access to the content, including the collections of Australian Australian union catalogue (known as Libraries libraries. In its Directions Statement for 2006 Australia) early in 2006. In addition, the Library to 2008, the National Library defi ned one of its has seeded metadata from the union catalogue major undertakings as “to enhance learning and to Google, along similar lines to Open WorldCat. knowledge creation by further simplifying and This will help bring the content of Australian integrating services that allow our users to fi nd library collections to the attention of users who and get material” 4. might have overlooked some library catalogues as discovery pathways. There is a signifi cant challenge in improving the power, ease of use, and level of integration of the In addition to Libraries Australia, the National available discovery and access services, mainly Library has developed a number of other freely because the discovery landscape is currently quite accessible federated discovery services, namely 335 Warwick Cathro

PictureAustralia, MusicAustralia, the Register The primary outputs include data sets, images, of Australian Archives & Manuscripts, and the video fi les and sound recordings generated as ARROW Discovery Service. the ‘raw outputs’ of research. The secondary outputs include books, pre-prints, journal articles, The ARROW Discovery Service5 provides conference papers, theses, technical reports, federated search access to the content of Australia’s unpublished papers and websites which interpret university repositories. The service regularly and summarize the research fi ndings. harvests metadata from these repositories, using the OAI Protocol, and aggregates it into a database The secondary outputs have, of course, traditionally hosted by the National Library. A search will result been preserved, in printed form, in our library in an integrated display presenting relevant items collections. However the majority of these in various repositories, and a click on a selected outputs are now available in electronic form result will take the user to the corresponding through electronic journals, personal websites of item in the local repository. To date, the service academics, and institutional and departmental has harvested over 20,000 metadata records websites. This change has raised issues about how from thirteen institutional repositories, including these documents should best be managed for long repositories based on ePrints, DSpace, Fedora term access. (Fez and VITAL applications) and ProQuest’s Digital Commons. The aggregated metadata will The primary outputs are typically managed be made available for other services (including by academics on faculty servers, or (in the international disciplinary based services) to case of some research disciplines) by national harvest using the OAI Protocol. and international data centres. The long term preservation of this data is threatened by inadequate data management practices, by the Archiving and Curation steady emergence of new fi le formats and by the technological obsolescence which accompanies Our definition of research information this process 6. infrastructure referred to ‘the current and future research community’. It is important to ensure that Some of these primary outputs have long term future researchers are able to access the online value. These may include: resources which are being created and archived today. • quality research in the humanities • social science research, including statistical The National Library is undertaking several data, where future time series analysis is likely activities to achieve this. For the past 10 years, to be benefi cial in collaboration with the state libraries and • epidemiology in medical research other partners, it has developed PANDORA, an • ecological studies of particular regions archive of selected Australian websites and online • most geoscience and meteorological data. publications. During 2005, the Library undertook In 2003, the United Kingdom’s ‘e-science curation the complementary activity of commissioning report’ 7 noted that: and analysing a comprehensive capture of the Australian web domain. These web archives will • researchers have low awareness of data provide a rich resource for future researchers to longevity issues mine and analyse. • there are no procedures in place to encourage researchers to work in partnership with Ensuring future access to such content will require curators a range of concerted measures beyond merely • funding of data curation tends to be short term archiving the content. These measures will depend funding, which is antithetical to the long term in part on gaining a better understanding of the nature and needs of data curation file formats which comprise the content, the • where retention of data is a requirement set by obsolescence risks associated with each format, funding bodies, most researchers said that this and the costs of dealing with obsolescence through requirement was not funded format migration and other techniques. Among • there was no government level strategy for the content requiring sustainable access are the data stewardship to which researchers and primary and secondary outputs of research. administrators can refer. 336 A National Library Supporting Research

The position in other countries is likely to be The Library is also helping the project to develop similar. a sound approach to assessing the obsolescence risk of each fi le format represented in the APSR Institutional Repositories repositories, and is trialling a software tool that will alert repository managers of impending obsolescence. The Library is also advising on a The development of institutional repositories has, strategy for including preservation metadata in at least in part, been a response to the need for the repositories, and will seek to infl uence the improved infrastructure to support academics in future development of open source repository managing their research outputs. software (such as DSpace and Fedora) to make use of preservation metadata. The aim of APSR is In Australia, a number of universities have been to make these tools and processes widely available using the Southampton E-prints software for the to all those who are aiming to build sustainable last couple of years. Some others, most notably the collections of digital content. Australian National University, are implementing DSpace as their repository solution. National Infrastructure to Support Curation The ARROW Project (Australian Research It is unlikely that institutional responses to the Repositories Online to the World), led by Monash challenges of preserving research outputs, on their University, was funded in 2003 by the Australian own, will be suffi cient. National infrastructure Department of Education, Science and Training. support will also be needed. ARROW has supported the development and deployment of the VITAL software from VTLS In the United Kingdom, the e-Science curation Inc., which is based on the open source Fedora report 7 called for long term funding for data software 8. curation, including funding of the Digital Curation Centre on a permanent basis. The Centre will As a partner in ARROW, the National Library of deliver a number of outputs 10 including: Australia has been trialling the VITAL software. Though the Library already has a digital services • an advisory service and help desk architecture which supports both the PANDORA • repository guidelines, and a curation manual Archive and the digital content which it creates • a programme of research into curation issues through its digitization workfl ows, the Library • testing and certifi cation processes. does not currently have a satisfactory solution for a third ingestion method, in which digital In the United States, the National Science Board content is submitted or deposited by publishers. in 2005 released a report entitled Long-lived Trialling the VITAL software will give the Library digital data collections: enabling research and an opportunity to evaluate a potential solution for education in the 21st century. The report 11 called this ingestion method, and an opportunity to use on the National Science Foundation to develop this information in a reassessment of the medium a clear technical and fi nancial strategy relating term future of its digital collection architecture. the investment in building and maintaining data collections of long term value to the use Another Australian institutional repository project made of those collections in supporting research is the Australian Partnership for Sustainable and their signifi cance to the wider community. Repositories (APSR). This project, led by the It recommended that research proposals for Australian National University (ANU), aims activities that generate digital data should be to develop demonstrator repositories and required to include a data management plan. It support continuity and sustainability of digital also recommended that more be done to foster the collections, including research data sets.9 The skills of the data scientists who will be needed to demonstrator repositories are being developed support the management of these collections. at ANU, University of Sydney and University of Queensland. In Australia, the Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council (the As a partner in APSR, the National Library is Government’s principal source of independent sharing the expertise on digital preservation issues advice on issues in science, engineering and that it gained through activities such as PANDORA. innovation) 12 has recently established a Working 337 Warwick Cathro

Group on Data for Science, which will report to services, and will specify the mechanisms through the Government in December 2006. The Working which user attributes can be related to the service Group will review the current approaches to provider’s policies. The Library will also pilot use the management of large amounts of scientifi c of the MAMS tools in its own services, including information and recommend a data management Libraries Australia, in order to support federated strategy “to ensure Australia’s scientifi c sector authentication. provides benefits to the Australian economy, environment, and society”. The National Library As with the other elements of information is represented on the Working Group. infrastructure, there is no reason why this approach could not be used beyond the research sector. For example, it could be a future mechanism Access Control Services supporting access by public library users to a national licensed set of online content. Access control services ensure that users gain effi cient access to external information resources, Conclusions where they are entitled to such access. They support requirements such as federated authentication and authorization, and digital rights management. We have defined research information These services form another important component infrastructure as ‘the set of services that support of the national information infrastructure. The the discovery and management of research major Australian project aimed at developing resources and research outputs by the current improved access control services is the MAMS and future research community’. In Australia, the (Meta Access Management System) Project 13. federal Department of Education, Science and Training is funding improvements to the research Under the federated authentication model that the information infrastructure. MAMS Project is developing, a user seeking to gain access to any service that is part of the national The National Library of Australia has been a information infrastructure would be referred back participant in these developments. In particular, to a home institution for authentication there, and the Library has: then redirected back to the service provider with a standard ‘security handle’. The service provider • participated in the committee which has advised would then use this security handle to query the the Department on the future development of home institution about the user’s attributes. Based research information infrastructure on these attributes, the service provider would then • worked to digitize research resources, especially give the appropriate level of access rights to the those required to support research in the user. All of these processes would occur through humanities machine-to-machine transactions and would be • developed integrated discovery services such managed by an ‘Access Control Federation’ which as the national union catalogue and a service will be established as a byproduct of the MAMS providing search access to all Australian Project. university repositories • actively participated in three research The benefi t of this approach is that the service information infrastructure projects provider will not need to set up and maintain its • worked with partners to develop solutions to own user directory and authentication system. the problem of sustaining university repositories The service provider needs to know ‘is this person to support long term access from an organization that we trust?’ and ‘does this • participated in a major national working group person belong to a class that is entitled to use this to develop a strategy for the management of service?’ but does not need to maintain individual Australia’s scientifi c information passwords or certifi cates, and does not need to • undertaken work in the standards arena know any more details about the user. aimed at developing improved access control services. The National Library was invited to participate in the MAMS Project because of its work in the These activities have provided a focus for the directory standards fi eld. The Library will be National Library in its engagement with the modelling use cases that are relevant for library university community. In the process, the Library

338 A National Library Supporting Research has gained an improved understanding of the 7. Lord, Philip and MacDonald, Alison (2003). E-Science challenges faced by our university partners, while curation report: prepared for the JISC Committee also being able to share our own experience and for the Support of Research by Philip Lord and Alison Macdonald. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_ skills in ﬁ elds such as digital preservation. The documents/e-ScienceReportFinal.pdf Library is committed to continue collaborating 8. ARROW: Australian Research Repositories Online to with the higher education sector to improve the the World (2006). http://www.arrow.edu.au/ national research information infrastructure. 9. Australian Partnership for Sustainable Repositories (2006). http://www.apsr.edu.au/ 10. Burnhill, Peter. So who’s that new kid on the block? References DPC Forum: Digital preservation – the global context (23 June 2004). http://www.dpconline.org/graphics/ 1. Department of Education Science and Training events/for040623.html (2001). Additional funding for systemic research 11. National Science Board (US). Long-lived digital data and research training infrastructure in universities. collections (2005). http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2005/ http://backingaus.innovation.gov.au/2001/research/ nsb0540/nsb0540_1.pdf systemic2001.htm 12. The Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and 2. Department of Education Science and Training (2006). Innovation Council (2006). http://www.dest.gov. Australian Research Information Infrastructure au/sectors/science_innovation/science_agencies_ Committee (ARIIC). http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/ committees/prime_ministers_science_engineering_ research_sector/policies_issues_reviews/key_issues/ innovation_council/ australian_research_information_infrastructure_ 13. Meta-Access Management System (2006). http:// committee/default.htm www.melcoe.mq.edu.au/projects/MAMS/ 3. Maltby, Richard; Harris, Margaret and Eggert, Paul. (December 2005). NCRIS Strategic Roadmap exposure draft: a response [private communication]. Note 4. National Library of Australia (2006). Policy and planning. http://www.nla.gov.au/policy/ Paper presented at the World Library and Information 5. ARROW Project (2006). ARROW Discovery Service. Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council, http://search.arrow.edu.au 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, in session 155 6. Cathro, Warwick. Preserving the outputs of research. Information Technology with National Libraries with November 2004. http://www.nla.gov.au/nla/ Academic and Research Libraries and Knowledge staffpaper/2004/cathro1.html Management.

339 Governmental Libraries Development: an experience of strategic collaboration in the ﬁ eld of social sciences

Maria Elena Dorta-Duque Abstract The Institute of Scientifi c and Technological Documentation and Information (IDICT), of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment of Cuba, (CITMA) convoked a meeting in October 1995 of some governmental and non-governmental libraries and information centres that manage political, social and economic information. The purpose of the meeting was to create a working group to promote the development of such type of centres in the fi eld of social sciences. The group was charged with promoting a closer relationship among the centres and the development of collaborative projects, stimulating partnership, cooperation and coordination of specifi c tasks. This paper describes the work and achievements of the group, the Comité de Coordinación de Centros de Información Política y Social, COIPS, which now comprises 32 centres. Keywords: Governmental libraries; Social science libraries; Non- governmental libraries; Academic libraries; Research libraries; Decision making process; Library collaboration projects; Cuba Dra. Ma. Elena Dorta-Duque is Directora de Información Científica, Instituto Superior Introduction de Relaciones Internacionales, Cuba. She graduated as Dr. in Education and Librarianship from To assist the public administration organizations in the process of Havana University, Cuba and decision making, regarding their plans, politics and practices, is one has been working in the fi eld of of the main purposes of research in social science. The acquired librarianship continuously since knowledge, the collected data and the research fi ndings reach 1965. She worked at the UNESCO the decision making offi cials by different channels such as: direct Regional Offi ce of Culture for Latin contacts, requests to specialized professionals, experts, consultants, America and the Caribbean for 25 advisors committees, mass communication, universities, knowledge years as a UNESCO international networks, Internet, clearing houses, specialized documentation expert and received a diploma centres and libraries, among others. Whether it is accessed at for her sustained contribution fi rst hand or by intermediaries, or if it is a printed document or a to achieve UNESCO objectives during more than 20 years. Dra. digitized one, published or not, the collected data, the concluded Dorta-Duque has been Professor information or the results of the analysis made, contributes one way of Library Science at the University or another to endorse the decision-making. It is evident, moreover of Havana, and also taught in necessary, for the relation of the social sciences with the decision universities in México and Costa making process of governmental organizations, in particular, to Rica. She was the founder of the deal with social problems and economic development. There are Cuban Association of Librarians no doubts about the contribution that demographic, economic, (ASCUBI) and the Cuban Society educational, environmental and psychological information, among of Information Science and others, make to governmental action. The information resulting Librarianship (SOCICT) and has from researches in the social sciences contributes to better received distinctions from both understanding of the nature and scope of social problems, providing organizations. a frame of reference for decision-making. In this sense, to promote the use of the information and knowledge, the alliance between the governmental and non-governmental organisms, academic and research institutions, and the development of collaboration projects, are of decisive importance. Decision-making is a complex process, a very complex one, in which many factors take part and

Copyright © 2006 Author. IFLA Journal 32(4): 340–344. 340 IFLA ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035206074071 Governmental Libraries Development where a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary creating a working group within the framework endorsement is required, involving the social of the National System of Information (SNI). sciences. The mission was to develop the accessibility and availability of information resources and existing Antecedents informative services in the country in those fi elds of work, promoting relations among the organizations and the establishment of projects of On 19 April 1963, by law No. 1107, the Cuban collaboration and strategic alliances, stimulating Government created the Institute of Scientifi c, cooperative and coordination-oriented efforts to Technological Documentation and Information ensure the best exploitation of their resources (IDICT), which was assigned to the National and stimulating the exchange of information and Commission of the Academy of Sciences of Cuba experiences between the organizations, given (ACC). Among its main purposes was: to defi ne that all the centres worked on social sciences the bases for the organization of a system of subjects. scientifi c and technical information. The Comité de Coordination de Centros de On 17 September 1976, the President of the Información Política y Social (COIPS) started its National Council of Science and Technology activities by designating a Board of Coordination emitted Resolution 2/76, creating the National and creating several working groups. At the System of Scientifi c and Technical Information present time its members include 32 information (SNICT), headed by IDICT, and establishing fi lial organizations with complementary subject profi les centres in the different provinces of the country. within the fi eld of social sciences.

In 1984, by Resolution No. 16/84 of the ACC, the IDICT was named as being in charge of the Purpose of the COIPS SNICT. The main purpose of the COIPS was: In 1989, as part of the SNICT development project, the IDICT created various Committees 1. To constitute itself as an instrument to foment of Information and Coordination that grouped the development of cooperation among different organisms of information working libraries and centres of documentation, in similar areas of knowledge that could fulfi l research and academic institutions specialized collective work of common benefi t. Among them in the fi elds of social sciences and the libraries were: of governmental organizations. 2. To provide the greater availability of and • the Cooperation Committee on Economic the necessary access to information and Sciences (COSDE) knowledge needed for decision-making, • the Cooperation Committee on Agriculture taking into consideration that libraries play • the Cooperation Committee on the a fundamental role in providing permanent Sideromecanic Industry. access to information and knowledge; that the Other information committees were created that citizen is the central point of interest of the brought together the coordinated efforts of special ‘information society’; and the importance of libraries and/or centres of information on diverse political, economic and social information for subjects. the social and economic development of the country.

Development To this end the following actions were identiﬁ ed: In October 1995, after the creation of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment 1. to promote activities of cooperation among (CITMA), IDICT, as a CITMA organization, national institutions convoked libraries and information centres 2. to focus on the social priorities of the country involved in political, social and economic subject 3. to identify problems, difﬁ culties and sensitive areas, some of them pertaining to organisms of the areas in the organizations, in the process of central public administration, with the purpose of adaptation to the new conditions required by 341 Maria Elena Dorta-Duque

the Information Society, and contribute to their of the Supreme Popular Court; Ministry of Foreign solution Trade. 4. to promote the application of the new technologies There are eleven libraries of non-governmental 5. to disseminate widely the information that organization members: Association for the Unity exists in the different specialized centres of the of our America; Centre of Studies on Europe; country Centre of Studies on Africa and the Middle East; 6. to facilitate access to this information through Centre of Studies on Asia and Oceania; Centre the cooperative creation of products and of Studies on America; Centre of Studies on informative services based on information the United States; Press Information Centre; technologies. Psychological and Sociological Research Centre; National Association of Economists Advisory The Committee should: Agency (CANEC); Cuban Women Federation; Cuban Movement for Peace and Sovereignty. 1. identify the political, economic and social information needs of the governmental There are also ten libraries of academic institution organizations that demand collective efforts members: Central Library of the University of 2. promote the use and development of information Havana; Centre of Studies on Management technologies on behalf of the diverse needs of Techniques; Institute of Philosophy Information information of the country in the different Centre; Centre of Information on Tourism; Centre subject areas of Information and Computer Science Training 3. promote the development of the centres for Lawyers; Institute of History of Cuba; Higher towards centres of multimedia knowledge Institute of International Relations; Centre of 4. contribute to the permanent training and Studies on Migrations of the University of Havana; professional development of its members Psychological and Sociological Research Centre 5. promote research and development projects on (CIPS); Centre of Studies on Martí. information services and products in the ﬁ elds of politics, economic and social subjects. Informative Potential The Centres should: In order to give an idea of the informative 1. work in collaboration to develop tasks of social potential of the COIPS Centres, we can mention impact some collections and databases that at present 2. avoid the duplication of tasks in similar areas are hosted in some of the organizations which of work, working in a coordinated manner constitute the Committee, as a sample of the 3. collaborate effectively in ensuring the availability accessible information they have: of and access to the economic, political and social information that they process. Central Library of the University of Havana More than 30,000 publications on social Members sciences 1,128 serial publications on social sciences The organizations whose centres of information and libraries integrate the Committee at this Centre of Studies on Europe moment can be grouped in 3 categories: More than 14,500 publications on European subjects • governmental, in charge of decision-making • non-governmental Centre of Studies on America • academic institutions Information on Cuba of the period 1988– The nine libraries of governmental institution 1998 members are: National Assembly of the Popular Power; Central Bank of Cuba; Ministry of Ministry of Foreign Relations Culture; Ministry of Foreign Relations; Ministry of Economy and Planning; Ministry of Finances and Chronologies of the foreign relations of Cuba Prices; Ministry of Justice; Centre of Information 24,000 books on social sciences 342 Governmental Libraries Development

Higher Institute of International Relations • trainings on the use of software were offered to the centres by specialists of the IDICT, to help Database of 25,000 registries of magazine or improve the development of the databases articles on international relations and inter- of the centres national policy • demonstrations of software and databases developed by the centres were organized National Assembly • upgrading of old data bases systems in use by specialized technicians of IDICT More than 4,000 parliamentary documents • the promotion of bilateral collaboration to face Collection of the Offi cial Gazette since 1902. the needs and problems of the centres • the promotion of scientifi c events on various As can be appreciated, the centres of the COIPS subjects cover the following social science subjects: fi nance, • collective and cooperative participation of the economy, planning, law, tourism, foreign affairs, centres in international events, allowing the foreign trade, peace and sovereignty, women, promotion of their services and products psychology, sociology, environment, management • orientation and rules of the National Information techniques, philosophy, and the history of Cuba, System were given to the centres among others. • advice on the application of statistical models by means of which the data on services and Activities of the COIPS users are reported to IDICT • exchange of information by electronic means.

The main activities of the Committee were These activities helped to increase the social impact designed as follows: of the centres by widening the dissemination of governmental and technical specialized informa- 1. Periodical meetings in the participant centres tion, and to share the knowledge generated in the that have improved their services or developed fi eld of social sciences, contributing to the creation novel products and could offer them to the of new knowledge that impacts the social and other members of the COIPS, allowing mutual economic development of the country. knowledge of their informative potentialities and their products and services at an important More recently, with the national project of informa- level of detail. tization of the Cuban society, the use of new tech- 2. Arrangement of masterly conferences on the nologies of information and communication in the organization of information networks and sphere of public administration, in the enterprise novel subjects or exhibitions of new systems and system, and in academic, educational and research advanced information models, to contribute to spheres and in centres of public access in general, the professional knowledge development of have undergone signifi cant extension. the librarians. The needs of the centres were identifi ed and known, and opportunities were Results settled to establish specifi c collaborations and strategic alliances. We can identify as the greatest profi t of this experi- Among the activities developed by the Committee ence the level of integration and collaboration in the years of it existence we can emphasize the reached among centres participating in the COIPS, following: to the benefi t, not only of the governmental institutions, but also of the remaining social science • exploratory activities took place to identify the organizations. Also we have obtained a wide informative potential of the organizations, as exchange of experiences between the member well as problems or diffi culties, applying the centres, to fi nd and share solutions to common research techniques of surveys and interviews problems and to compare models of organizations, in situ working systems and services. The establishment • a directory of the institutions that is updated of strategic alliances among the centres and the constantly development of joint programs helped to increase • a survey of software used in the centres for the the knowledge of information users needs in the development of databases and other products fi eld of social sciences. 343 Maria Elena Dorta-Duque

In the recently celebrated International Congress Conclusions of Information, INFO’06, organized by IDICT, La Habana, the project of the Cuban Network At the time the COIPS was created, the national of Science Site was presented (Alonso Becerra, information and communication infrastructures 2006) as a space of collaboration and interaction were still insufﬁ ciently settled in our country, between scientiﬁ c institutions, with access to stressing even more the need for projecting databases, virtual libraries, and other Cuban sites a program of coordination and collaboration of science and knowledge in general, including among centres as a strategic plan, foreseeing and the social sciences. taking into account the growing impact the new technologies have in the handling, transference, References quality and immediacy of information. At present, in the context of a national program of massive Alonso Becerra, Beatriz. (2006) Un aporte a la sociedad informatization of society, with substantial del conocimiento; primeras aplicaciones de la Red Cubana de Ciencias. Conferencia presentada en el investment in the technological infrastructure Congreso INFO 06, La Habana, abril 2006. http:// (Santos Riveras, 2006), the readiness of the www.redciencia.cu/ centres to take advantage of the new information Santos Riveras, América. (2006) Cuba: construyendo la technologies, favoured in part by the coordination sociedad del conocimiento. Conferencia presentada en efforts of the COIPS, increases the visibility of el Congreso INFO 06, La Habana, abril 2006. the centres via electronic media (multimedia, web services, etc.), thus extending the availability Note of and access to information and knowledge Edited version of a paper presented at the World Library and in the field of the social sciences, favouring Information Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and decision-making on behalf of social and economic Council, 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea in session 110 development. Social Science Libraries with Government Libraries.

344 Government Information and Centers of Business and Legal Information in Russia

Emma Voskanyan New Russia is based on the principles of law and freedom.

Valery Zorkin, Chairman of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation

Information is power. Access to the information is the condition of freedom.

Daniel Bell

Abstract Russia is among the information-richest states with information resources vast both in traditional and in new technologies. The Russian state, acknowledging the provisions of international documents on these problems, seeks all the possibilities to make access to the most important information easier for everybody. Among the institutions responsible for collecting, organizing and disseminating the information, Emma Voskanyan graduated libraries play a signifi cant role. At the beginning of the 1990s Russian from Yerevan State University legal reform specialists came to the conclusion that the major problem (Republic of Armenia), as a is where to locate authoritative sources of offi cial information and legal philologist and later graduated knowledge to ensure they could be open to general use. Russian experts from The Highest Library Science considered that such a source could be Russia’s public libraries. The Courses and University of Social library system built during the years of Soviet power proved to be both Sciences in Moscow. Since steady and fl exible and the library community was the most receptive 1972 she has been working of all to change. The paper describes how, building on the solid base of at the Russian State Library, libraries, the government reformers in 1993 created specialized models beginning as reference librarian of information access throughout the country, such as centers of business in the Department of Government information, centers of legal information and their modifi cations. The Services, then worked as the system is functioning very effectively. Head of the Reference Services on Keywords: Access to information; Government information; Legal infor- social sciences in the Reference mation; Business information; Centers of business and legal information; Department. Since 1998 she has Russian Federation been Head of the Department of Official Publications and Normative Documents. E-mail: Information and its Signifi cance for Society in Russia [email protected] The development of the information society in our country is accompanied by several peculiarities and problems as a result of the coincidence in time of the information revolution and the inherent social-political reconstruction process. With regards to information, Russia is one of the richest states and its information resources are vast both in traditional and in new technologies. The state information resources of the country are formed and used in the framework of the state and branch systems such as state government bodies, bodies of scientifi c and technical information, statistics, systems of education and the great information resources of libraries, archives, and museums.

For Russia, with its enormous territory and insufﬁ ciently developed social infrastructure, the signiﬁ cance of new information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the building of a modern

information society can scarcely be exaggerated. • expert support to citizens and business in At the same time, one cannot observe signifi cant various types of interaction with government changes to the available systems used for bodies. disseminating information. The limitation, or even absence, of access to ICTs deprives the Practical realization of state policy in the sphere people of the possibility of exercising their rights of ICTs demands the development of information in full measure. In addition, the appearance of legislation as a system of mutually related legal various forms of property ownership, (other than rules. At present in Russia the legislation which state), such as municipal, corporate, private, joint, regulates relations in the domain of information foreign and others, means that the possession of and ICT development is growing very rapidly. Since the information and access to it is diffused and 1995 the law ‘About Information, Informatization disaggregated. Free access to and management of and Protection of Information’ was in force, the full corpus of information is very diffi cult. but in 2006 the basic law ‘About Information, Information Technologies and Protection of The Russian state, acknowledging the provisions Information’ was adopted. The Constitution of the of international conventions on these problems, RF, federal laws, and the laws relating to members seeks, as far as possible, to make political, socio- of the RF contain many regulations concerning economic and research information public and information problems. thus to make access to key information easier for everybody. Access to government information The executive order of the Government of the RF and, especially, to the part which is designated ‘About Providing Access to Information on the as ‘public signifi cant information’ is a special Activities of the Russian Federation Government priority. and Federal Executive Bodies’ (# 98 of February 12, 2003) became the basic source in the At present many structures take part in the domain of systematizing the documents of state dissemination of government information in government bodies and providing access to all Russia but the problems of providing a unifi ed citizens. Many regions of Russia have accepted the information space in the country have not yet been normative documents on these problems and are overcome. The Ministry of Economic Development implementing the Information Policy successfully. is at present engaged in implementing ICTs and Among the leaders are the administration of is making special efforts to integrate information Kchanty-Mansijsk region (http://www.neweco. resources created at federal expense. The Federal ru/docs/law/hanty_mansy/18.htm) and the Special Purpose Program ‘Electronic Russia’ regions of Perm, Smolensk, Moscow and others. 2002–2010’ (http://www.e-rus.ru) is the main mechanism of coordinated state policy with At present, however, analysis of the situation in responsibility for implementing information the country shows that the systematization and technologies throughout the activities of federal provision of access to information is somewhat government bodies. ‘patchy’1 and enormous work is ahead to overcome digital inequality and to create new information The priorities, principles and directions of the resources for fulfi lling the constitutional rights of common state policy are defi ned in the bill entitled citizens for information. ‘Conception of using Information Technologies in the Activity of Federal Bodies up to 2010’ The creation of a fully-fledged system for (http://www.it-gov.ru) assented to by Order # providing free access to governmental, socially 1244-r of 27.09.04 of the Government of the signifi cant information for the whole population Russian Federation (RF). In accordance with this of enormous Russia on the basis of modern Conception, the Government Portal has to be a information technologies remains a complex systematizing element. It is the central access and wide scale task. The creation of such a point to consolidated government information system is impossible without cooperation and and departments’ services for all the Internet partnership between the state, civil society, the users. It has the following tasks: private sector and international organizations. The creation of new forms of such cooperation is • creating and maintaining electronic access already in the making. Representatives of private • provision of information business play an important role in defending

346 Government Information in Russia and realizing human rights in Russia. Therefore, Information technologies play an important role effective cooperation and partnership among and in these library activities. between private business, government and civil society underlie the creation and functioning of At the beginning of the 1990s Russian legal reform the centers of legal and business information. specialists carefully studied the international Among signifi cant universal state systems that experience and environment. They came to the provide access to state information it is necessary conclusion that the major problem is where to to specify the information system of the Federal place authoritative sources of offi cial information Agency of Government Communications and and legal knowledge to ensure they would be open Information (since 2003, ‘Spezsvyaz of Russia’) to general use. Russian experts consider public (http://www.systema.ru). libraries an ideal source. The library system built during the years of Soviet power proved to be both A free market of commercial systems for legal steady and fl exible and the library community was information was formed in Russia. This became the most receptive of all to change. Government one of several profi table and suffi ciently stable thus created specialized models of information sectors of the information market owing to the access in the country on the basis of libraries. fact that legal information was one of the most They function very effectively. Centers of business signifi cant information resources from a business information, centers of legal information and point of view. This is probably the only sector united centers of legal and business information, where competition and cooperation between electronic (or virtual) centers of legal and business state and commercial information services are information and centers of public access have becoming a reality. Among private companies been created since 1993. Following, we examine which specialize in the creation and dissemination the story of their creation, their purposes, their of databases of the most important products similarities and differences and their reaction to of government operations – normative-legal change. information – the absolute market leaders are the fi rms, Garant (http://www.garant.ru), Kodeks Centers of Business Information (http://www.kodeks.ru) and Consultant Plus – Information for Business and the (http://www.consultant.ru). These companies Business of Information took an active part in the creation of the centers of legal information. The success of the firm depends upon the Among the institutions responsible for collecting, information known as business intelligence or organizing and disseminating the information, business knowledge. Business information is an libraries play a signifi cant role. There are more essential structural element of business knowledge than 150,000 libraries, subordinated departmental and makes it possible for business managers and administrative principles in the Russian to have some knowledge about the internal Federation of which 51,000 are public libraries. and external environment. The main objective Under the authority of the Ministry of Culture for collecting the information is the necessity and Mass Communications are 9 federal libraries; to form knowledge or intelligence and make 217 central libraries covering all 89 members the best possible decisions with a minimum of of the RF, and 49,700 public libraries (city and uncertainty. The most frequent sources of business municipal), of which 39,400 are situated in rural information are: government institutions, libraries, settlements and 10,300 in cities. The resources of trade associations, companies which deal with 150,000 Russian libraries are the largest public scientifi c research and information, newspapers traditional information source in the country. The and magazines, business information services and library infrastructure permeates the entire society online databases. and is in practically all the settlements. During the past 15 years after ‘perestroika’, Russian libraries From the beginning of Russian market reform a new have been testing various innovation processes. infrastructure for supplying business began to take On this base they are creating new structures shape, where libraries tried to take an active part and are summoned to answer the challenges of by creating special structures or centers of business a modern rapidly evolving social environment. information. Business centers were created with

347 Emma Voskanyan

the aim of furthering the development of systems The specialists of MADB identify the following for information support for business and formed conditional groups of the centers of business a normal business information market in Russia. information: They promoted the development of resources of qualitative, timely and trustworthy information • specialized public libraries having extensive for Russian business. The specialists of the centers collections on economics, law, business, which aim to develop operative business information in are formed mainly with the help of direct the sectors of legislation, economics, management, relations with central and regional publishing and marketing. They manage complex information houses (for instance, Moscow Business Library, services on questions of Russian legislation, http://www.mgdb.ru) business activity and problems of legal regulation. • public libraries with various services, oriented Offi cially the fi rst center of business information to satisfying the comprehensive needs based on a library appeared in 1993 at the State of businessmen concerning information, Public Scientific Technical Library of Russia communication, education and culture (GPNTB of Russia). Many know this library as the • public libraries, which have departments where organizer of the famous Crimea conferences. the basic activity is providing the population with business information (e.g. Information The centers of business information (CBI) Center ‘Modem’ Kemerovo. http://www. appeared in the fi rst years of reform in various kemcbs.ru; http://www.bibliovita.cbs.vvcom. regions of Russia – as the saying goes, obeying ru, and others) the call of time. The managers’ capability for • specialized information departments of large scientific and scientific-technical libraries innovation, for enterprise, for understanding local (e.g. Business Information Cabinet of Russian government powers, and last but not least, foreign National Public Library for Science and colleagues’ help, contributed to the creation of Technology (GPNTB of Russia), http:// very specialized structures. The fi rst centers of www.gpntb.ru/win/gpntb/info004.html; business information were often guided by the Conjuncture Information Cabinet of experience of foreign business libraries. Several Novosibirsk GPNTB, http://www.spsl.nsc. libraries were fully reconstituted as specialized ru/win/h212.html; Business Information sector business libraries, but more often the centers of of Chelyabinsk Regional Universal Scientifi c business information were only part of a library. Library (OUNB), http://www.unilib.chel.su; The Kievskaya Central Library System, one of Technical Literature Section of Murmansk the most advanced Moscow libraries, has played OUNB, http://www.murman.ru/culture/ a great organizational and methodological role in library) the creation of CBI. • children-youth libraries, which provide information support to youth-run businesses In 1997 the Interregional Association of Business and work with foreign public funds, whose Libraries (MADB) was founded. The main tasks financial assistance provides access to the of the MADB are: information for such social categories as students (e.g. The Center of Business Literature • uniting the support and coordination of and Information of the Russian State Youth its members’ efforts for maintaining and Library, http://www.rgub.ru) developing the activity of Russian libraries in • scientifi c-technical and trade-union libraries the domain of business information of large enterprises which provide business • service for the business needs of the population; information to their specialists and the city establishing and strengthening the positions of population libraries in the information continuum. • sections of business literature, business information and book centers of university The MADB President is Irina Borisovna Mikhnova, libraries (e.g. Saint-Petersburg Technical e-mail:[email protected]; http://library.ru/1/madb. University site, http://www.ruslan.ru:8001/ The geography of these centers is very extensive; spb/univer/tu/tu_cdi.html; the universities of they are scattered all over the country. Ekaterinburg, Kemerovo, etc.).

348 Government Information in Russia

Centers of business information based on libraries It is diffi cult to consider as satisfactory the present have their own story of development and growing accessibility of state economics and business and diminishing interest in them. There can be information resources at the present stage of several reasons for these trends. Over the years information society development. Owing to the the commercial business service infrastructure absence of offi cial equal access to information had been established and it was difficult for which was created at the expense of taxpayers, libraries to compete in gaining access to the the advantages of the information market are sources of business information. In some places, gained by commercial fi rms attached to various it was necessary to overcome doubts that libraries state structures. These fi rms use the collected could function as commercial information centers information resources free of charge and sell them capable of providing the quality of information in the market at commercial prices. (It should be needed. Nevertheless many libraries in many said in all fairness that some of them supply budget regions of Russia confi dently found their niche. An organizations at reduced prices or free.) example of successful resolution of the diverging factors is the activity of the CBI of Tula Regional In addition, independent commercial fi rms are Universal Scientific Library. In the first post very active in the market. Our experts estimate reform years owing to the absence of competent that more than 40 agencies have as their sole sources of business information many libraries business the market of exchange and fi nancial began to develop their own resources. The Tula information. Financial-economic information is Regional Universal Scientifi c Library adopted the widely represented in the Internet and there are model of integrated resources, having created the more than 1,000 sites providing complex support regional net of business information on the basis to business. Among them one may include the Center of Business information of the Chamber of of Centers of Legal Services (CLS) of municipal Commerce and Industry of the RF (http://www. libraries of the Tula region. The principle of tpprf.ru), Alliance-Media (http://www.allmedia. distributed collections and accumulation of ru), the Information Center for Business Support information resources in a common center was (http://www.smb-support.org), the Resource taken as the base for forming the databases of Center of Small Business (http://www.siora.ru), commercial information ‘The Producers of Goods RosBusinessconsulting (http://www.rbc.ru) and and Services in Tula Region’ (http://tounb.tula. others. All of them were created between the year net/library/otdely/idc.htm) and the net itself. 1997 and the year 2000. These databases have been created since 1998 After creating the infrastructure for meeting the and updating is completed yearly by the whole needs of businesses, the activity of library business net of municipal libraries. The information input is centers subsided. Libraries continue to take part programmed to maintain databases in accordance in the distribution of the information, providing with the norms and standards accepted by the it on a non-commercial basis. The guarantee is Department of Informatization of the Tula Region high accessibility of libraries and the specialized Administration and to share the accumulated library structures of centers of law and business information resources. Among permanent CBI information as well as the breadth and depth of users there are the representatives of small and their collections. medium business and large-scale business of the Central region, which use information resources Many libraries create centers of business to fi nd business partners, place orders, to present information on the basis of the collections of new goods and so on. Other users are all-Russia normative-technical documents and patents, fi rms working in the business information sphere which are always widely represented in universal to represent the information of the Tula region in scientifi c libraries. For instance, several regional Russian and foreign markets and also executive libraries (such as Kostroma, Rostov-Don and and legislative government structures who use the others) work with their clients quite confi dently. information to make management decisions and The resource base of the Center of Business to analyze the development of various sectors of Information of the Russian State Library is based regional economics. on a collection of 2 million standards, offi cial

349 Emma Voskanyan

regulating and methodical materials, normal the government allotted RUB 1.5 billion for and technical terms, building, sanitary and other the support of small business. In 2006 it will be norms and regulations, approved by ministries doubled to RUB 3 billion. “Our aim is by 2010 and departments, instructive documents and to achieve the share of a small business in GNP patent materials. At the same time they adopt and at the level of 40 percent, and employ 50 percent fulfi ll regional programs of State Support of Small of working people” to quote our Minister of Business which are presently evolving and where Economic Development, German Gref.2 libraries also take part. Public Centers of Legal Information In many regions there has been a very good – Russian Model of Universal Access to experience of joint activity of state and local Public Information administrations, of organizations for creating the infrastructure for the support of business and for creating favorable conditions for the development Up to the present 1,387 Public Centers of Legal of the regional information environment. The Information (PCPI) have been created in our most effective activity of business centers in country, based on libraries3. These centers collect small municipal structures is in rural regions; see, the federal and regional legislation acts of Russia, for example, the document ‘The Strategy of the municipal acts and standards of international law Social-Economic Development in the Pestyakov and make all of this accessible to the citizens. Region of Ivanovo Oblast.’ (http://www.rustouns. During the years from 2000 to 2005 alone, more com/print.php?id=003042111373). than 4 million citizens addressed queries to these centers and were given about 4.5 million The main users and potential clients of business references. An analysis of all the inquiries has information centers were and still are the demonstrated multiple legal problems of citizens, representatives of small business in Russia. concerning housing and communal services, During the years of market reform small business pensions, military service, rights of youth, business became a stable sector of the economy, but its activity and so on. This outstanding demand for potential is still not fully realized. Among the information fi rst of all demonstrates the great need main reasons for the low efficiency of small for such centers, not only for socially unprotected business activity in previous years is the absence citizens, but also for small business and even for of working capital and lack of development of professional jurists. It also shows the need for the mechanisms for fi nancial and credit support. further development and strengthening of the Further development and success of business PCPI net. information centers mainly depends upon the increase of the numbers of their users by whom The history of creating such centers began in June they are guided – representatives of small business. 1998 in Smolensk, where the fi rst Public Center The situation in Russia is now favorable and at of Legal Information in Russia was opened on the present time the draft law concerning small the solid base of the universal scientifi c library. business is now under discussion. It presupposes Providing free access to the information is the three categories of companies: microcompanies main thrust of the modernizing policy of the (up to 15 persons), small companies (from 16 to Ministry of Culture of Russia in the domain of 100 persons) and medium companies (from 101 library affairs. This is the main aim of reforming to 250 persons). After the law is adopted, these the whole system of information and library companies will get guaranteed state support. services in the country. The Smolensk initiative was therefore eagerly accepted by the Russian The people in our country proved to be prepared Ministry of Culture as a good example for other to develop a new mode of production quickly libraries of the country. At the end of 1998, with – our people, in spite of the slow economic growth the support of the Chief State Legal Administration and social-political crisis, are still among the of the President of the Russian Federation and most educated in the world, capable to perceive the Legal Administration of the State Duma of and generate new ideas and to adapt to the the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation changing technical-economic environment. Now of the Ministry of Culture of Russia, the Federal there are about one million small enterprises in Agency of Government Communication and Russia, which employ 17 million people. In 2005 Information at the President of the Russian

350 Government Information in Russia

Federation (FAGCI) and the Russian Foundation supported them fi nancially. During this period for Legal Reform (RFLR) developed and accepted the coordinated activity of organs of information the Program, ‘The Creation of All-Russia Net resources and telecommunications, FAGCI of Public Centers of Legal Information on the government communication centers and universal Public Libraries Infrastructure’. The Program was scientifi c libraries played a very signifi cant role. completed in several stages. The Ministry of Culture of Russia and RFRL helped considerably by developing the net and supplying The First Stage (1998–2000) the centers with the technical equipment. In the In this stage it was planned to create fourteen years 1999–2000, the Ministry supplied 58 regional Public Centers of Legal Information on the basis scientifi c and municipal libraries with computer of two national libraries – the Russian State equipment for developing technical complexes Library in Moscow and the Russian National at the Public Centers of Legal Information. Total Library in Saint-Petersburg – and twelve central fi nancial expenditures amounted to about USD universal scientifi c libraries in the members of the 350,000. The key element of the Program was the Russian Federation (Smolensk, Bryansk, Orel, close coordination of the state with commercial Tula, Tambov, Ryazan, Rostov-Don, Ekaterinburg, structures, forming many different partnerships. Krasnodar, Stavropol, Krasnoyarsk, Lipezk). The The Ministry of Culture concluded the agreement division of responsibility between the coordinators about free or preferential information support of of the Program was as follows: PCPI with leading producers of legal information systems – private companies Consultant Plus and The Ministry of Culture of Russia, using its Kodeks. authority and administrative and informational resources, carried out general coordination, Great quantities of electronic and traditional legal advancing and monitoring the project, developing publications were received from sponsors and organizational and methodical materials and disseminated among the PCPI on charitable terms. cooperation with regional organs of culture and The Ministry of Culture of Russia, the Agency for libraries. The RFLR fi nanced the buying of offi ce Development of Business Technologies, such equipment and technology for the PCPI, carried publishing houses as ‘Legal Literature’ of the out conferences and seminars and the issuance Administration of the President of the Russian of organizational and methodical materials and Federation, ‘Jurist’ and others provided signifi cant organized the publication and dissemination of free support to regional libraries. current legal materials among the PCPI. At the beginning of 2000 the idea of creating Public FAGCI, on a non-commercial basis, provided the Centers of Legal Information was supported by legal information databases of the Science and the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) Technology Center ‘Systema’, which contained which promoted the creation of scientifi c and offi cial documents of federal, regional and municipal methodical centers of comparative law at the levels on electronic carriers, on communication Library of Foreign Literature and concentrated channels and on interested technical specialists. its efforts on the opening of centers in small Libraries carried out the necessary reorganization, towns of Russia. As a result during 2 years about allocated accommodation and provided specialists 40 Public Centers of Legal Information were who had knowledge and skill in reference and opened on a competitive basis. There was a rather information services. wide public relations campaign for explaining the PCPI activity in federal, regional and local As a result, by spring 2000 fourteen PCPI were mass media. It promoted the involvement of new opened and began their activity successfully. regions, advancing the ideas of informing the The centers at the Russian State Library and the citizens about legal matters. Little by little, the Russian National Library also began to fulfi ll creation of Public Centers of Legal Information scientifi c and methodical functions for the whole was becoming not only a necessity but also a very net of PCPI. The governments of many members reputable business. The experience of the fi rst years of the Russian Federation took an active part of the Program showed that the PCPI net was of in the realization of the Program. They adopted great social value, was actively demanded by the appropriate methods for creating PCPI and population and needed further development. It

351 Emma Voskanyan

provides remarkable possibilities and is a model establishing the interacting between centers and of joint decision-making on socially important legislative and executive authorities. Thus libraries national tasks by state, non-state and business began to become the forums of lawmaking structures. The development of the all-Russia discussions of citizens and public organizations, program favored the forming of regional programs which could seriously infl uence the legal culture of legal information, which stipulated the creation of the population. of the wide net of centers and subscriber terminals in state and municipal organs, libraries, scientifi c The same situation evolved at the universal and educational institutions. The results achieved scientific library in Tula region where in the became possible only because of the great demand framework of PCPI the so-called ‘public reception of such centers by all level of authorities and, of office for the civil legislative initiative’ was course, by the population. created. The activity of PCPI as an intermediary between power structures and population is Owing to another RFLR project ‘Legal Education able to infl uence the growth of civic awareness in Schools’ the fi rst steps were made in joining and promote the inclusion of citizens in public children and youth libraries to the process of fora. The development of the net of regional creating legal centers. The RFLR granted 150 and municipal PCPI, using the unifi ed software complete sets of textbooks on legal themes to and hardware of FAGCI, solved the problem of these libraries. Legal information centers for accessibility to local legal information and created children and youth were created in Smolensk, in Russia a unifi ed legal information space. As a Saint-Petersburg, Krasnodar, Nizhny Novgorod, result of all the efforts, by the end of 2000, instead Murmansk, Perm and many other cities of of the planned fourteen PCPI, more than 200 Russia. centers had been created in the country.

For the professional support of Public Centers The Second Stage (2002–2003) of Legal Information it was necessary to attract jurists on a non-commercial basis. For the fi rst In 2001–2003 the PCPI net was actively and time such practices appeared in the scientifi c steadily developing, being supported mainly by library of Smolensk region. The offi cial opening regional and local resources. By the end of 2001 of PCPI in the framework of the All-Russia the net had already 600 centers, at the end of Program called into being congenial competition 2002 there were 850, and by the middle of 2003 between regional administrations and libraries there were about 1,200 Public Centers of Legal and created a kind of order of priority for being Information. included in the second stage of the Program. The administrations adopted and began developing In 2001–2003 the Ministry of Culture of Russia their own programs for creating PCPI nets in such took charge of the main organizational and regions of Russia as Saha-Yakutia, Tchuvashia, financial problems. The Ministry of Culture Stavropol, Murmansk, Perm and Smolensk and of Russia supported the projects of opening some others. For instance, during the realization Public Centers of Legal Information on the of the project ‘The Legal Informatization in basis of the central regional libraries of Tuva, Smolensk Region’ on the united software and Northern Osetia, Yamalo-Nenetz, Amur and hardware basis, about 200 public centers and Ivanovo regions, and also the opening of legal access points of legal information were created, and municipal information centers in the including developing the necessary technology. centralized library systems of Kalmykya, Karelia, In the process of creating the permanent regional Tatarstan, Tchuvashia, of the regions of Stavropol, networks of Public Centers of Legal Information Belgorod, Vladimir, Novgorod, Perm, and also in the legal operating basis of the centers and their Novosibirsk and Penza youth libraries, in Altai, relations with their administrations were carefully Amur, Kaliningrad, Nyzhny Novgorod, Smolensk developed. and Sverdlovsk children libraries. The purchase and delivery of the newest legal publications for In many regions as a result of PCPI activity there 40 regional scientifi c libraries was fi nanced. were additional initiatives aimed at increasing the participation of citizens in lawmaking activity at A sizable contribution towards information local, regional and federal levels, in discussing provision through creating Public Centers of the effectiveness of already enacted laws and in Legal Information has been made by FAGCI,

352 Government Information in Russia whose databases were introduced in 56 percent of educational institutions of the Ministry of centers; by Consultant Plus, whose databases were Education (more than 130 centers), the Ministry introduced in 81 percent of centers; by Garant of Defense, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the (25 percent) and by Kodeks (14 percent). The Ministry of Justice of Russia and in some other signifi cant information potential of the centers, organizations. The experience of the fi rst years especially at municipal libraries, was developed of Public Centers of Legal Information activity just by these state and commercial structures on shows that their successful development is a gratuitous basis. possible only owing to the constant coordination, communication and exchange of work experience In 2002 the Russian Committee for the UNESCO and information resources and analysis of the ‘Information for All’ Program joined the results. In summary, the development of legal implementation of the Public Centers of Legal information organization and access strongly Information Program, as one of the strategic demands the creation of the integrated information directions of this fl agship Program of UNESCO. computer net that unites all the participants of the This Committee forms the policy and creates the process. conditions for universal access to the information which is public property. It is necessary to create ‘corporative library legal information centers’ on the basis of modern It is important to mention that already in 2002, information and telecommunication technologies. practically all over the country, the aims and tasks Further PCPI activity will greatly depend on the of the PCPI Program were used by local authorities creation of such centers for managing technology as the guide to action and its implementation that could unite all the PCPI and make it possible passed from a regional to a municipal level. to quickly fi nd the necessary information and For this sake the coordinators of the Program, provide information not only about their own regional cultural authorities and central scientifi c resources but also about other resources and libraries of the Russian Federation began to accumulated corporative resources. conduct numerous practical conferences with the participation of the representatives of regional and At the end of 2003 the Ministry of Culture municipal authorities. of Russia published the following statistical data about the first stages of the Program The decisions of the Board of the Ministry of implementation.4 Combined expenditures for Culture of Russia that had facilitated the union all the years on the creation of all-Russia Public and integration of the efforts of all the participants Centers of Legal Information net are estimated of the program at a federal level was of major as USD 5 million. During 1998–2003 more than signifi cance for the development of the Program USD 1.2 million was spent by just the federal and promoted further development of the work organizations and sponsors for organizing the at regional and local levels. regional net of centers.

The fact that about 700 centers based on There are 2,129 copies of legal databases of municipal libraries were developed during a leading producers of legal information installed very short period of the recent history of Russia, and regularly operating and more than 2,000 speaks much about the growing understanding complete sets of newspapers on legal subjects of the extraordinary importance of legal security have been collected. The Public Centers of Legal of citizens at the present time and about the Information Program was presented at the Second necessity of developing Public Centers of Legal Session of the Intergovernmental Council of the Information, not only at the regional level, but also UNESCO Program ‘Information for All’ (April at the municipal and provincial levels. There were 22–24, 2003, at the headquarters of UNESCO). 44 centers created for legal education relating Our country presented the mentioned program as to child and youth law. At the same time Public an example of a positive experience in the building Centers of Legal Information began to appear in of a legal and free information society. some central regional special libraries for blind people (12 centers). The Russian experience in the creation of the net of legal information centers is already very The Program initiatives were adopted in other popular among countries of the Commonwealth ministries and institutions and first of all in of Independent States.

353 Emma Voskanyan

and resources. The leading role in it belongs to Conclusion. Further Perspectives of the the Russian State Library. The Director of the Development of Legal and Business Partnership is Emma Voskanyan. Information Centers The all-Russia PCPI Portal (http://www.pcpi.ru), In 2002 work on the integration of legal and created by the fi rm Kodeks, has as an objective business information resources in public libraries the integration of resources, providing for the of Russia began and unified centers of legal coordination of the net centers and organize the and business information were being created. inquiry line for informing citizens. Smolensk region was the first to implement The main aim of creating the portal was to the new project – the creation of a net of overcome geographical and other inequalities in electronic centers and points of business and legal access to legal and business information. information on the basis of libraries, educational institutions and centers of business support. The Already the Partnership, which unites multiple legal information resources used by PCPI will be centers, and the PCPI Portal which provides integrated with the information resources of the informational and methodological and reference Business Internet Portal of the Smolensk region service, render valuable support in ensuring the (http://business.admin.smolensk.ru) and with the further development of the centers. resources already created in the regional legal and business centers. The Smolensk experience As we see, libraries answer the changes of the time is interesting because center services help users and create specialized structures of information to become oriented in the goods and services access. They have found their niche and use market and to better defend their rights. This accumulated resources. They are close to people initiative received the support of the Ministry of and know their needs. They see and show the Communications of Russia in the framework of shortcomings and demand openness of society. ‘Electronic Russia’ Today more than 2,000 libraries and other Government has also begun to create Centers organizations of different affi liations provide legal of Public Access (CPA). This is one of the and business information service for all layers of modifi cations of PCPI offered by the Ministry the population and different institutions of all of Communications. In the framework of the kinds. ‘Electronic Russia’ Program 100 CPA have already been created in remote rural settlements. The Owing to the opening of the centers the new experience of creating the specialized analytic role of libraries in the life of the local community public centers of legal information based on is more and more affi rmed. The centers work educational institutes (for instance, the Academy actively on the legal education of the population of Tourism) initiated by the Russian Committee and the information support of local authorities. of the UNESCO Program ‘Information for all’ is This plays a great role in the forming of local self- very interesting. government in the regions.

At present the public centers of legal and business At present, when the implementation of the information in various manifestations are opened Program is entering a new stage, the main problem practically in all large public libraries at the is that the centers that have already been created regional and municipal levels and also in many function autonomously to a considerable extent. schools, institutes, public and state institutions. Therefore it is necessary to unite them in a national They provide services to more than one million information net, carry out the uniﬁ cation and people per year and illustrate the great demand for certiﬁ cation of their activities, provide modern such centers by the population, business structures computer and communication techniques, provide and administrations of all levels. All these centers the connection to qualitative communication are included in the PCPI Program. channels and prepare skilled manpower.

The Partnership, ‘Interregional Association of In the process of realizing the third stage gov- Public Centers of Legal Information’, was created ernments anticipate a 100 percent inclusion of all with the aim of organizationally uniting the members of the Russian Federation (up to 2,500 centers and it was summoned to unite their efforts centers as a minimum) into the net. The Ministry

354 Government Information in Russia of Culture of Russia, ‘Spezsvyaz ‘of Russia and Kuzmin E., Demidov, A. and Usachov, M. Library and the Russian Committee of UNECO Program Information Science. 2005. 6. p.14. ‘Information for All’ started accomplishing those 5. Ibid., p.16. tasks. If the state gives more consideration to the Program, such results will be reached in 5 Other sources years. The volumes of combined special purpose 1. Antopolsky A.B. Information resources of Russia. M., investments to the joint PCPI net during this period 2004. 423 p. must be not less than USD 500,000 a year.5 2. Koroleva L.I. The model of regional network of business information centers formation on the basis of To conclude I would like to highlight once more public libraries in Tula region // Producers and Users of Printed and Electronic Information on the Way to that Business and Legal Information Centers are Information Society: Conf. Proc. Int. Conf. (8; June of great social value, actively acclaimed by the 9–17, 2001) Ukraine, Crimea, Sudak– V. 2. M., 2001. population and demand further development. The pp.1011–1014. (Crimea 2001). development and implementation experience of 3. Voskanyan E.A. Integrated service and system the Program shows that it is a beautiful oppor- approach as two constituents of successful library activities in legal information: experience of Russian tunity for state, commercial and social structures State Library // Producers and Users of Printed and to collaborate on wide-scale socially signiﬁ cant Electronic Information on the Way to Information tasks collectively. Society: Conf. Proc. Int. Conf. (8; June 9–17, 2001) Ukraine, Crimea, Sudak– V. 2. M., 2001. pp.1015– 1021. (Crimea 2001). References 4. http://library.ru/1/madb. 1. Lebedeva N.N. and Fedoseeva N.N. The right of citizens for information: establishing and development. Note State and Law Journal, (Russian Academy of Sciences. State and Law Institute) M., 2006. 5. p.105. Paper presented at the World Library and Information 2. Izvestya. 2006. 25 May. 91. Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council, 3. Registered at the PCLI Portal http://www.pcpi.ru 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, in session 100 Library 4. Kuzmin E. Setting up a system of access of the citizens and Research Services for Parliaments with Government of Russia to legal information: results and prospects. Information and Ofﬁ cial Publications.

355 Cooperation on Local History and the Concept of Network Building between Libraries, Museums and Archives in China

Wu Shushi Abstract Chinese ancient books and local history documents are collected in archives, libraries, museums (ALM), and other academic institutions all over the country. This paper introduces the cooperation in document conservation and cataloging that has occurred between ALM in China. It brieﬂ y describes The Digital Local History Project constructed by the National Library of China. Finally, it proposes the concept of cooperation between archives, libraries, and museums in digitizing local history. Keywords: Local history; Cooperation; Libraries; Museums; Archives; China

Introduction

In China, many ancient books and local documents are collected in libraries, museums and archives, including ancient books of the minorities. For many years, these institutions have not only made great efforts to preserve these valuable documents, but have also Wu Shushi is in charge of the made great achievements by cooperating with each other in their Center of Local History and collection, processing, and utilization. Libraries have played the Genealogy of the National decisive role in this cooperation. Library of China. She obtained a Bachelor’s Degree in History In an increasingly digital and network environment, the processing at the History Department of the and utilization of ancient books and local history documents should Inner Mongolia University of China develop in the direction of digitization and online access via the in 1997, and a Master’s Degree in Web. This paper introduces the cooperation that has been done Chinese History Documentation between ALM and The Digital Local History Project. Furthermore, at the Chinese Ancient Books some ideas are proposed about the partnership between libraries, Institute of Nankai University in museums and archives in digitizing local history. TianJin of China in 2001. She has worked on various research projects, including the General Contents and Methods of Cooperation Catalog of Chinese Genealogies project proposed and organized by the Shanghai Library and the In China it is difﬁ cult to unite libraries, museums, and archives Genealogy Metadata Description into one institution to collect and process documents because they Standards of the National Library belong to different departments. However, these institutions have of China. E-mail: [email protected] been cooperating in processing documents since the 1980s. Until now there have been several methods of cooperation with respect to local documentation.

Investigation and Cataloging of Local History Documents The ﬁ rst method is the investigation and cataloging of local history documents.

Cooperation in Compiling Chinese The 6,097 titles with abstracts were collected in Genealogy Catalogs this province, and 6,681 titles without abstracts were collected in other areas. Zhejiang Library The Chinese people have preserved many proposed the catalog project fi rst in 2001, and genealogies which comprise one of the important other collecting institutions in Zhejiang province parts of Chinese traditional culture. Pedigrees, responded to it immediately. Over 200 staff from biographies, and other materials about a family 102 institutions, including libraries, museums, are recorded in Chinese genealogies, including and archives from province, cities, and counties, much material about local history, local literature, cooperatively edited the catalog.4 Zhejiang migration, demography, sociology, etc. Chinese People’s Press published the catalog in October genealogies are collected in different libraries, 2005. Now, a digital version of the catalog has museums, archives and other academic institutions. been published on the website of Zhejiang library, In recent years these valuable documents have and can be searched on the Internet. been jointly processed and cataloged by these collecting institutions. The last one is the General Catalog of Chinese Genealogies. This is the fi rst special world catalog Here are three union catalogs of Chinese genealogies which have been cooperatively of Chinese genealogies. This catalog will record compiled by libraries, museums, and archives. 60,000 Chinese genealogies for 608 surnames Among them, one is about the genealogies of published in Chinese before 2003. Besides some Zhejiang province and the other two include private collections, most of the genealogies are genealogies from all over the country. deposited in different institutions of China, including Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao, and other The fi rst one is the Chinese Genealogies General countries all over the world. Catalog. This is the earliest genealogies catalog published in Mainland China. In this catalog, The General Catalog of Chinese Genealogies 14,719 Chinese genealogies published before 1949 project was proposed by the Shanghai Library are recorded, including those collected overseas. and adopted at the First Conference of Chinese Based on previous investigations, the Chinese Resources Cooperation and Development, which genealogies catalog project was carried out in 1984 was sponsored and organized by the National under the sponsorship of the National Archives Library of China and held in June 2000. The Bureau, the Department of History of Nankai conference aimed to provide an opportunity for University of China, and the Institute of History library and information professionals to discuss of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.1 With and exchange ideas on cooperation in sharing the support of the Chinese Ministry of Culture, Chinese resources. Chinese document collecting the National Archives Bureau, and the Chinese institutions from Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Ministry of Education,2 staff from 438 collecting Kong, Macao and overseas participated in the institutions participated in the project, including conference. 113 libraries, 230 archives, 29 museums and 66 other collecting institutions.3 This catalog also Every aspect of a genealogy is involved in the records the Chinese genealogies from the Chinese catalog, such as book title, creator, places of Rare Old Books Catalog and from other genealogy domicile, edition, physical description, published catalogs published in the United States and in time, name of the ancestral temple, key ancestors Japan. From the Chinese Genealogies General and celebrities, locations where lineage members Catalog, the collections of Chinese genealogies settled, etc, that are important materials for all over the world can be learned. research and looking for ancestors. Nine hundred institutions from China and overseas participated The second one is the Zhejiang Genealogies in the project, including the National Library of Abstract Catalog. The Jiang-Zhe area had a very China, the National Museum of China, the First prosperous genealogical culture in ancient times. Historical Archives, and other libraries, museums, Many Zhejiang genealogies with rich materials and archives from different provinces, cities, and characteristics have been preserved until now. and counties, as well as from the United States, This catalog includes 12,778 Zhejiang genealogies Singapore, Japan, Australia, and Europe. The collected in different institutions in China and catalog will be published soon, and the Shanghai overseas, as well as 512 titles of genealogies of Library plans to digitize it for the public to search other provinces collected in Zhejiang province. on the Internet.5 357 Wu Shushi

Cooperation in Compiling a Catalog of the ancient books extant today which were written in Ancient Books of Ethnic Minorities the scripts of the minority nationalities.

China has 55 ethnic minorities living in different This catalog is classifi ed according to administrative places; many of them have historical documents jurisdictions and will be edited jointly by the preserved today that are also an important part of libraries, archives, museums and other related Chinese culture. These valuable documents record institutions in different areas. The National the history, economy, culture, arts and customs Library of China is responsible for ancient of minority areas; some documents have been Mongolian documents collected in the Beijing successfully processed and cataloged by libraries, area, the First Historical Archives for ancient museums, and archives. Manchu documents, and the Chinese Center for Tibetan Studies for ancient Tibetan documents. Here are two catalog books of the ancient minorities’ documents; one has been fi nished, and The Catalog of Abstracts of the Ancient Books the other is being compiled now. of China’s Minorities will include 60 volumes, 100 items, and 300,000 titles. So far the Chinese The fi rst one is the Catalog of China’s Ancient Grand Encyclopedia Press has published the Books in Old Mongolian. This is the fi rst catalog Naxi volume and Bai volume; the others will be which gives an overview of ancient books in fi nished by 2008. Mongolian script collected in China. In 1994, eleven institutions, including the National Library After processing and cataloguing, China’s ancient of China, the Inner Mongolia University Library, local documents will be well utilized in academic and the Central Nationality University Library research and local economic construction, and proposed the project. As the main sponsor and they will promote the dissemination of Chinese organizer, the National Library of China took culture. the responsibility of directing and compiling the catalog and applying for support from the Conservation of Chinese Ancient Books IFLA Action for Development through Libraries Programme (ALP). The second method is to jointly carry out the national Chinese Ancient Books Conservation This catalog records 13,100 titles of ancient Plan. Mongolian books and some rubbings from According to the originally estimate, about inscriptions, including those published in Inner 30,000,000 volumes of Chinese ancient books, Mongolia before May 1947 and others published including the ancient books of ethnic minorities outside Inner Mongolia around the country before and many kinds of local history documents, are October 1949. The catalog also has an appendix held in libraries, museums, archives and other that gives a concise bibliography of 365 titles of collecting institutions in China. But many of them ancient Mongolian documents republished after are in poor condition and need repair. At the October 1949. beginning of 2005 the Chinese Ministry of Culture started the Chinese Ancient Books Conservation It includes the documents of 80 private collectors Plan to investigate the quantity and preservation and 179 institutions, including libraries, museums, condition of ancient books in China and overseas and archives. Staff from these institutions from and to finish restoring valuable documents every league or city, county or banner all over belonging to the fi rst and second grade relics Inner Mongolia and from other related provinces within 15 years. Ancient local history, genealogies, participated in the project. The Beijing Library and minorities’ documents should be investigated 6 Press published this book in May 2000. as part of this plan.

The second one is the Catalog of Abstracts of the This project needs the participation of all the Ancient Books of China’s Minorities. In 1997 the institutions that collect ancient books. Now, National Minorities Committee started a plan for the National Library of China is in charge of compiling the catalog in order to investigate the the program. The experts in ancient books collections of ancient books of China’s ethnic conservation and restoration from the National minorities all over the country. The abstract Library of China, the Palace Museum, the catalog is planned to record all the titles of the National Museum of China, the First Historical 358 Network Building between Libraries, Museums and Archives

Archives, the Central Archives, Peking University such as local histories, genealogies, Spring Festival Library, etc, are participating and discussing how pictures, old photos, and literature and historical to preserve China’s ancient books. materials. Some of them have been digitized. As of now, 200 Spring Festival pictures have been imaged and published in the Spring Festival Uniting Libraries and Archives in Pictures Masterpieces column on the website of One Institution the National Library. Every picture has an abstract The third method is to unite library and archives with a brief story, background, characteristics, into one institution to collect and utilize local and reference information. Besides these pictures historical documents. 3,000 old photos have also been scanned and provided with a description of the title, time, In 2003, in Taida District of Tianjin a new library place and content; these are being prepared for was constructed. The old library and the archives publication. were merged into one institution with the name of Taida Library but the name of Taida Archives Digital Local History is a project of the NLC has also been retained. The library has two to digitize ancient local histories. The library centers; one is the documents information center holds over 6,000 titles in 120,000 thread-bound for books, the other is the archives information volumes published before 1949, or 70 percent center for archive materials. The two centers of the ancient Chinese local histories that are have a division of labor but also cooperate with extant today. The Digital Local History project each other in some areas. The library is planning is to digitize the collection and create an images to collect and utilize documentary resources database and a full-text database. Based on the by constructing the Taida Local Documents latter, several knowledge databases will also be Database, Taida Talents Database, Taida completed. Full-text searching and single and Doctor and Master’s Papers Database, Taida complex searching will be realized between these City Construction Database, etc. Furthermore, databases. based on the materials collected, Taida Library will compile the Cultural, Educational, and Searching on ancient characters and modern Health History of Taida.7 As far as Taida Library characters, variant characters, and taboo characters is concerned, there are still some things to be will also be achieved. The character sets of promoted including standards for collecting and Unicode 4.0, which consists of 71,000 characters, cataloging, building a network, and digitizing have been used in the full-text database. The documents. computer can create the variant characters and taboo characters that are not in these character sets; this will avoid having many image characters Building and Sharing Ancient Local and make searching more accurate. History Resources In order to facilitate the reading of the original books in the image database, three levels of In China, many ancient books and local catalogs are provided, namely the book name history documents in the languages of different catalog, the volume title catalog, and the article nationalities are collected in libraries, museums title catalog. By searching a catalog users can and archives. The three types of institution have obtain the exact volume or article directly. been cooperating with each other in organizing, preserving and bringing to light documents and So far about 1,680,000 pages have been scanned have made great achievements. In the automation and 1,200,000 pages have been transformed and network environment they will have many into full-text.A portion of the images have been chances to cooperate, particularly in building published in the Digital Local History column and sharing digital resources for local history on the website of the NLC. 8 Now the project is documents. in the process of scanning the rest of the ancient local histories. A complete publishing system for Digital Local History at the National all resource databases is envisioned in which the Library of China public can search and browse freely. Many kinds of local history documents are Digital Local History is an experimental project collected in the National Library of China (NLC), for digitization of Chinese ancient documents 359 Wu Shushi

that has not only drawn on the accomplishments been cataloged yet; this affects the utilization of of past projects but has also enriched experience these documents to a large extent. In order to for the digitization of ancient books in the future. save funds and time, these institutions can use For example, some Chinese characters outside the catalog data of the NLC, after modifying it of Unicode 4.0 in the ancient local histories will according to their different conditions, because be reported to the Ideograph Rapporteur Group over 70 percent of all extant Chinese local (IRG) after being discerned by professionals and histories are deposited in NLC and have been identifi ed by specialists in ancient characters. completely cataloged. Now, many libraries and information institutions are jointly mapping out A Chinese local history is the encyclopedia of a various standards for the digital library. NLC is region, in which, history, geographical position responsible for the standards for local history and and conditions, and culture are recorded, has fi nished Local History Metadata Description including territory, historical events and fi gures, Standards and Local History Metadata Description economic situation, climate, products, mountains Regulations which can be utilized in cataloging and rivers, education, custom, historical relics, etc. local histories in China. Local history documents are the most valuable reference materials for knowing about the history Thirdly, the Digital Local History project of the and current situation of some regions, and also for NLC and the construction of the images and academic research about history, sociology, folk full-text resources databases of ancient local custom and folk literature. Digital Local History history in China should be fi nished. Now there will facilitate the reader’s use of these valuable are over 8,200 titles of ancient histories deposited materials as well as being good for academic in different institutions; unique copies are less research and ancient books conservation. than 10 percent of the total,9 while the others are duplicated in different institutions. It will require a large amount of funds to digitize ancient Cooperation between Libraries, Museums, and books, so this should be done cooperatively, and Archives In Digitizing Ancient Local History duplicated work must be avoided. The institutions Many ancient local history documents are with overlapping collections that have already collected in libraries, museums, and archives in been digitized by the NLC can share its resources China, and these institutions have jointly compiled through a contract and focus on digitizing the the Chinese Local History Union Catalog and other 30 percent in their own special collections. the Chinese Local History Abstract Catalog. The digital resources databases, including all those However, cooperation between these institutions of the ancient local histories, will be completed is not dynamic enough. Libraries, museums, at last in this way. and archives should increase cooperation in processing and digitization in order to realize China’s ancient local histories are thread-bound the construction and sharing of digital resources. books published before 1949, so copyright is not a The processing and digitization of ancient local problem for digitization. But several prerequisites histories can be done step by step. should be established for cooperation between multiple institutions. First, practical programs First, a comprehensive catalog should be compiled and agreements for cooperation between them based on the catalogs mentioned above and must be mapped out and should involve project an investigation of the distribution of Chinese management, funds, resources utilization, ancient history in all institutions, particularly in and rights and obligations. Secondly, various archives. The quantity and preservation condition standards for digitizing ancient local history of ancient books in China and overseas have should be spelled out, as well as the principles and not been surveyed yet; it will be done under the methods for solving common problems. With the Chinese Ancient Books Conservation Plan. As standards and agreements, digital resources will one of the kinds of ancient books, ancient local be cooperatively constructed and shared. Finally, history can be investigated at the same time. one premise for digitizing local history is fi nancial support. This is a project with signifi cant meaning Secondly, an ancient Chinese local histories which must be recognized by the government and database should be constructed for the convenience the society – it will protect and disseminate our of research by the public on the Web. In many valuable ancient document resources and promote institutions most of the local histories have not the development of traditional Chinese culture. 360 Network Building between Libraries, Museums and Archives

information about cooperatively compiling Chinese Conclusion Genealogies General Catalog, November, 1984. 3. The ﬁ gure is counted according to Chinese Genealogies General Catalog. The preservation and processing of the ancient 4. Zhejiang Genealogies Abstract Catalog, published by books of China’s minorities and ancient local Zhejiang People’s Press, October 2005. histories must be completed cooperatively by 5. Wang Heming. The character of General Catalog of Chinese Genealogies, Library Journal, 2006 (1). different institutions. In the digital and network 6. Wulin Xila. The summary of compiling and publishing environments, libraries, museums, and archives Catalog of China’s Ancient Books in Old Mongolian and. should jointly construct and share digital Catalog of Ganzhuer Danzhuer in Old Mongolian. resources for ancient documents. This is the best 7. Ji Xiaolin. The try and thought on jointly organizing books, information, and archives information. Data way to effectively and economically integrate and Work, 2005 (5). utilize documentary resources that are distributed 8. http://202.96.31.40:9080/chronic/index.htm among different institutions. 9. The ﬁ gure is counted according to Chinese Local History Union Catalog.

References Note 1. Chinese Genealogies General Catalog. published by Paper presented at the World Library and Information Zhonghua Book Bureau, September, 1997. Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council, 2. National Archives Bureau, Chinese Ministry of 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, in session 153, Education, and Chinese Ministry of Culture. The Genealogy and Local History.

361 Measuring the Impact of Knowledge Management

Jong-Ae Kim Abstract With the growing popularity of knowledge management, the need for frameworks for evaluating the impacts of knowledge management on organizational performance has been recognized by practitioners. Despite the wide implementations of knowledge management, there is yet no standardized framework for measuring the performance within organizations. This paper provides an overview of the approaches to evaluate the contributions of knowledge management implementations to organizational performance. It presents methods such as return on investment, balanced scorecard approach, qualitative case studies, and success case method to aid practitioners to identify and develop the evaluation frameworks. Thus, it seeks to serve as a foundation for further research and development. Keywords: Knowledge management; Organizational performance; Evaluation frameworks; Balanced scorecard

Introduction Jong-Ae Kim is a Consultant at Dongbu Information Technology in Seoul, Korea. She received Confronting today’s knowledge-based business environment, her PhD from Florida State companies have implemented knowledge management as a new University. Her research interests management technique that can increase competitive advantage. include knowledge management, Knowledge management (KM) refers to “a broad collection of usability assessment, and system organizational practices and approaches related to generating, acceptance. E-mail: jongae_ capturing, disseminating know-how and other content relevant to [email protected] the organization’s business” (American Productivity and Quality Center, 2002). Sveiby (1997) defi nes knowledge management as “leveraging the intellectual assets of the company to meet defi ned business objectives.” With increasing investments in KM implementations in many organizations, measuring organizational benefi ts of KM initiatives has become an important agenda among KM practitioners. To maintain continued support of decision makers, practitioners need to ensure that KM strategies have contributed to the organization’s performance improvement. Given that gaining continuous support from decision makers is a critical factor for a successful KM initiative, the measurement of KM performance is considered important.

Despite that the methods of evaluating KM performance have been widely studied, no consensus has been reached yet. Although it is difﬁ cult to demonstrate direct linkages between KM and an organization’s performance, the efforts to examine the interrelationships between the two have been made using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. This paper provides an overview of the approaches to evaluate the impacts of KM implementations on organizational performance as an effort to aid practitioners to identify frameworks for KM performance evaluation.

in public sector agencies. He developed the Frameworks for Evaluating knowledge management performance scorecard, Knowledge Management Performance which is a KM performance framework based on the balanced scorecard (BSC) approach (see KM practitioners are often requested to provide below). The framework aims to measure the empirical evidence that KM initiatives contribute impacts of KM on an organization’s operations. to corporate objectives. Measuring how much In recognition that KM performance should a KM implementation contributes to business be considered in a comprehensive business benefits can be a challenge because it deals performance context, the KM performance with something intangible. It is not simple to scorecard adopts the BSC as an overall business evaluate the impacts of KM strategies on an performance framework and embeds the KM organization’s performance because KM may not performance elements across the framework. be the only factor infl uencing the organization’s Given that public sector agencies have different performance. It may be affected by other factors objectives and strategies from commercial such as competitive environment and industry enterprises, Gooijer recommends modifying the conditions. However, KM initiatives should be elements of the four perspectives on the BSC to able to demonstrate their value and benefi ts in refl ect unique characteristics of public agencies. order to gain continuous support from a variety For example, the concept of the customer on of stakeholders. Thus, to demonstrate that KM the BSC needs to be redefi ned in the context of initiatives have created value and benefits, public sector agencies. Darroch (2003) developed the contributions of the initiatives must be the knowledge management scales to examine measurable. the associations between KM practices and fi rm performance. The knowledge management scales Teruya (2004) categorizes KM performance enable managers to identify gaps and implement measurements into three general types: internal effective strategies to improve KM practices in measurement, external measurement, and inferred organizations. The scales also help evaluate which value measurement. Internal measurement areas in KM practices in an organization are well evaluates how well KM strategies are implemented. developed and which areas are less developed. Performance evaluation of KM strategies can be done using various methods such as surveys, Return on Investment in interviews, and satisfaction ratings. The internal Knowledge Management measurements often employ subjective measures that quantify one’s perceptions by assigning values and weights. External measurement involves In the projects of developing knowledge numerical or fi nancial analyses such as return management systems, it is often required to on investment and benefi ts to the organization calculate return on investment (ROI) of the incurred by implementing KM. Inferred value projects based on objective data and measurable measurement is based on speculation and often results. Calculating the return on investment helps captures anecdotal benefi ts. justify the resources invested in KM initiatives and assess fi nancial performance of the initiatives. In Academics and practitioners have made efforts terms of cost and benefi t, the ROI calculation may to develop the frameworks for evaluating the be done simply by dividing the value of benefi ts performance of KM practices. Bose (2004) by the cost spent on the project (Haugh, 2002). emphasized the importance of standardized KM Both the costs involved in the development of a metrics to quantify knowledge and convince knowledge management system and additional stakeholders of the value of KM initiatives. With costs such as employee time spent in the the need for standardized KM metrics, he also operations of the system should be considered. asserts that unique standards for measuring The method proposed by McDermott (2002) to intellectual capital and KM initiatives need to calculate ROI of the communities of practice be created by each company. Del-Rey-Chamorro (CoP) can be adopted to estimate ROI in general et al. (2003) present a framework to evaluate KM activities. According to McDermott, a KM the contributions of KM implementations to practitioner can ask people in the organization corporate objectives using a set of key performance to estimate savings in time and cost and fi nancial indicators. Gooijer (2000) proposes an approach benefi ts incurred by KM activities to come up to measure the performance of KM practices with the value and benefi ts that the KM activities 363 Jong-Ae Kim

have created. Additionally, they can be asked to applications in terms of calculating the ROI. It estimate what percentage of the benefi ts or savings is diffi cult to discern the return on investment can be directly attributed to the KM activities in a KM initiative from business fi nancial data and how certain they are about that number. By because the impacts of a KM initiative cross many multiplying the numbers, the return on investment business processes, and fi nancial data are affected in the KM activities can be estimated. by various other factors. Due to the limitations of calculating ROI in IT projects based solely on Reported savings = Estimated savings and fi nancial performance, new ways of evaluating benefi ts * Percent attributed to KM activities the value of IT investments have been called * the degree of certainty for. Recent trends in research in IT investments (Adapted from McDermott, 2002) tend to emphasize nonfi nancial returns such as improving customer satisfaction and enhancing Although the estimation relies on individual the quality. judgment, not on objective data, it can provide decision makers with the information they need Balanced Scorecard Approach to determine whether the investment in KM practices has created value. The balanced scorecard (BSC) was developed There have been debates among academics and by Kaplan and Norton (1992) to complement IT specialists as to whether measuring the ROI in traditional fi nancial performance measures and IT projects is desirable. Numerical values derived provide a balanced view of both fi nancial and from the assessment of the costs and benefi ts operational measures. The BSC presents four may be preferred by decision makers. That may perspectives of performance measures: fi nancial be the reason that evaluating the ROI from the perspective, customer perspective, internal fi scal standpoint has been often demanded by top business perspective, and innovation and learning managers. Some IT projects are well suited for the perspective (Figure 1). assessment of ROI. Examples may include call center systems and billing applications. However, Customer perspective on the BSC concerns how certain aspects of the return may not be measured well a company meets customers’ expectations. by purely fi scal methods. KM projects are not as Customer-based measures may include customer straightforward as call center systems or billing satisfaction, on-time delivery defined by the

Financial Perspective

Goals Measures How do we look to Shareholders

How do customers What must we see us? excel at? Internal Businees Customer Perspective Perspective Goals Measures Goals Measures

Innovation and Learning Perspective Goals Measures

Can we continue to improve and create value?

Figure 1. Balanced scorecard.

364 Measuring the Impact of Knowledge Management customer, and price performance. Internal satisfaction, internal process, and innovation and business perspective focuses on business processes learning refl ect the company’s particular view of that a company should do to meet its customers’ the business environment, but it is not guaranteed expectations. The internal process measures may that the view is correct. include cycle time, quality, cost, and productivity. Innovation and learning perspective focuses Epstein and Rejc (2005) developed an IT balanced on a company’s ability to innovate and learn, scorecard that includes a list of measures for which enables the company to continue to make evaluating IT performance based on the BSC improvements and create value. The innovation approach proposed by Kaplan and Norton (1992). and learning measures may include new product The IT balanced scorecard is a framework that aids introduction, sales from new products, and process an organization to identify and assess the costs time to maturity. Financial perspective concerns and benefi ts of IT projects. It can be used to justify whether a company performs well in terms of an IT initiative at a planning stage and to evaluate profitability, growth, and shareholder value. it after the initiative has been implemented. Financial performance measures include cash Epstein and Rejc recommend that an IT balanced fl ow, sales growth, and return on equity. Financial scorecard should not include too many drivers indicators tend to show the consequences of and complex causal relationships between the actions already taken and do not represent the drivers to help managers focus on key issues. company’s current performance in creating They suggest that a complete IT performance value. On the other hand, operational measures measurement system include no more than 20 such as customer satisfaction, internal processes, measures. Also, it is important to modify the IT and innovation and improvement activities are balanced scorecard as circumstances change to the indicators that can drive the organization’s refl ect changed priorities. future financial performance. Some suggest that if a company takes care of its operating Arora (2002) suggests that organizations can performance, fi nancial success will follow (Kaplan effectively implement KM by developing and and Norton, 1993). However, improvement of applying a KM index based on the BSC. The KM operational performance does not necessarily index refl ects the progress of KM across the four lead to fi nancial success. So, the BSC seeks to perspectives on the BSC. Although measures provide a comprehensive view of the business of a KM index should be developed by each by incorporating both fi nancial and operational organization to refl ect the organization’s unique measures in one report, thereby compensating for objectives and KM strategies, Arora identifi es the limitations of presenting just one perspective. some generic measures of KM performance. This way, the BSC enables senior managers The generic measures include the amount of to ensure that improvement in one aspect of codifi cation of tacit knowledge, popularity and organizational performance is not the result of importance of the codifi ed repository, usage of sacrifi cing another (Kaplan and Norton, 1992). the repository items, currency and relevancy of the repository, level of collaborations, new When a company develops a BSC, it should products/practices introduced or problems establish general goals and specifi c goals for each solved by communities, and intellectual capital. perspective on the BSC and identify appropriate The number of measures in a KM index should measures based on the goals. Limiting the number be limited to minimize a manager’s information of measures within each of the four perspectives overload. To achieve this, the measures identifi ed on the BSC helps the company focus on the should be reviewed and prioritized by considering most critical strategic objectives and competitive the importance and relevance of each measure. agendas. An important task of companies When prioritizing the measures, weight may be implementing the BSC is to make appropriate assigned to the identifi ed measures. It is desirable linkage between operations and fi nance based on for senior managers who have a comprehensive the companies’ business objectives and strategies. picture of the organization’s vision and strategies The chains of cause and effect link the measures to be involved in developing a KM index. Kaplan of the four perspectives on the BSC. Causal and Norton (1993) point out that a BSC cannot relationships among the measures are based on be applied to any business in general or even hypothetical assumptions of causes and effects. organizations in the same industry. The same It should be noted that measures of customer can be said with KM. It is not recommended

365 Jong-Ae Kim

to apply the same KM index to two different organizations in the same industry (Arora, 2002). Success Case Method Also, it is important to modify the KM index as the company’s strategies change and the maturity Success case method (SCM) also provides an of the KM implementation progresses. effective framework to measure the impacts of KM implementations on organizational Qualitative Case Studies performance. The SCM was originally developed in the human resource development field to Given that some types of benefits are not evaluate the return on training investments. It was quantifi able, the qualitative case study approach developed by Brinkerhoff (2003) to address the can be valuable in evaluating the performance of lesser effectiveness of the traditional evaluation KM. The qualitative case study approach seeks to approach in reporting success cases in the uncover meaning by analyzing rich, non-numerical program evaluation fi eld. Motivated by the need information in a context of a particular case or to evaluate training’s effect in a broader context multiple cases. Teruya (2004) points out that well- of performance management than traditional researched and supported qualitative fi ndings are evaluation models did, the success case method better than quantitative examples whose basis and seeks to identify the success in the training-to- methods are suspect. The qualitative case study performance process as well as the weakness in approach can be implemented using a variety the process. It is also intended to help understand of methods including interviews, focus groups, “what worked, what did not, what worthwhile observations, and analyses of existing paper or results have been achieved, and most important, electronic documents. The interview method what can be done to get better results from future refers to a fl exible technique that investigates efforts” (Brinkerhoff, 2005, p.90). The SCM is interviewees’ expectations and perceptions on a based on the notion that we can learn how to specifi c issue with a question framework that will improve the performance of a program best from yield reliable responses. The focus group method refers to a group depth interview that seeks to gain those who have been the most and least successful. detailed comments and feedback on a specifi c By applying qualitative methods, the SCM can issue from a group of people. The focus group pinpoint the extremes that quantitative methods method can be conducted both in person and cannot. through web-based chat sessions. The observation The SCM aims to illustrate intentionally the best method is an unobtrusive method that does not practices that training has produced, but it is intrude upon people participating in a case study by observing them in a fi eld setting. In qualitative important to prove that the implementation of the case studies, the use of a data collection matrix program has caused the positive performance. By is recommended as a tool to guide the entire analyzing the cases in which the program did not data collection process (Creswell, 1998). The lead to the positive performance, one can elicit data collection matrix includes information such the factors that impede the positive performance as where the needed data is and what tools and of the program. Also, by comparing these factors procedures can be used to collect the data, thus with the factors that lead to success, adequate helping ensure that all the data is collected from strategies to produce better performance can be the right source(s) (O’Connor, 2002). developed.

The analysis of existing paper or electronic The SCM consists of two parts: locating likely documents is also a useful qualitative approach in success cases and identifying and documenting evaluating KM performance. In KM practices, this the success cases. The survey method is often used method can be applied to analyze communications to locate potential success cases by investigating among CoP members, messages posted on a people’s perceptions and behaviors. However, bulletin board, and questions and answers posted various other methods such as analysis of usage on a Q&A page to identify how KM activities records or performance data can be used to locate influence the members’ job performance. In success cases. Once the success cases are located, addition, the qualitative case study approach can the interview method is employed to learn and be used to explore the impacts of CoP activities document the actual nature of success. Through on organizational performance. interviews, a researcher can screen the cases to

366 Measuring the Impact of Knowledge Management

fi nd whether they are verifi able and documentable Arora, R. (2002) Implementing KM: A balanced scorecard and gather the evidence of the success cases. approach. Journal of Knowledge Management, 6(3), 240–249. Bose, R. (2004) Knowledge management metrics. Industrial One of the strengths of the SCM is that it is Management & Data Systems, 104 (6) 457–468. capable of identifying lack of success as well. The Brinkerhoff, R.O. (2003) The success case method: Find SCM helps locate the instances of non-success, out quickly what’s working and what’s not. San examine the reasons for non-success, compare Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. the perceptions and behaviors of both the success Brinkerhoff, R.O. (2005) The success case method: A strategic evaluation approach to increasing the value and non-success groups, and identify the factors and effect of training. Advances in Developing Human leading to the success of the program and the Resources, 7 (1) 86–101. factors impeding the positive results. In this way, Creswell, J. (1998) Qualitative inquiry and research the SCM helps improve the performance of the design: Choosing among fi ve traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. program. Darroch, J. (2003) Developing a measure of knowledge management behaviors and practices. Journal of Conclusion Knowledge Management, 7(5), 41–54. Del-Rey-Chamorro, F. M., Roy, R., Wegen, B., and Steele, A. (2003) A framework to create key performance With the wide implementations of KM in indicators for knowledge management solutions. Journal of Knowledge Management, 7 (2) 46–62. organizations, the need for frameworks for Epstein, M. J. & Rejc, A. (2005) How to measure and evaluating the contributions of KM to an improve the value of IT. Strategic Finance, 87 (4) organization’s performance has been recognized 34–41. by executives and KM practitioners. However, Gooijer, J. (2000) Designing a knowledge management there is yet no standardized framework for performance framework. Journal of Knowledge Management, 4 (4) 303–310. evaluating KM performance within organizations. Haugh, R. (2002) ROI: Return on investment? Or relying Thus, identifying and implementing the evaluation on instinct? Hospitals & Health Networks, 76 (1) frameworks for KM strategies has become a 38–40. challenge for practitioners who seek to justify their Kaplan, R. S. and Norton, D. P. (1992) The balanced scorecard – Measures that drive performance. Harvard efforts. In order to aid practitioners to accurately Business Review, 70 (1) 71–79. understand and evaluate the contributions of Kaplan, R. S. and Norton, D. P. (1993) Putting the KM implementations, this paper has provided an balanced scorecard to work. Harvard Business Review, overview of various evaluation approaches. 71 (5) 134–147. McDermott, R. (2002) Measuring the impact of Until a standard evaluation framework for KM communities: How to draw meaning from measures of communities of practice. KM Review, 5 (2) 26–29. performance across various organizational O’Connor, B. N. (2002) Qualitative case study research contexts and techniques to aid the development in business education. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 44 of a unique evaluation framework in a particular (2) 80–90. organizational context are established, academics Sveiby, K. (1997) Skandia AFS business navigator. Retrieved March 15, 2006 from http://www.sveiby. and practitioners should continue their efforts to com.au/IntangAss/SkandiaAFS.html develop meaningful evaluation frameworks. It is Teruya, S. A. (2004) Measuring performance improvement: hoped that this overview will serve as a foundation A knowledge management perspective. Performance for further research and development. Improvement, 43 (4) 33–39.

References Note American Productivity and Quality Center. (2002) Paper presented at the World Library and Information Perspectives on knowledge management. Retrieved Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council, February 12, 2006 from http://knowledge.usaid.gov/ 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea in session 141 Knowledge JoeRabenstine_Seminar1.pdf Management with Statistics and Evaluation.

367 Wolfgang Ratzek

REPORT

Libraries on the Agenda! The President-Elect’s Planning Session in Seoul

Wolfgang Ratzek the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS). Some General Remarks Session One: Some Facts about Claudia Lux´s Programme From 20–24 August 2006, some 5,000 library and information professionals attended the World Library and Information Congress (WLIC), 72nd The aim of the programme, Libraries on the IFLA General Conference And Council, in Seoul, Agenda! is “to involve your government and your South Korea. The Congress offers an excellent local decision makers in the concerns of libraries”. opportunity for orientation and networking. This will be achieved by a proactive strategy Another reason to attend is to meet the members which will hopefully lead into a campaign for of IFLA Headquarters, such as IFLA President the promotion of libraries on the local, regional, Alex Byrne or President-Elect Claudia Lux, in national and international levels. In an interview person. In preparation for her presidency in 2007, with the German periodical Buch und Bibliothek Professor Dr. Claudia Lux invited the participants (11–12/2005, pp. 772ff.) Claudia Lux interpreted to join her President-Elect’s Planning Session on her programme as follows: “We and decision August 22. On 24 August the results of this session makers must be sitting at the same table”. were presented before the IFLA Council, and are summarized in this report. After a short introduction to the program, Claudia Lux raised the following seven questions:

Scoring a Bull’s Eye 1. What is our situation of advocacy? 2. What does Libraries on the Agenda! mean? Claudia Lux will be in ofﬁ ce from 2007–2009. 3. Who is the focus of our advocacy? She invited participants in WLIC Seoul to share 4. Which are the most suitable topics to deal their ideas about the theme and programme for with? her period of ofﬁ ce, Libraries on the Agenda! – a 5. Which methods are successful? title which, at the same time, is suitable for an 6. Who should be involved? effective slogan for the programme. 7. What should our performance be like?

Approximately 80 participants met in a workshop Claudia Lux herself discussed questions 1–4, to discuss the theoretical and practical challenges while questions 5–7 were assigned to the different provoked by Libraries on the Agenda! The goal for working groups. The results of both parts of the the session was to initialize the programme and to session are summarized below. get direct feedback from international experts. 1. What is our Situation of Advocacy? The workshop was divided into two sessions. The ﬁ rst session comprised the presentation of a In all our discussions, librarians have frequently kick-off paper by Claudia Lux and brainstorming mentioned that libraries are not a focus of by the participants in work groups. The second political decision making, although they are able comprised presentations of examples of best to contribute in so many ways to the development practice in connection with IFLA activities at of our society.

sociologist Max Weber, she pointed out that politics consists of three main elements: power, organization and values.

It is assumed that all will agree, when she maintains that librarians might not be overly powerful when it comes to getting their ideas accepted against the inﬂ uence of others, but we can learn to do something about it.

We all know that we have better possibilities of exerting our influence on politicians and administrations by taking an active part in planning and organizing, considering that we Claudia Lux have many creative ideas and a strong group of libraries behind us, which are able to contribute First of all: Is it good or bad to be the focus of to numerous aspects of society. political attention? Our values are stronger and more convincing There cannot be just one answer to this question than those of many other lobbyists. Librarians only, as we have seen many cases where political stand for a wide range of values such as free attention has led to restrictions to libraries’ daily access to information, bridging the digital divide, work, hindered their endeavours to provide life long learning, stimulating the imagination free access to information to their clients and and creativity of children and young people, threatened their ways of acquiring all kinds of fostering inter-cultural dialogue and favouring books with all kind views of the world. As the cultural diversity, supporting the oral tradition and UNESCO Manifesto for Public Libraries states promoting awareness of cultural heritage, etc. clearly: ”Collections and services should not be subject to any form of ideological, political or Using the wide range of values and our ability religious censorship, nor commercial pressures.” to organize information we should be able to advocate for libraries and to infl uence political What is to be included in library collections decision makers. should be down to professional decision making on the part of librarians without the infl uence 2. What does ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ of politicians and political pressure groups. This mean? responsibility of librarians is based on their professional training. According to Claudia Lux ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ means that we will activate our members To deal with cases in which this is not respected, and enable them to speak up on every occasion IFLA has created its own core activity with to advocate for libraries. And here IFLA comes FAIFE, the offi ce for Free Access to Information into play. IFLA is an international association and Freedom of Expression, which aims to further with librarians from many different countries and the key issue of intellectual freedom by monitoring different experiences of advocacy. The President- the state of that freedom in different countries, Elect’s theme ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ aims to cooperating with other agencies and responding collect information on different aspects, adequate on IFLA’s behalf to violations of the principle. methods and successful practices of advocacy from all over the world in order to develop an advocacy Against this background Claudia Lux presented handbook for libraries. Your own experience and an answer to her fi rst question: She thinks “it is your ideas shared with librarians from all over the good to be a focus of political attention and to be world will be a rich base for the daily advocacy involved in administrative planning processes”. work for ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ And her presidential theme ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ aims to emphasize precisely that. She Most libraries and their managements have more went on: “The present situation of advocacy for or less strong connections with the departments libraries is not entirely bad, yet our political role of culture, education or science within the can be strengthened”. Referring to the German political administration of their country, region, or 369 Wolfgang Ratzek

community. They have more or less good relations In other words, we should not get stuck in the one with the representatives of the university, school or two drawers in which politicians would tend or institute they work for. to see us, but we should claim our place in many more drawers and take part in many different This means, for the cultural department and activities involving different political departments, its political representatives, that librarians are even though they might think that they have no standing up in order to lobby for the sake of responsibility for libraries. The more we facilitate culture. The best effect will be obtained by working their job with our dedicated library information together with other partners like museums, work, the better our chances to receive their archives, etc. In the educational sector we have support and their fi nancial help. This is what is to look for partnerships within or with schools, meant by ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ universities and other educational institutions, which are much bigger and will therefore receive more attention from the respective government 3. Who is the Focus of our Advocacy? departments. The focus of our advocacy includes political decision makers at international, national, Libraries have to put forward arguments to prove regional, and community levels. why they are as important as other cultural and educational sectors and why they deserve On the national level, libraries will address their to be supported and receive better financial political representatives in parliament, in the assistance. cultural or the educational ministry. However, libraries can also be of interest to other ministerial While we know of our infl uence in the areas of departments, even though their possible role may culture and education, where we have already not yet be recognized or their value might be found many possibilities to get on the agenda, we thought to be relevant only to issues of culture should aim for more. Many politicians tend to stick and education. libraries into a cultural or educational drawer. But compared to other cultural institutions, libraries Librarians do carry out advocacy work on a are involved in far more areas where they can regional and community level where, besides assist in problem solving. their activities in the cultural and education fi elds, they try to get on to the agendas of regional For this reason libraries should be on the agenda of development, city planning, the information e.g. city planning, because libraries are important society, etc. for the life in a city and can make a big difference to the urban environment. At the university level or in other academic For this reason libraries should be on the agenda institutions it is important to have libraries on of migration politics, because libraries can help the agenda, too. There they will sometimes be immigrants with countless issues of information, forgotten, as their role in planning is not being language training courses, assistance in matters considered. of social support and contact. Special libraries within an institution frequently For this reason libraries should be on the agenda face the same situation; they are not involved in of economic development, as they can provide the planning of research projects which they are extensive information to small and medium expected to support. business people. Claudia Lux emphasized that ‘Libraries on For this reason libraries should be on the agenda the Agenda!’ is not only an activity of library of health politics because they can supply all kinds directors and library associations. At the same of information on health issues, from addresses time, librarians are taking part in community life, of specialized health practitioners to matters of be it with children in kindergarten and in school prevention. or with a home for the aged or a new business centre. They may stand up and talk about the There are many more areas at all political levels possibilities that libraries have to add to these where libraries can make a difference or just assist aspects of community life and why libraries have further development. to be on their agendas. 370 Libraries on the Agenda!

The level at which our advocacy takes place is ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ means that library important. associations and librarians are enabled to engage in various activities to make libraries a focus of There is no international government, but there political decision making. are international forums and activities where IFLA as an organization has to advocate, like There are outstanding examples from all over the WSIS, UNESCO, WIPO and others. world and Claudia Lux said that it was her hope that those active librarians would participate in This is a major task for our IFLA bodies, for the the discussion here and at the next opportunity Secretary General, and, in particular, for the and pass their knowledge on to others so as to President of IFLA. But our success in WSIS is broaden the advocacy skills of our members. due to the great activities of our Swiss colleagues and Tuula Haavisto whom we engaged to direct our attention to these aspects and keep us continuously up to date. IFLA were hardly able manage this essential advocacy work without those two pillars of support.

We have learnt a lot from this process; for instance, how and at what stage to best exercise infl uence on the contents of forthcoming papers, how to be able to speak at the summit’s plenum, and how to cooperate with many other NGOs. None of this would have been possible without the support and the active involvement of many national library associations and their delegates. The working groups in session. We know now that we have a dedicated team of convincing personalities, much knowledge of the processes of the summit’s organization, solid Session One: Results arguments written in clear language, outstanding from the Working Groups examples of libraries’ contributions to an information society collected in an impressive international database and partners on different Ten working groups were formed to share levels supporting all or part of our goals. (More experiences and find answers relating to the results were shown in the second part of the following questions: President Elect’s session in Seoul). • Which methods are successful? • Who should be involved? 4. Which are the Most Suitable Topics to Deal • Which arguments are best? With? Many libraries have already made their The results are summarized below. contribution to the task of advocating libraries. These have been collected in a ‘success database’, Which Methods are Successful? which illustrates wonderfully that libraries are an invaluable part of the information society; each Library focus report is one more argument for libraries. • Install a public relations department in every Others have written something in favour of library academic and public libraries, of libraries in the • Copy the strategies of successful campaigners, life long learning process and as partners in the e.g. successful fundraising methods or information literacy program. Let us gather all the merchandising concepts good arguments to make it easier for librarians to • Have a marketing plan advocate for libraries in all fi elds. Let us now fi nd • Transparency – ‘What is a library?’ out how librarians should behave when they are • Library must be seen from the outside and not advocating for their goals. the inside out 371 Wolfgang Ratzek

• Enable staff (through training) how to analyze • Business world, consumer organizations, trade a context and best practices unions, journalists, media, schools, rotary • Involve the community • Cooperation with archives and museums • Grassroots (NGOs) Lobbying focus • Library schools • Lobbying, i.e. being active before problems arise • Instead of asking – put something on the table • Provide opinion leaders/politicians with useful information to support their work - on a personal and face-to-face level - you have to know the decision maker in person PHOTO: PICT 066 • Networking in governmental structures

- being involved in (critical) political issues - involvement policy (agenda setting) - being part of the political program Intense discussion in one of the working groups. - involve your library when election campaigns are going on Which Arguments are Best? • Develop evidence-based data (to communicate library’s impact) Philosophy • Understanding political problems and the LIS-association focus decision making process • Advocacy handbook for librarians • Libraries provides value for your city/ • Development of performance indicators community • Networking on local, national and international • The UNESCO Manifesto and IFLA level (joint power structure) Guidelines • Identify stakeholders (those with tested interest • Libraries are for all, to promote universal access in libraries) to knowledge • Cooperation with archives and museums • Stand up for values • Get other people or institutions to speak for us

Who Should be Involved? Results driven arguments

Multiplicator/opinion leader • Provide politicians with ideas for policy making (agenda setting) • Integrate people/celebrities from the outside • Show results and not only values i.e. presenting e.g. pop stars, sportsmen statistical data • Bringing decision-makers in, e.g. politicians • Having strong and united library associations in library associations (maybe a problem in which are actively supported by its members opposition parties) • Having strategic alliances with the business • Hired lobbyists world, consumer organizations, unions and • User advocacy groups to spread messages other institutions • Staff with full knowledge of mission, goals and objectives Action Institutions • Show stakeholders what libraries can offer for • All types of libraries, but there will be a need individual information needs for leadership • Invite all stakeholders and show them what • Library associations libraries offer • Community • Address user needs 372 Libraries on the Agenda!

• Make libraries visible • getting librarians into governmental positions • Being prepared for discussion/confrontations (librarians become politicians). - using statistics She thanked all colleagues who are supporting so - storytelling generously and active IFLA’s advocacy work at - case studies the World Summit on the Information Society and - speaking with one voice talked about the good examples of some library • Finding politicians who are librarians associations, how they used the WSIS for their • Networking of library associations “libraries development”. • Getting librarians into governmental positions (librarians become politicians) At the next World Library and Information Congress in Durban, the President-Elect will have Session Two: Examples of Best Practice a second brainstorming session about ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’, which will have a focus on the performance of librarians in their advocacy After a short break four papers were presented work. focusing on international best practice in connection with the World Summit on the Claudia Lux invites colleagues to write to her about Information Society: their experiences in advocacy or on any activity or subject they want to add in a connection with • Tuula Haavisto (Finland): IFLA-Advocacy at her presidential theme ‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ WSIS Write to IFLA Headquarters or [email protected]. • Danielle Mincio (Switzerland): Use Success Database for Advocacy • Dr. Dusan Katuscak (Slovakia): Library Policy Final Remarks in Slovakia • Elizabet de Carvalho (Brazil): Successful LIS- The brainstorming session in general and the lively policy in Brazil. discussion made clear that there is a need for advocacy policy focusing on library concerns on The Council Meeting a local, regional, national and international level. The results lay the ground for further action at the WLIC in Durban in 2007 where we will discuss At the end of the Council meeting on Thursday 24 “how do we perform – how do politicians think August in Seoul President-Elect Claudia Lux gave you perform”. a short report about the brainstorming meeting. She thanked all participants for their active and The participants in the sessions in Seoul valued the fruitful participation in this session and reported opportunity to share the experience of colleagues a few aspects of the results, picking some of the from different countries. The comment by Jens best arguments such as: Boyer, Head Librarian at the Goethe-Institute in Tokyo, may serve to reﬂ ect the feelings of many • having strong and united library associations which are actively supported by their members of those present: and speak with one voice – at least when they At least important for me as the lectures were are talking to a politician the opportunity to meet with colleagues from • provide politicians with ideas for policy making (agenda setting) all over the world. It was very useful for my • show results and not only values i.e. presenting project work in Japan. The same goes for statistical data and Claudia Lux´ planning and discussion session on August 22. Maybe something comparable - being prepared for discussion/ could be adopted for the contributions made confrontations in the different conference sections. - using statistics - storytelling Note - case studies Report prepared by Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Ratzek, Stuttgart • to get other people or institutions to speak for Media University, Wolframstr. 32, DE 70191 Stuttgart, us and last but not least Germany. E-mail : [email protected] 373 News

NEWS

IFLA Policies

Christoph I of Baden (1490), NEWS CONTENTS the prayer book of Susanna von World Summit on the IFLA Policies ...... 374 Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach, Information Society From the Regional Offi ces . . 375 medieval lectionaries from the Elections ...... 375 scriptorium of the monastery at Membership ...... 375 Reichenau, and the Gospel of St. WSIS Mailing List Future IFLA Conferences Peter (ca. 1200). The majority and Meetings ...... 376 of manuscripts come from the The WSIS mailing list has been Grants and Awards ...... 378 libraries of monasteries in the activated at: http://infoserv. IFLA Publications ...... 381 Black Forest, the Upper-Rhine, inist.fr/wwsympa.fcgi/info/wsis- Other Publications ...... 382 and Lake Constance and most l. This mailing list is meant for were acquired when the monastic the communication of the IFLA libraries were expropriated fol- activists interested in WSIS matters. lowing secularization in 1803. They Through the list, we will disseminate International Librarians record the development of religion and exchange information and Concerned about and society in the region. share experiences. Welcome to join Manuscripts of the list! Baden-Württemberg It is understood that the sale is intended to fi nance the preservation President-elect’s WSIS of the Salem castle, the last castle Dr Alex Byrne, President of the Working Group of the house of Baden, and its International Federation of Library ongoing maintenance. While this is The Governing Board meeting in Associations and Institutions desirable, it must not be done at the Seoul approved the formation of (IFLA), expressed dismay when expense of this important collection a President-elect’s WSIS Working he heard of the planned sale of the of manuscripts. Group, to follow the WSIS Contact manuscripts of the House of Baden Group of IFLA. More information by the provincial government of The International Federation on the WG will be available on the Baden-Württemberg. He said: “The WSIS-list and on IFLA-L. international library and archival of Library Associations community is shocked to hear of and Institutions calls on the proposal of the Government of the Government of Baden- WSIS Action Lines Baden-Württemberg to sell all the Württemberg to abandon works acquired before 1872 – some this proposal and renew its The post-WSIS work is organized 3,500 out of a total of 4,200 volumes commitment to the preser- around eleven Action Lines, which – from the manuscript collection vation of the history of are the WSIS implementation of the Badische Landesbibliothek Baden-Württemberg as docu- mechanism at the international in Karlsruhe. This incomparable mented in the manuscript level. Each Action Line is moderated collection includes major treasures collection of the Badische or facilitated by some UN agency taken from monasteries in 1803 Landesbibliothek. (UNESCO, ITU, UNDP). The and documents a thousand years of whole text of the Geneva Action commerce and cultural development Contacts: Plan: http://www.itu.int/wsis/ in Europe. It is not only a treasure for docs/geneva/offi cial/poa.html. The Baden-Württemberg and Germany Dr Alex Byrne, IFLA President. eleven WSIS Action Lines and the but part of the world heritage. It Tel +61 2 9514 1465. E-mail alex. IFLA ranking for them are: must be protected.” [email protected] C1. The role of governments and all The collection includes pracht- Dr Peter Lor, IFLA Secretary stakeholders in the promotion manuscripts, an illuminated Book General. Tel +31 70 31 40 884. of ICTs for development *High of Hours belonging to Archduke E-mail ifl a@ifl a.org priority*

Copyright © 2006 International Federation of Library Associations & IFLA Institutions (www.iﬂ a.org). IFLA Journal 32(4): 374–382. 374 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035206074077 From the Regional Ofﬁ ces

C2. The information and com- C7. ICT Applications C9. Media *Low priority* munication infrastructure (E-government, E-business, C10. Ethical dimensions of the *Low priority* E-learning, E-health, Information Society *High C3. Access to information and E-employment, E- priority* knowledge *Highest priority* environment, E- C11. International and regional C4. Capacity building *High agriculture, E-science) cooperation *Low priority* priority* *Medium priority*, except C5. Building confidence and E-government *High More information: Tuula Haavisto, security in the use of ICTs priority* WSIS Coordinator of IFLA. E-mail: *Low priority* C8. Cultural diversity and identity, tuulah@kaapeli.ﬁ C6. Enabling environment *Low linguistic diversity and local priority* content *High priority*

From the Regional Offices

end his term in that offi ce at the our annual World Library and Regional Offi ce for Africa same date. Information Congress in Durban coming up in August 2007. In cooperation with the Africa IFLA’s Regional Offi ce for Africa, Section IFLA has started the process More information: Sjoerd Koopman, which has for decades been based to find candidate institutions to Coordinator of Professional at the Library of the University of host our office for Africa and Activities, IFLA Headquarters. Dakar, Senegal, will close as of 31 candidates for the position of E-mail: sjoerd.koopman@ifl a.org December 2006. Mr Henri Sène Regional Manager. This issue will – who has been Manager of the be all the more important with Regional Offi ce for 20 years – will

Elections

Section Standing Committees for FAIFE Committees: sent to Calls for Nominations the term 2007–2011. all IFLA Association Members • Nominations for President-elect entitled to nominate a candidate and Governing Board members: to these committees for the term IFLA Headquarters dispatched in sent to all IFLA Association and of offi ce 2007–2011. October 2006 the following calls Institutional Members, Personal for nominations: Affi liates and Honorary Fellows The deadline for all nominations is who are entitled to nominate 7 February 2007. • Nominations for Section candidates for the post of Standing Committees: sent President-elect and Governing More information: Dr Peter Lor, to all IFLA Association and Board member for the term of IFLA Secretary General. Tel +31 70 Institutional Members registered offi ce 2007–2009. 31 40 884. E-mail ifl a@ifl a.org for Sections and entitled to • Nominations for candidates nominate candidates to the to the IFLA/CLM and IFLA/

Membership

institutional member, being our ﬁ rst Library and Information Association New Members member in Afghanistan. of Jamaica, Jamaica

We bid a warm welcome to the National Associations Institutions following 26 members who have joined the Federation between 03 Sociedad Cubana de Ciencias de la Afghan Parliament Library, August and 03 October 2006. We are Información (SOCICT), Cuba Afghanistan happy to announce that the Afghan Ghana Library Association, Centro Memorial Dr. Martin Luther Parliament Library has joined as an Ghana King Jr., Cuba

375 News

Centro Nacional de Información de Family History Library, United Philip van Zijl, New Zealand Ciencias Médicas, Cuba States Ms Kanwal Ameen, Pakistan Bibliothèque Municipale de la Ville Ms Dalia M. Gohary, Qatar de Rennes, France Ms Reigneth Nyongwana, South College de France, Service des School Libraries Africa Bibliothèques, France Scotch College, Australia Ms Karen Kuhn, United States Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC), India University of Uyo Library, Nigeria Personal Afﬁ liates Student Afﬁ liates National Library of Nigeria, Andrew J. Stark, Australia Bello D. Bage, Nigeria Nigeria Ms Dalia M. Naujokaitis, Canada Ms Christine Lanphere, United Qatar University Library, Qatar Mohamed Isahan, Malaysia States University of Missouri – Kansas City, Alexander E.H.L. Burgers van der University Libraries – Serials, Bogaert, Netherlands United States

Future IFLA Conferences and Meetings

‘Libraries on the Agenda!’ chosen by Conference and Council, Durban, First International IFLA the German IFLA president for her South Africa, 19–23 August, Presidential Meeting 2007 term. Simultaneous interpretation 2007. Theme: Libraries for the (German-English-Russian) will be future: progress, development and provided. partnerships. The first International IFLA Presidential Meeting will be held at the German Foreign Offi ce, Berlin, Registration and further Exhibition Werderscher Markt 1, 10117 Berlin, information Germany on 18 –19 January 2007. An international library trade To register please send an email exhibition will be held at the During the German IFLA to klauser@bibliotheksverband. conference venue in conjunction presidential term, the German IFLA de indicating your first and last with the conference. For further national committee, supported by name, your institution, mailing information and to reserve ex- the German Foreign Offi ce, BID, address, phone number and email hibition space contact: CONGREX address. You will then receive a BII and the Goethe-Institut, is HOLLAND BV, PO Box 302, 1000 confirmation email containing planning an international conference AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands. payment information including series entitled ‘Free Access to Tel: +31 20 50 40 201. Fax: +31 20 50 account and routing numbers for Information’. The three conferences 40 225. E-mail: wlic2007@congrex. bank transfer. Please note that we of the series are scheduled for the can only accept registrations if the nl German IFLA presidential term conference registration fees have (2007, 2008, 2009). Librarians been paid on time. Updates of the programme will and cultural affairs offi cials from be published on the website www. different countries (especially from For more information please ifl a.org on a regular basis. Eastern-Europe), from Germany contact: Hella Klauser, Secretariat/ as well as IFLA representatives German IFLA National Committee, will be discussing possibilities and Sessions and Satellite Competence Network for Libraries practices to provide free access to (KNB) at the German Library Meetings information. German innovative Association Straße des 17. Juni 114, projects as well as examples of Sessions and Satellite Meetings 10623 Berlin, Germany. Tel. +49- cooperative and fi nancial support known so far: 30-39001482. E-mail: klauser@bib programs will be presented. Those liotheksverband.de projects and programs are aimed at Academic and Research Li- promoting the cooperation between braries Section. Theme to be libraries, and the coordination WLIC Durban, announced. between libraries, cultural affairs South Africa, 2007 Africa Section. African libraries for offi cials and the political decision the future. makers. The themes of the series Asia & Oceania Open Session. of conferences ‘Free Access to World Library and Information Information providers coping Information’ are guided by the motto Congress 2007, 73rd IFLA General with disaster in Asia-Oceania.

376 Future IFLA ConferencesFrom the Regional and Meetings Ofﬁ ces

Continuing Professional Develop- Public Libraries, Reading and School ment and Workplace Learning Libraries’ Sections. Libraries WLIC Quebec, 2008 Section. 7th World Conference in good health: resources and on Continuing Professional practices designed to support World Library and Informa- Development & Workplace community development and tion Congress:74th IFLA General Learning for the Library and outreach in health-related Conference and Council, Information Professions. issues. Québec, Canada, 10–15 August Theme: Continuing professional Reading Section with the Libraries 2008. Theme: Libraries without development: pathways to for Children and Young Adults borders: navigating towards global leadership in the library & Section. Publishing, distributing understanding. information world. 14 –16 August and promoting children's books 2007, Johannesburg – South in local languages: African Africa. experience. Contact Details Health and Biosciences Libraries Serials and other Continuing IFLA Headquarters and WLIC Section. Library frontiers: dis- Resources Section. Handling Conference Secretariat – as above. asters, emergency preparedness serials and other continuing and emerging diseases. resources. Quebec City National Committee, IFLA/FAIFE. Libraries in the Statistics and Evaluation Section. WLIC 2008 Québec, Canada, struggle against corruption. 7th Northumbria International Association pour l’avancement Information Literacy Section. Conference on Performance des sciences et des techniques Developing the Library into a Measurements in Libraries and de la documentation (ASTED), learning centre, in cooperation Information Services. Quality 3414, avenue du Parc, bureau 202, with the former IFLA President assurance and outcomes assess- Montréal, Québec, Canada, H2X Kay Raseroka. 14–15 August ment in libraries and information 2H5.Tel: (514) 281–5012. Fax: (514) 2007, Gaborone, Botswana. services. 281–8219 get. E-mail: info@asted. Knowledge Management Sec- org Website: www.asted.org tion. Best practices or lessons learned. Important Addresses Further information: http://www. ifl a.org/IV/ifl a74/ann2008en.pdf Library and Research Services for Parliaments Section.Parlia- IFLA/WLIC Conference Secretariat, 74e Congrès mondial des mentary libraries and research Congrex Holland BV, PO Box Bibliothèques et de l’Information, services of the future: partnerships 302, 1000 AH Amsterdam, The Ville de Québec, Québec, for change. Netherlands. Phone: +31 20 50 40 Canada, 10–14 août 2008. Thème: Library Buildings and Equipment 201. Fax: +31 20 50 40 225. E-mail: Bibliothèques sans frontières: Section. The changing role of [email protected] naviguer vers une compréhension libraries as meeting and learning globale. spaces: the third place. IFLA Headquarters, PO Box Library Services to Multicultural 95312, 2509 CH The Hague, Secrétariat de l’IFLA: Casier postal Populations Section. Innovative The Netherlands. Phone: +31 70 95312, 2509 CH La Haye, Pays-Bas. multicultural library services 314 0884. Fax: +31 70 383 4827. Tél.: +31 70 314 0884. Fax: + 31 70 for all: literacy, learning and Website: www.ifl a.org 383 4827. Courriel: ifl a@ifl a.org. linguistic diversity. Site Web: www.ifl a.org Library Theory and Research National Committee WLIC 2007 Section. The cultural heritage Secrétariat du Congrès WLIC, Durban, LIASA – Library and and LIS-research. Congrex Holland BV. Tél. : +31 20 Information Association of South Management and Marketing Sec- 5040 201. Fax: + 31 20 5040 225. Africa, PO Box 3668, Durban 4000, tion. Managing technologies Site Web: www.congrex.com and library automated systems South Africa. in developing countries. Comité d’organisation – Québec, National Library of Angola. 5th Inter- WLIC 2008 Québec, Canada, national Meeting of Portuguese IFLA WLIC 2007 Website Association pour l’avancement des Speaking Librarians. sciences et des techniques de la docu- Preservation and Conservation For updated information on the mentation (ASTED), 3414, avenue Section. Mold, pests, terrorism conference please visit the IFLA du Parc, bureau 202, Montréal, and dust: preservation policies WLIC 2007 website at http://www. Québec, Canada, H2X 2H5. Tél. and management. ifl a.org/IV/ifl a73/index.htm IFLA +1 (514) 281 –5012. Fax: (514) Newspapers Section. African news- World Library and Information 281–8219. Courriel: info@asted. papers: access and technology. Congress 2007. org. Site Web: www.asted.org

377 News

Grants and Awards

The Prize of EUR 2,725 will Intent in English, French or German Guust van Wesemael be paid out in 2 instalments: two (not more than 3 pages), which Literacy Prize – call for thirds immediately and one third should include: applications 2007 on submission of a report of how the Prize has been used. • the reasons for applications specifying the seminar or Objective conference the applicant wishes Reporting to attend The objective of the Prize is to Within 6 months after receipt of • a proposed budget, includ- recognize an achievement in the fi eld the Prize, the winner must submit ing financial sources from of literacy promotion in a developing to IFLA HQ an interim report of elsewhere country. The Prize should preferably the use made of the funds, and • a curriculum vitae be used for follow-up activities such the second instalment will be paid as purchasing targeted collections out. When the project period is Deadline for applications: of appropriate books, but may also fi nished a fi nal report and a fi nancial 1 February 2007. be used for other activities such as statement should be submitted. (The Application form on IFLANET: literacy promotion, training, policy report should be in a form suitable http://www.ifla.org/III/grants/ development. The Prize is issued for publication in IFLA Journal). grant03.htm biennially. The focus of the Prize is public library or school library Deadline for applications: work. Both individuals and library Dr. Shawky Salem 1 March 2007 institutions are eligible to apply. Conference Grant 2007 More information and application The Prize was established by form on IFLANET: http://www.ifl a. The Dr. Shawky Salem Conference the IFLA Executive Board in org/III/grants/grant02.htm November 1991, to commemorate Grant is an annual grant established the late Guust van Wesemael, by Dr. Shawky Salem and the who was Coordinator of IFLA's Dr. Hans-Peter International Federation of Library Professional Activities from 1979 Geh Grant 2007 Associations and Institutions (IFLA). to 1990 and Deputy Secretary The aim of the grant is to enable one General of IFLA from 1979 to 1991, expert in library and information The Hans-Peter Geh Grant is science who is a national of an and his contribution to IFLA's awarded annually to enable a Arab country, to attend the IFLA efforts to promote literacy in the librarian from the geographic region Conference. Candidates should not developing countries. In 1996 the previously called the Soviet Union, have attended an IFLA conference Prize was re-established under including the Baltic States, to attend previously. revised conditions. an IFLA Seminar or Conference in Germany or elsewhere for The grant is to meet up to becoming acquainted with new a maximum of USD 1,900 the Applications international developments in the cost of travel (economy class air fi eld of information. The amount of The applications must be accom- transportation) to and from the the Grant is EUR 1,135. panied by: host country of the conference, registration, hotel costs and a per The Grant is administered by • the reasons for application diem allowance. IFLA Headquarters under the • a detailed description of the supervision of the Governing completed project or activity IFLA will act as administrator Board. The selection is made by a (including a short description of Jury consisting of the Sponsor, Dr. to the grant and will provide the the library, or of the organization Hans-Peter Geh, and the Secretary Secretary of the jury. and its activities) General of IFLA. • an explanation of how the Prize Deadline for applications: money would be used The applicants should be 1 February 2007. • a realistic budget. either IFLA Personal Affi liates or employees of IFLA Members. The selection of a grantee will be Candidates are also advised to made before 1 April 2007 by a jury attach a letter of support from their The applications must be consisting of members appointed library association. accompanied by a Statement of by Dr. Salem and by IFLA. The 378 From theGrants Regional and AwardsOffi ces grantee will be informed of his or 3. the quantity and quality of each year, in accordance with 31 her selection by the Secretary of the one-time or ongoing activities C/Resolution 29, adopted by the Jury in April every year. organized by the applicant city UNESCO General Conference on in collaboration with national 2 November 2001. The fi rst World Application form on IFLANET at: and international professional Book Capital chosen prior to the http://www.ifla.org/III/grants/ organizations representing adoption of 31 C/Resolution 29 grant04.htm writers, publishers, booksellers was Madrid, in 2001. Subsequent and librarians and in full respect World Book Capital Cities have of the various players in the book been Alexandria (2002), New World Book Capital supply chain Delhi (2003), and Antwerp (2004). Nomination 2009 4. the quantity and quality of Montreal is the current World Book any other noteworthy projects Capital City and will be succeeded The Selection Committee for the promoting and fostering books by Turin (2006), Bogotá (2007) and World Book Capital is calling and reading Amsterdam (2008). for nominations for the World 5. the conformity with the principles Book Capital 2009. The complete of freedom of expression, freedom Contacts: applications, duly substantiated, to publish and to distribute including a cover or support letter information, as stated in the UNESCO. Mr Mauro Rosi, Culture, from the mayor of the candidate-city UNESCO Constitution as well Division of Arts and Cultural and drafted in one of UNESCO’s as by Articles 19 and 27 of the Enterprise, 1, rue Miollis, F-75732 offi cial languages (French, English, Universal Declaration of Human Paris Cedex 15, France. Tel.: +33 1 Spanish, Russian, Arabic or Rights and by the Agreement on 45 68 46 33. Fax: +33 1 45 68 55 95. Chinese), should reach UNESCO the Importation of Educational, E-mail: [email protected] no later than Friday 30 March Scientifi c and Cultural Materials 2007. No application received (Florence Agreement). [1] According to its own criteria after this date will be taken into based on operational needs, consideration. By presenting its application each UNESCO distinguishes five candidate city commits itself, in case regions: Africa, Arab States, Asia The candidate programmes shall of nomination, to: and the Pacifi c, Europe and North be aimed at promoting books and America, and Latin America and fostering reading during the period 1. Associate UNESCO, as well the Caribbean. between one World Book and as the three professional associations represented in the Copyright Day and the next (23 Designación de la Capital April). Selection Committee, in its communication and information Mundial del Libro 2009 To involve all regions[1] of campaign, at all levels. the world in turn, the Selection 2. Provide UNESCO, which will El comité de selección de la Capital Committee will avoid the consecutive share it with all members of Mundial del Libro abre el plazo para the Selection Committee, with nomination of cities from the la presentación de candidaturas para a fi nal report on the activities same region. Since the 2008 title la elección de la Capital Mundial implemented during the was awarded to a European city del Libro 2009. Los expedientes nomination year. Besides, the City (Amsterdam), no candidature from completos, debidamente razonados the Europe/North America region authorities will facilitate possible y acompañados de una carta de will be taken into consideration for evaluation audits implemented presentación o apoyo del alcalde the 2009 nomination. on UNESCO’s demand. de la ciudad, deberán redactarse en uno de los idiomas ofi ciales de la The applicants' programme The Selection Committee – UNESCO (español, francés, inglés, proposals will be examined in the operating under the auspices of ruso, árabe y chino) y recibirse light of the following fi ve criteria: UNESCO – is made up of one representative of the International en la Organización a más tardar 1. the submission of an activity Publishers Association (IPA), one el viernes 30 de Marzo de 2007. programme specifi cally conceived representative of the International Ninguna candidatura presentada for the World Book Capital City Booksellers’ Federation (IBF), one posteriormente a esta fecha será programme and implemented representative of the International examinada. during the city's term as Capital Federation of Library Associations City and Institutions (IFLA) and one Los programas candidatos 2. the degree of municipal, regional, UNESCO representative, under tendrán por objetivo promover national and international the chairmanship of the President la difusión del libro y fomentar involvement and the impact of of IPA. The Committee’s task is la lectura durante el periodo the programmes to choose a World Book Capital comprendido entre la celebración 379 News

de dos días mundiales del libro y del 1. Incorporar a todos los niveles la [1] Las regiones son cinco (África, derecho de autor (23 de abril). UNESCO y las tres asociaciones Estados árabes, Asia y el pacifi co, profesionales del comité de Europa y América del Norte, El comité de selección excluye selección en sus campañas de América latina y el Caribe) y son la nominación consecutiva de dos comunicación e información; determinadas según criterios propios ciudades de una misma región, con 2. proporcionar a la UNESCO un de la UNESCO relacionados con la el fi n de asegurar la implicación informe fi nal de las actividades ejecución de las actividades de la de todas la regiones del mundo de que efectivamente han tenido Organización. manera equitativa. Puesto que el lugar durante el año transcurrido. título fue obtenido por una ciudad Igualmente, las autoridades europea (Ámsterdam[1]) en 2008, Nomination de la Capitale competentes de la Capital Mondiale du Livre 2009 ninguna candidatura de Europa Mundial del Libro facilitarán el y América del Norte se podrá trabajo de un eventual auditor presentar por el año 2009. solicitado por la UNESCO. Le comité de sélection de la capitale mondiale du livre appelle aux El comité de selección examinará El comité de selección, que candidatures pour la capitale los programas a la luz de cinco funciona bajo los auspicios de mondiale du livre 2009. Les dossiers criterios: la UNESCO, está integrado por de candidature complets, dûment un representante de la Unión motivés et incluant une lettre de 1. Un programa de actividades Internacional de Editores (UIE), présentation ou d’appui du maire de especialmente concebido para otro de la Federación Internacional la ville, doivent parvenir dans l’une el periodo de vigencia de la de Libreros (FIL) y un tercero de des langues de travail de l’UNESCO ciudad ganadora que únicamente la Federación Internacional de (anglais, arabe, chinois, espagnol, se lleve a cabo en caso de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y français et russe) à l’UNESCO au nombramiento; Bibliotecas (IFLA), así como por un plus tard le vendredi 30 Mars 2007. 2. Nivel de compromiso municipal, delegado de la UNESCO y se halla Aucune candidature ne pourra être nacional e internacional, así bajo la presidencia del Presidente de reçue au-delà de cette date. como impacto potencial del la UIE. El comité tiene por misión programa; seleccionar una capital mundial Les programmes de candidature 3. Cantidad y calidad de las activ- auront pour but de promouvoir del libro cada año en aplicación de idades esporádicas o permanentes le livre et d’encourager la lecture la Resolución 31 C/29 aprobada planifi cadas en cooperación con durant la période couverte entre por la Conferencia General de la las organizaciones profesionales, la célébration de deux Journées UNESCO el 2 de noviembre de nacionales e internacionales que mondiales du livre et du droit 2001 (adjunta). La primera Capital representen a autores, editores, d’auteur (23 avril). libreros y bibliotecarios, y ello Mundial del Libro seleccionada antes de que se aprobara la susodicha con pleno respeto de todos los Afi n d’assurer l’implication de resolución fue Madrid, en 2001. Se actores de la cadena del libro; toutes les régions du monde à tour 4. Cantidad y calidad de cualquier ha concluido un acuerdo entre de rôle, le Comité de sélection exclut otro proyecto signifi cativo que los distintos interlocutores para l’élection consécutive de deux villes tenga por objeto promover y que las siguientes capitales sean issues d’une même région* ; ainsi, le fomentar el libro y la lectura; Alejandría, en 2002 y Nueva Delhi, titre ayant été obtenu par une ville 5. Conformidad con los prin- en 2003. El comité de selección ha européenne (Amsterdam) en 2008, cipios de libertad de expresión, elegido la ciudad de Amberes como aucune candidature d’une ville issue y de publicar y difundir la Capital Mundial del Libro 2004, la de la région Europe et Amérique du información, enunciados en la ciudad de Montreal como Capital Nord ne sera recevable au titre de Constitución de la UNESCO Mundial del Libro 2005, la de Turín l’Année 2009. así como en los artículos 19 y 27 como Capital 2006, la de Bogotá de la Declaración Universal de como Capital 2007 y Ámsterdam Les candidatures seront los Derechos Humanos y en el en 2008. examinées en tenant compte des Acuerdo sobre la Importación de cinq critères suivants : Objetos de Carácter Educativo, Contacto: UNESCO. Sr. Mauro Científi co o Cultural (Acuerdo Rosi, Sector de Cultura, División 1. Soumission d’un programme de Florencia). de Artes e Iniciativas Culturales, d’activités spécialement conçu 1, rue Miollis, F-75732 París Cedex pour la durée de la nomination Al presentar su candidatura cada 15, Franca. Tlfo.: +33 1 45 68 46 de la ville gagnante et qui ne ciudad se compromete, en caso de 33. Fax: +33 1 45 68 55 95. E-mail: serait mis en place qu’en cas de victoria, a: [email protected] nomination.

380 From theIFLA Regional Publications Ofﬁ ces

2. Niveau de l’implication 1. à associer l’UNESCO ainsi La première capitale mondiale du municipale, régionale, nationale que les trois associations livre sélectionnée avant l’adoption et international, et de l’impact professionnelles membres du de la résolution 31 C/29 a été des programmes. comité à tous les niveaux de Madrid en 2001. Un accord a 3. Quantité et qualité des activités sa campagne d’information et été conclu entre les différents ponctuelles ou permanentes communication partenaires pour que les capitales organisées par la ville candidate 2. à fournir à l’UNESCO, qui suivantes soient Alexandrie en 2002 en coopération avec les le partagera avec l’ensemble et New Delhi en 2003. Le comité de organisations professionnelles du comité de sélection, un sélection a nommé la ville d’Anvers nationales et internationales rapport final des activités Capitale mondiale du livre 2004, la représentant les auteurs, les qui ont effectivement eu lieu ville de Montréal Capitale Mondiale éditeurs, les libraires et les durant l’année écoulée. De du Livre 2005, la ville de Turin bibliothécaires, dans le plein plus, les autorités compétentes Capitale Mondiale du Livre 2006, respect des multiples acteurs de de la Capitale mondiale du la ville de Bogotá Capitale 2007 et la chaîne du livre. livre faciliteront le travail d’un celle d’Amsterdam Capitale 2008. 4. Quantité et qualité de tout éventuel audit demandé par autre projet signifi catif visant à l’UNESCO. Contact: UNESCO. M. Mauro promouvoir et à encourager le Rosi, Culture, Division of Arts and livre et la lecture. Le comité de sélection, opérant sous Cultural Enterprise, 1, rue Miollis, 5. Conformité avec les principes l’égide de l’UNESCO, est composé F-75732 Paris Cedex 15, France. Tel: de liberté d’expression, liberté d’un représentant de l’Union +33 1 45 68 46 33. Fax: +33 1 45 68 de publication et de diffusion de Internationale des Editeurs (UIE), 55 95. E-mail: [email protected] l’information, énoncé par l’Acte d’un représentant de la Fédération Constitutif de l’UNESCO ainsi Internationale des Libraires (IBF), * Les régions, au nombre de cinq que par les articles 19 et 27 de d’un représentant de la Fédération (Afrique, Etats arabes, Asie et la Déclaration universelle des Internationale des Associations de Pacifique, Europe et Amérique Droits de l’Homme et par Accord Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques du Nord, Amérique latine et pour l’importation d’objets de (IFLA) et d’un représentant de Caraïbes) sont déterminées selon caractère éducatif, scientifi que ou l’UNESCO. Le comité a pour une défi nition propre à l’UNESCO, culturel (Accord de Florence). vocation de sélectionner une capitale qui se réfère à l’exécution des mondiale du livre chaque année, en activités de l’Organisation. En présentant sa candidature, application de la résolution 31C/29 chaque ville s’engage, en cas de adoptée par la Conférence générale victoire: de l’UNESCO le 2 novembre 2001.

IFLA Publications

IFLA Cataloguing Principles: on that occasion to discuss the use recommendations of cataloguing Steps towards an International of cataloguing rules throughout the experts from countries in the Cataloguing Code, 3. Report from Arabic-speaking world. Vol. 29 of Arabic-speaking Middle East. The the 3rd Meeting of Experts on an the IFLA Series on Bibliographic April 2006 draft Statement on International Cataloguing Code, Control is the latest report in a pro- International Cataloguing Principles Cairo, Egypt 2004. Edited by cess towards International Cata- included here reﬂ ects the votes of Barbara B. Tillett, Khaled Mohamed loguing Principles that began in agreement from all participants Reyad and Ana Lupe Cristán. 2003 and will continue through of the IME ICC1 (Europe and München: Saur, 2006, 197 p. ISBN 2007. Through the series of meetings Anglo-American), IME ICC2 (Latin 3-598-24278-6. (IFLA Series on represented by each volume the America and the Caribbean), and Bibliographic Control; vol. 29). reader will be able to track the devel- IME ICC3 (Middle East). Price: EUR 78.00 (IFLA Members opment and consultation taking EUR 58.00) place throughout the different IFLA Publications published by: parts of the world that will culmin- K.G. Saur Verlag, PO Box 701620, This book contains the proceed- ate with the creation of a truly inter- 81316 Munich, Germany. Tel: ings of the third IFLA Meeting of national set of principles to guide +49-89-76902-300. Fax: +49-89- Experts (IME) on an International the development of cataloguing 76902-150/250). E-mail: saur. Cataloguing Code (ICC), which was codes worldwide. [email protected]. Website: www. held in Cairo, Egypt in December saur.de 2005. A large number of inter- This volume contains informa- national cataloguing experts met tion in English and Arabic on the

381 News

Other Publications

hinder and incentives that mitigate functions presented by these Libraries and the recovery efforts. It also looks at buildings. Asian Tsunami some recommendations in disaster preparedness and preventive To display the architectural styles measures as well as governmental, and features of classical library Rebuilding Knowledge: tsunami- social, economic and cultural buildings constructed by various affected libraries in Asia. Helena intervention. countries and nations, the IFLA Loh. Free of charge via e-mail from: Library Buildings and Equipment [email protected] The author will supply electronic Section suggested that the Shanghai copies of the report at no charge via Library be responsible for the This report was prepared by the e-mail on condition that, that if it is editing and publication of the book author during her fi nal semester on quoted or used in part or as a whole, Classical Library Buildings of the the MSIS program at the University the author will be credited with an World, based on the book New of Texas at Austin. acknowledgment. Library Buildings of the World. In August 2005, an editorial board was The earthquake off the coast of established, with Dr. Wu Jianzhong Sumatra, Indonesia and its subse- Classical as General Editor. The editorial quent tsunami in the Indian Ocean Library Buildings board invited experts from IFLA brought on an unprecedented loss and China to be its members, and of human life and widespread de- Mr. Stephen Parker as advisor of struction to countries ranging from Classical Library Buildings of the the board. The editorial board has Malaysia to the African continent. World. Edited by Wu Jianzhong. made a selection of library buildings Libraries and archival holdings were Shanghai: Shanghai Scientifi c and after a survey of classical library not excluded from this phenomenon Technological Literature Publishing buildings all over the world and with the complete eradication of House, 2006. ISBN 7-5439-3005- has fi nally decided to include 47 building structures, library hold- 6/z·1109 (Hardcover, 240*360 libraries from 22 countries. ings, equipment, furniture, and mm); USD 60.00 (including USD sometimes, library staff and patrons 20.00 for packing and postage for Contact: Ms. Liang Su, Acquisitions as well. This report looks at the situ- surface mail). And Cataloging Center, Shanghai ation of these libraries and archives Library, 1555 Huai Hai Zhong Road, a year later, their current standing in Library buildings are treasures of our Shanghai, 200031, China. Tel: 021- damage assessment and reconstruc- human civilization. From the exist- 54560585. E-mail: sliang@libnet. tion efforts; steps being taken by gov- ing classical library buildings, we sh.cn ernments, local and international can feel and experience the unique communities; and, challenges that artistic styles and architectural

382 2008

INTERNATIONAL CALENDAR

of Computer Science and Infor- Further information: E-mail: 2007 mation Technology, Jordan [email protected] University of Science and Tech- nology, PO Box 3030, Irbid July 11–13, 2007. Vancouver, British January 29–31 2007. [Location not 22110, Jordan. E-mail: samir@just. Columbia, Canada. stated] edu.jo or [email protected]. First International Public BOBCATSSS 2007. Theme: Mar- Conference website: www.cis.just. Knowledge Project Scholarly keting of information services. edu.jo/dcca2007 Publishing Conference. Further information: Website: Contact: Lynn Copeland. www.bobcatsss.org April 3–5, 2007. Santiago, Chile. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel. International Conference +1 (604)291–3265. Fax: +1 February 1–2, 2007. Reykjavik, on Newspapers Collection (604)291–3023. blog: http:// Iceland. Management. Theme: Printed blogs.lib.sfu.ca/index.php/ International Conference on and digital challenges. copeland. Cataloguing. Theme: Back to Further information: Ximena August 19–23, 2007. Durban, South basics – and fl ying into the future. Cruzat, Director, National Africa. Contact: Organizing committee: Library of Chile. E-mail: ximena. World Library and Information E-mail: [email protected]. [email protected] Congress: 73rd IFLA Council Website: http://www.congress. and General Conference. Theme: is/cataloguing2007/ abril 14–17, 2007. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Libraries for the future: progress, development and partnerships. February 7–10, 2007. Jadavpur Segundo Congreso Ibero- americano de Bibliotecología. Further information from the IFLA University, Kolkata, India. WLIC 2007 website: http://www. Digital Texts in Editable Format Contacto: Asociación de Bibliotecarios Graduados de la ifl a.org/IV/ifl a73/index.htm with special reference to Indic República Argentina (ABGRA), languages. Conference, 7–8 November 11–17, 2007. Quebec, Paraná 918, 2do. Piso, C1017AAT – February 2007. Workshop, 9–10 Canada, 2007. Ciudad de Buenos Aires, República February 2007. XLth International Conference Argentina. Tel./Fax: (54–11) 4811– For more information please of the Round Table on Archives. 0043/4816–3422. E-mail: contact: Sukanta Chaudhuri Theme: Cooperation to preserve [email protected]. at [email protected] or diversity. Website: http://www.abgra.org.ar/ Subha Chakraborty Dasgupta at Further information: Conseil international des Archives, 60 [email protected] May 8–12, 2007. Banff, Canada. rue des Francs-Bourgeois, 75003 WWW2007: 16th International PARIS, France. Tel : +33 1 40 27 February 21–23, 2007. Bangalore, World Wide Web Conference. 63 06. Fax: +33 1 42 72 20 65. India. For more information: www2007 E-mail: [email protected] International Conference on info at iw3c2.org Semantic Web and Digital Libraries. May 28–30, 2007. São Paulo, Brazil. Further information: Conference 9th International Conference on 2008 website: http://drtc.isibang.ac.in/ Social Implications of Computers icsd/ in Developing Countries. Theme: August 10–15, 2008. Québec, Canada. Taking stock of e-development. World Library and Information March 19–22, 2007. Irbid, Jordan. Further information: ifip94@ Congress: 74th IFLA General 1st International Conference planetevents.com.br Conference and Council. Theme: on Digital Communications Libraries without borders: and Computer Applications July 27–31, 2009. Florianópolis, navigating towards global (DCCA2007). SC, Brazil. understanding. Further information: Dr. Sameer WCCE 2009: 9th IFIP World Further information from: Batanieh, Conference Chair, Conference on Computers in http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla74/ DCCA2007, Dean of the Faculty Education. ann2008en.pdf

SOMMAIRES

Dae-Jung Kim. Libraries: Prime développement, il est important de de futurs programmes. Cet article Movers for the Age of Knowledge and tenir compte d’une série de variables évoque ce qui fait l’essence de Information. [Les bibliothèques: contextuelles ayant une infl uence l’atelier dans les termes des des moteurs essentiels pour sur la façon dont les individus animatrices, chacune d’entre elles l’ère des connaissances et de apprennent et pourquoi ils le font. s’étant consacrée à l’évaluation à l’information.] En examinant la FCI à la lumière un niveau différent. Les trois modes IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, de la contextualité culturelle, cet abordés sont ceux professeur/ pp. 278–280 article aborde trois questions en instructeur, élève/étudiant et aspect rapport avec la FCI dans les pays en programmatique/institutionnel. Discours-programme prononcé voie de développement: comment lors de la cérémonie d’ouverture du définissons-nous la culture de Denise Rosemary Nicholson. Congrès mondial des bibliothèques l’information dans le contexte d’un Intellectual Property – benefi t or et de l’information, 72e Congrès pays en voie de développement ? burden for Africa? [La propriété et assemblée générale de l’IFLA, Comment déterminer les objectifs intellectuelle: bienfait ou fardeau qui s’est tenu du 20 au 24 août éducatifs de la formation à la pour l’Afrique ?] 2006 à Séoul en Corée. Évoque culture de l’information dans le IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, le rôle pivot que doivent jouer les contexte d’un pays en voie de pp. 310–324 bibliothèques pour que l’ère des développement ? Comment la connaissances et de l’information sensibilisation culturelle peut-elle Cet article aborde certaines puisse atteindre ses objectifs. améliorer la formation à la culture questions en rapport avec l’accès Examine la place des bibliothèques de l’information ? au savoir en Afrique du Sud et dans les traditions intellectuelles et dans d’autres pays africains, ainsi culturelles coréennes et les efforts Leslie Murtha, Eileen Stec et que les répercussions des accords faits pour développer ces traditions Marilyn Wilt. Using Assessment internationaux sur la propriété au 21e siècle. as a Tool to Improve Learning: intellectuelle, en s’intéressant en an IFLA Workshop. [L’évaluation particulier au copyright. Il montre Daniel G. Dorner et G.E. Gorman. utilisée comme un outil pour que la majorité de ces pays ont du mal Information Literacy Education mieux apprendre: un atelier de à satisfaire aux exigences primaires in Asian Developing Countries: l’IFLA.] des accords internationaux sur la cultural factors affecting IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, propriété intellectuelle, alors que curriculum development and pp. 294–309 les pays développés font subir des programme delivery. [Formation pressions à certains d’entre eux pour à la culture de l’information Lors du 69e Congrès mondial des qu’ils adoptent des mesures encore dans les pays asiatiques en voie bibliothèques et de l’information de plus strictes en matière de propriété de développement: les facteurs l’IFLA en 2003 à Berlin, Allemagne, intellectuelle, en se réclamant de culturels infl uençant l’élaboration trois bibliothécaires de l’Université la section des accords sur le libre- et l’exécution des programmes Rutgers s’étaient penchées ensemble échange consacrée aux accords sur d’enseignement.] sur le thème ‘L’évaluation utilisée la propriété intellectuelle ou ‘TRIPS- IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, comme un outil pour mieux Plus’. L’article souligne l’impact de pp. 281–293 apprendre’. L’atelier avait pour certaines clauses TRIPS-Plus sur but d’aider les participants à bien l’éducation, les bibliothèques et les Les modèles courants de formation comprendre l’évaluation afin de personnes souffrant de handicaps à la culture de l’information (FCI) l’utiliser avec efficacité comme sensoriels, ainsi que sur la santé sont fondés de par leur contexte un outil devant permettre de publique et le développement en dans des structures sociales et mieux apprendre. Avant et après général. intellectuelles occidentales. Pour l’atelier, les animatrices avaient la plupart, ces modèles sont prévu une séance d’évaluation. Bukky O. Omotayo. Women and conformes à la taxinomie conçue Pour organiser l’atelier, il fut tenu Confl ict in the New Information dans les années 50 par Bloom, qui compte des réactions recueillies Age. [Les femmes et les confl its dans a été considérée comme pouvant lors de l’évaluation avant l’atelier, la nouvelle ère de l’information.] convenir aux sociétés en voie de réactions ayant permis de connaître IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, développement sans tenir compte les circonstances et les expériences pp. 325–332 des contextes dont ces modèles individuelles des participants et étaient dérivés et dans lesquels ils ayant servi de base aux activités par La paix est plus que l’absence étaient appliqués. Pour que la FCI petits groupes pendant l’atelier. Les de guerres, de violences ou de soit utilement ancrée dans la trame évaluations après l’atelier fournirent conflits. Entre 1960 et 1980, éducative d’un pays en voie de des suggestions précieuses pour l’Afrique a connu 32 guerres ayant

Copyright © 2006 International Federation of Library Associations & IFLA Institutions (www.ifl a.org). IFLA Journal 32(4): 384–393. 384 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035206074079 Sommaires entraîné la perte de millions de à trois projets sur l’infrastructure serait chargé de favoriser une vies humaines, cependant que plus d’information et de recherche, et à relation plus étroite entre les centres d’un million de personnes sont travailler avec des partenaires afi n et le développement de projets devenues des réfugiés. Ces confl its de mettre au point des solutions au en collaboration, de stimuler le incessants ainsi que la pauvreté problème du soutien à apporter aux partenariat, la coopération et la et les maladies menacent tous la dépôts d’archives universitaires pour coordination de tâches spécifi ques. stabilité du continent. Il y a de en garantir l’accès sur le long terme. Cet article décrit le travail et les nombreuses théories pour parvenir L’article décrit le projet ARROW réalisations du groupe, le ‘Comité à la paix, l’une des principales (Australian Research Repositories de Coordinación de los Centros étant de créer des filières plus Online to the World ou Dépôts que manejan Información Política y transparentes pour transmettre les australiens d’archives accessibles Social’ ou COIPS, ces centres étant informations entre les individus et en ligne pour la recherche), mettant maintenant au nombre de 32. les décideurs ; c’est la tâche des au point une solution pour les bibliothécaires et en particulier des dépôts d’archives institutionnels en Emma Voskanyan. Government femmes bibliothécaires. Parmi les collaboration avec un fournisseur Information and Centers of rôles qui leur reviennent: fournir commercial et le Partenariat Business and Legal Information et communiquer des informations australien pour des dépôts d’archives in Russia. [Information utiles et exactes sur la paix, les durables (Australian Partnership for gouvernementale et centres mouvements en faveur de la paix et Sustainable Repositories ou APSR). d’information d’entreprises et les groupes féministes ; se battre pour Dans ce cadre, la Bibliothèque d’information légale en Russie.] la liberté d’accès aux informations ; Nationale aide à concevoir une IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, améliorer les habitudes de lecture approche saine pour évaluer le pp. 345–355 des femmes et des enfants ; organiser risque d’obsolescence des formats des expositions et des discussions de fichiers, en recommandant La Russie est parmi les états disposant sur la paix ; assurer l’éducation une stratégie visant à inclure les des richesses les plus considérables permanente des femmes et des métadonnées de préservation dans en matière de ressources jeunes fi lles, etc. Les gouvernements les dépôts d’archives, et cherchant à d’information, aussi bien sur le plan africains doivent permettre aux stimuler le développement futur de des technologies traditionnelles que femmes africaines d’accéder logiciels libres de dépôts d’archives des nouvelles technologies. L’état aux informations d’actualité en pour utiliser les métadonnées de russe, reconnaissant les clauses mettant à leur disposition des préservation. des documents internationaux bibliothèques fonctionnelles et des consacrés à ces questions, étudient connexions Internet afi n qu’elles Maria Elena Dorta-Duque. toutes les possibilités devant faciliter soient correctement informées et Governmental Libraries à tous l’accès aux informations puissent participer au débat global Development: an experience of fondamentales. Parmi les institutions et devenir autonomes. strategic collaboration in the chargées de rassembler, d’organiser field of social sciences. [Le et de diffuser les informations, Warwick Cathro. The Role of a développement des bibliothèques les bibliothèques jouent un rôle National Library in Supporting gouvernementales: une expérience signifi catif. Au début des années Research Information de collaboration stratégique dans le 90, des spécialistes russes des Infrastructure. [Le rôle d’une domaine des sciences sociales.] réformes légales ont conclu que le bibliothèque nationale pour IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, principal problème était de choisir soutenir une infrastructure pp. 340–344 où installer les sources autorisées d’information sur la recherche.] d’informations officielles et de IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, En octobre 1995, l’Institut de connaissances légales afi n d’assurer pp. 333–339 documentation et d’information qu’elles puissent être utilisées par scientifi que et technologique (IDICT) tous. Les experts russes ont estimé La Bibliothèque Nationale du Ministère cubain de la science, de que les bibliothèques publiques d’Australie collabore à un programme la technologie et de l’environnement pouvaient constituer l’une de ces national ayant pour but d’améliorer (CITMA) avait réuni en assemblée sources. Le système bibliothécaire l’infrastructure d’information sur diverses bibliothèques et centres édifié au cours de la période la recherche. Ces activités ont d’information gouvernementaux et soviétique s’est avéré tout à la fois permis à la Bibliothèque Nationale non gouvernementaux pour traiter stable et fl exible, et la communauté d’exprimer son engagement à l’égard de la question de l’information bibliothécaire était la plus réceptive de la communauté universitaire. politique, sociale et économique. de toutes au changement. Cet article La Bibliothèque Nationale s’est Le but de l’assemblée était de décrit comment, en se fondant sur employée à numériser les ressources créer un groupe de travail afin la base solide des bibliothèques, de recherche, à développer des de promouvoir le développement les réformateurs gouvernementaux services intégrés de découverte de de tels centres dans le domaine ont créé en 1993 des modèles services, à participer activement des sciences sociales. Ce groupe spécialisés d’accès à l’information 385 ZusammemfgassungenSommaires

dans tout le pays –notamment des à travers tout le pays. Cet article évaluer l’impact de la gestion des centres d’information d’entreprises présente la coopération qui s’est connaissances sur les performances et des centres d’information légale développée entre les ABM en Chine des organisations. Malgré la vaste – et évoquent leurs modifi cations. pour conserver et cataloguer les mise en oeuvre de la gestion des Ce système fonctionne de façon documents. Il décrit brièvement le connaissances, il n’y a pas encore très effi cace. projet numérique sur l’histoire locale de structure standardisée pour mis en place par la Bibliothèque mesurer les résultats au sein des Wu Shushi. Cooperation on Nationale de Chine. Enfi n, il évoque organisations. Cet article offre Local History and the Concept l’idée d’une coopération entre une vue d’ensemble des approches of Network Building between archives, bibliothèques et musées permettant d’évaluer l’incidence des Libraries, Museums and Archives afi n de numériser l’histoire locale. mesures de gestion des connaissances in China. [Coopération en matière mises en place sur les performances d’histoire locale et concept de Jong-Ae Kim. Measuring the Impacts des organisations. Il présente des création de réseaux reliant méthodes telles que le retour sur bibliothèques, musées et archives of Knowledge Management. investissement, l’utilisation d’un en Chine.] [Mesurer les impacts de la gestion IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, des connaissances.] tableau de bord des performances, pp. 356–361 IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, les études de cas qualitatives et la pp. 362–367 méthode d’étude des réussites afi n Les livres chinois anciens et les d’aider les spécialistes à identifi er documents sur l’histoire locale Avec la popularité croissante et à développer les structures sont rassemblés dans des archives, de la gestion des connaissances, d’évaluation. Il cherche ainsi à bibliothèques, musées (ABM) et les spécialistes reconnaissent servir de base à une recherche et un autres institutions académiques la nécessité de structures pour développement plus poussés.

ZUSAMMEMFGASSUNGEN

Dae-Jung Kim. Libraries: Prime Countries: cultural factors affecting in das Bildungssystem eines Movers for the Age of Knowledge curriculum development and Entwicklungslandes integriert and Information. [Bibliotheken: programme delivery. [Ausbildung werden soll, müssen dabei unbedingt Dynamischer Motor für das der Informationskompetenz in auch die kontextuellen Variablen Wissen und die Informationsges den Entwicklungsländern Asiens: in Betracht gezogen werden, die ellschaft.] kulturelle Faktoren, die die bestimmen, wie und aus welchen IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Ausarbeitung der Bildungspläne Gründen die Menschen etwas lernen. pp. 278–280 und der vorgelegten Programme Der vorliegende Beitrag befasst beeinfl ussen.] sich primär mit der Ausbildung Eröffnungsrede zum Weltkongress IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, der Informationskompetenz Bibliothek und Information: pp. 281–293 (ILE) und betrachtet diese aus 72. IFLA – Generalkonferenz der Perspektive des kulturellen und Ratsversammlung am 20. Die derzeit vorherrschenden Kontexts. Dabei stellen sich drei bis 24. August 2006 in Seoul, Modelle zur Ausbildung der Fragen bezüglich der Ausbildung Korea. Dieser Beitrag skizziert Informationskompetenz zur Informationskompetenz die Schlüsselrollen, die die (Information Literacy Education, in den Entwicklungsländern: Bibliotheken übernehmen müssen, ILE) stützen sich, kontextuell Wie definieren wir die um festzustellen, ob das Wissens- gesehen, auf die westlichen Sozial- Informationskompetenz im und Informationenszeitalter die und Denkstrukturen. Diese Modelle Kontext der Entwicklungsländer? angestrebten Ziele erreicht oder folgen zum Großteil der Taxonomie, Wie können wir die nicht. Der Autor analysiert die die Bloom in den 50er Jahren des Zielsetzungen der Ausbildung Stellung der Bibliotheken im letzten Jahrhunderts entwickelt hat. der Informationskompetenz im Rahmen der intellektuellen und Dabei wurde angenommen, dass Kontext eines Entwicklungslandes kulturellen Traditionen von Korea diese auch für Entwicklungsländer am besten feststellen? In welcher und beschreibt die Bemühungen zutreffend sind, ohne dabei jedoch Weise lässt sich die Ausbildung zur Weiterentwicklung dieser den Kontext zu berücksichtigen, der Informationskompetenz durch Traditionen im 21. Jahrhundert. aus dem sie entstanden sind eine gewisse Sensibilität der Kultur und in dem sie zum Einsatz gegenüber verbessern? Daniel G. Dorner und G.E. gelangen. Wenn die Ausbildung Gorman. Information Literacy der Informationskompetenz Leslie Murtha, Eileen Stec und Education in Asian Developing jedoch in sinnvoller Weise Marilyn Wilt. Using Assessment 386 ZusammemfgassungenSommaires as a Tool to Improve Learning: an auf Kenntnisse in Südafrika Bibliothekarinnen zählen die IFLA Workshop. [Die Beurteilung sowie in weiteren afrikanischen Bereitstellung und Verteilung als Werkzeug zur Verbesserung Ländern beeinträchtigen, sowie praktischer und präziser des Lernverhaltens: ein IFLA- die Implikationen internationaler Informationen zum Thema Frieden Workshop.] Vereinbarungen zum Thema und Friedensbewegungen sowie IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Eigentumsrechte, wobei im Frauengruppen; zum Kampf für den pp. 294–309 Wesentlichen das Urheberrecht freien Zugriff auf Informationen; im Vordergrund steht. Der Artikel zur Verbesserung der Lesefähigkeit Drei Kollegen von den Bibliotheken zeigt, dass sich die Mehrzahl dieser bei Frauen und Kindern; zur der Rutgers University haben sich Länder sehr darum bemühen, die Organisation von Ausstellungen an dem Programm mit dem Titel grundlegenden Forderungen der und Gesprächen über den Frieden; „Using Assessment as a Tool to internationalen Vereinbarungen zum zur Sicherstellung der lebenslangen Improve Learning“ (Die Beurteilung Schutz geistiger Eigentumsrechte zu Aus- und Weiterbildung für Frauen als Werkzeug zur Verbesserung erfüllen. Einige von ihnen stehen und Mädchen usw. Die Regierungen des Lernverhaltens) anlässlich jedoch stark unter Druck von Seiten in Afrika müssen den Zugang der 69. IFLA-Generalkonferenz der Industrieländer, die sie dazu zu aktuellen Informationen für und Ratsversammlung in Berlin zwingen möchten, noch strengere afrikanische Frauen gewährleisten in Deutschland im Jahr 2003 Systeme zum Schutz geistiger und dazu funktionelle Bibliotheken beteiligt. Bei diesem Workshop Eigentumsrechte über das Kapitel und Internetzugangsmöglichke sollten die Teilnehmer das Prinzip für geistige Eigentumsrechte oder iten für sie einrichten, damit sie der Beurteilung besser verstehen „TRIPS-Plus“ in den entsprechenden gut informiert sind, sich an der lernen und damit experimentieren, Freihandelsabkommen einzuführen. weltweiten Diskussion beteiligen wie man dies effektiv als Werkzeug Das Dokument unterstreicht den können und eine gewisse Kontrolle zur Erleichterung eines besseren Einfluss einiger der TRIPS-Plus über ihr eigenes Leben erhalten. Lernverhaltens einsetzt. Die Autoren – Aufl agen zum Thema Bildung, haben dabei vor beziehungsweise nach dem Workshop jeweils eine Bibliotheken und Menschen mit Warwick Cathro. The Role of a Beurteilung durchgeführt. Die Sinnesstörungen, sowie öffentliche National Library in Supporting Reaktionen aus der Beurteilung vor Gesundheit und Entwicklung im Research Information Beginn des Workshops haben die Allgemeinen. Infrastructure. [Die Rolle einer Konzeption des Workshops bestätigt, Nationalbibliothek bei der eine anfängliche Sensibilisierung Bukky O. Omotayo. Women and Unterstützung der Infrastruktur für die Kontexte und Erfahrungen Confl ict in the New Information für Forschungsinformationen.] der einzelnen Teilnehmer Age. [Frauen und Konfl ikte im IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, vermittelt und dienten zudem als neuen Informationszeitalter.] pp. 333–339 Grundlage für die im Rahmen IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, des Workshops stattfindenden pp. 325–332 Die Nationalbibliothek von Kleingruppenprojekte. Die nach Australien (National Library of dem Workshop durchgeführten Frieden ist mehr als nur Australia) beteiligt sich an einem Beurteilungen ergaben wertvolle die Abwesenheit von Krieg, landesweiten Programm zur Hinweise für zukünftige Programme. Gewalt oder militärischen Verbesserung der Infrastruktur Der Artikel gibt die Essenz des Auseinandersetzungen. Zwischen für die Forschungsinformationen Workshops in den Worten der 1960 und 1980 hat es in Afrika allein des Landes. Diese Tätigkeiten Vermittler wieder, die jeweils auf 32 Kriege gegeben, wobei Millionen gelten der Nationalbibliothek unterschiedlicher Ebene an dieser von Menschen umgekommen und als Schwerpunkt bei ihrem Beurteilung gearbeitet haben. mehr als eine Million Menschen zu Engagement im Hinblick auf die Dabei kamen die drei Dichotomien Flüchtlingen geworden sind. Diese akademische Gesellschaft. Die Lehrer/Ausbilder, Schüler/Lehrling Kämpfe, die noch immer andauern, Nationalbibliothek hat sich darum und programmatisch/institutionell haben zusammen mit Armut und bemüht, die Forschungsressourcen zur Sprache. Krankheiten die Stabilität auf dem zu digitalisieren, einen integrierten Kontinent in Gefahr gebracht. Es gibt Suchservice zu entwickeln Denise Rosemary Nicholson. viele Konzepte zur Friedensstiftung. und hat sich aktiv an drei Intellectual Property – benefit Ein wichtiges derartiges Konzept Projekten zur Infrastruktur or burden for Africa? [Geistiges besteht in der Schaffung von Forschungsinformationen Eigentum – ein Vorteil oder eine deutlicherer Kanäle zum Austausch beteiligt und mit entsprechenden Belastung für Afrika?] von Informationen zwischen dem Partnern zusammengearbeitet, um IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, einfachen Volk und den politischen Problemlösungen für den Erhalt pp. 310–324 Entscheidungsträgern; dies ist akademischer Archive zu entwickeln, die Aufgabe der Bibliothekare, die auch langfristig zugänglich Dieser Beitrag unterstreicht einige insbesondere der weiblichen sein sollten. Zudem beschreibt der Faktoren, die den Zugriff unter ihnen. Zu den Rollen der dieser Beitrag das ARROW-Projekt 387 ZusammemfgassungenSommaires

(Australian Research Repositories betraut, die Beziehungen zwischen allen Neuerungen gegenüber Online to the World), das eine den Zentren zu intensivieren, durchaus offen gezeigt. Das Paper Lösung für Institutsarchive in die Entwicklung kollaborativer beschreibt, in welcher Weise die Zusammenarbeit mit einem Projekte zu unterstützen und die Staatsreformer im Jahr 1993 kommerziellen Anbieter und der Partnerschaft, Kooperation und entsprechende Spezialmodelle für australischen Partnerschaft für Koordination spezifi scher Aufgaben den Informationszugriff im ganzen zukunftsfähige Archive (Australian zu stimulieren. Der vorliegende Land entwickelt haben, wobei Partnership for Sustainable Beitrag beschreibt die Arbeit und sie sich auf die solide Grundlage Repositories, APSR) entwickelt, die Leistungen der Gruppe mit dem der Bibliotheken stützten. Dies wobei die Nationalbibliothek Namen Comité de Coordinación beinhaltete beispielsweise Zentren dabei behifl ich ist, eine vernünftige de los Centros que manejan für geschäftliche Informationen, Strategie zur Einstufung der Información Política y Social, juristische Informationszentren Obsoleszenzgefahr einzelner COIPS, zu dem bisher 32 Zentren sowie änliche Einrichtungen. Dieses Dateiformate zu entwickeln. gehören. System funktioniert sehr effektiv. Zudem erteilt sie Empfehlungen bezüglich einer Strategie zur Emma Voskanyan. Government Wu Shushi. Cooperation on Local Ablage von Konservierungs- Information and Centers of Business History and the Concept of Network Metadaten in den Archiven und and Legal Information in Russia. Building between Libraries, versucht außerdem, die zukünftige [Staatliche Informationszentren Museums and Archives in China. Entwicklung der Open Source – und Zentren für wirtschaftliche [Kooperation im Zusammenhang Archivierungssoftware dahingehend und juristische Informationen in mit der Lokalgeschichte und das zu beeinfl ussen, dass hierbei auch Russland.] Konzept des Network Building Metadaten im Zusammenhang mit IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, zwischen Bibliotheken, Museen der Konservierung zur Anwendung pp. 345–355 und Archiven in China.] gelangen. IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Russland zählt zu den Staaten mit pp. 356–361 Maria Elena Dorta-Duque. der größten Informationsdichte; Governmental Libraries es besitzt äußerst umfangreiche Alte chinesische Bücher und Development: an experience of Informationsressourcen in Dokumente zum Thema strategic collaboration in the fi eld traditionellen wie auch neuen Lokalgeschichte werden in of social sciences. [Die Entwicklung Technologien. Der russische Staat Archiven, Bibliotheken, Museen staatlicher Bibliotheken: Ein hat die Vorgaben internationaler (ALM) und anderen akademischen Erfahrungsbericht zur strategischen Texte über diese Probleme Einrichtungen im ganzen Land Zusammenarbeit im Bereich der anerkannt und untersucht alle aufbewahrt. Der vorliegende Sozialwissenschaften.] sich bietenden Möglichkeiten, um Artikel bietet einen Einblick in IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, allen Menschen den Zugang zu die Kooperation der chinesischen pp. 340–344 den wichtigsten Informationen zu ALM bei der Konservierung und erleichtern. Bei den Institutionen, Katalogisierung der Dokumente. Das Institut für wissenschaftliche die für die Sammlung, Organisation Hinzu kommt eine kurze und technologische Dokumentation und Verbreitung der fraglichen Beschreibung des Digitalprojekts und Information (Institute of Informationen zuständig sind, spielen zur Lokalgeschichte (Digital Scientific und Technological die Bibliotheken eine einfl ussreiche Local History Project) von der Documentation und Information, Rolle. Anfang der 90er Jahre des chinesischen Nationalbibliothek IDICT) des Ministeriums für vorigen Jahrhunderts sind russische (National Library of China). Wissenschaft, Technologie und Justizreformspezialisten zu der Abschließend stellt dieser Beitrag Umweltschutz in Kuba (Ministry Schlussfolgerung gelangt, dass das das Konzept der Kooperation of Science, Technology und wesentliche Problem in der Frage zwischen Archiven, Bibliotheken Environment of Cuba, CITMA) liegt, wo sich verbindliche Quellen und Museen bei der Digitalisierung hat im Oktober 1995 eine Tagung für offizielle Informationen und der Lokalgeschichte vor. für eine Reihe staatlicher wie auch juristische Kenntnisse lokalisieren nichtstaatlicher Bibliotheken und lassen, um sicherzustellen, dass Jong-Ae Kim. Measuring the Impacts Informationszentren einberufen, diese der öffentlichen Nutzung of Knowledge Management. die politische, soziale und zugänglich gemacht werden. [Quantifi zierung der Bedeutung wirtschaftliche Informationen Russische Fachleute meinen, dass die der Wissensverwaltung.] verwalten. Bei dieser Tagung sollte öffentlichen Bibliotheken eine solche IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, eine Arbeitsgruppe ins Leben Quelle darstellen könnten. Das in pp. 362–367 gerufen werden, um die Entwicklung den Jahren der Sowjetherrschaft solcher Zentren auf dem Fachgebiet erstellte Bibliothekssystem hat Mit der zunehmenden Popularität der Sozialwissenschaften zu sich als stabil und fl exibel bewährt, der Wissensverwaltung haben fördern. Die Gruppe wurde damit und die Bibliothekare haben sich die Fachleute die Notwendigkeit 388 ResúmenesSommaires entsprechender Bezugssysteme zur erbrachten Leistungen. Der qualitative Fallstudien und die Auswertung der Auswirkungen der vorliegende Beitrag bietet einen Erfolgsfallmethode vorgestellt. Wissensverwaltung auf die Leistung Überblick über die Verfahren Anhand dieser Parameter können von Organisationen erkannt. Trotz zur Auswertung des Beitrags die Fachleute dann die einzelnen der breiten Implementierung der Wissensverwaltung auf die Auswertungssysteme identifi zieren der Wissensverwaltung gibt es Leistung einer Organisation. und entwickeln. Somit soll hiermit noch immer kein standardisiertes Dabei werden Methoden wie eine Grundlage für die weitere Bezugssystem zur Messung der beispielsweise die Investitionsrenta Forschung und Entwicklung innerhalb von Organisationen bilität, abgeglichene Wertungslisten, geschaffen werden.

RESÚMENES

Dae-Jung Kim. Libraries: Prime estructuras sociales e intelectuales colaboraron en el programa Movers for the Age of Knowledge de Occidente. La mayor parte de “Cómo utilizar la evaluación como and Information. [Bibliotecas: dichos modelos siguen la taxonomía una herramienta para mejorar el Las principales promotoras en que Bloom elaboró en la década de aprendizaje” en la 69ª Conferencia la era del conocimiento y de la los 50, y que sido adoptada como y Consejo General de IFLA que información.] una metodología adecuada para las se celebró en Berlín, Alemania, IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, sociedades en desarrollo, sin tener en 2003. El taller se diseñó para pp. 278–280 en cuenta los contextos de los que ofrecer a los participantes mayor emana y en los que se aplica. Para información sobre el proceso Discurso principal del Congreso que la formación en el uso de la de evaluación y sobre la forma Mundial de Bibliotecas e información se integre de manera de utilizarlo de manera efectiva Información: 72ª Conferencia y provechosa en el tejido educativo como herramienta para mejorar Consejo General de IFLA, 20-24 de de un país en vías de desarrollo, es el aprendizaje. Las presentadoras agosto, Seúl, Corea, en la Ceremonia importante considerar una serie de estructuraron el taller mediante de Apertura. Este documento deﬁ ne variables contextuales que afectan una evaluación anterior y otra las funciones principales que deben a la manera de aprender que tienen posterior al evento. Las respuestas desempeñar las bibliotecas a la las personas. Este documento, de la evaluación anterior al taller hora de determinar si la era del que se centra en la formación respaldaron el diseño del mismo, conocimiento y la información para el uso de la información ofrecieron información preliminar logrará alcanzar los objetivos desde un contexto cultural, aborda de los contextos y experiencias marcados. También se analiza el tres cuestiones relativas a esta individuales de los participantes, lugar que ocupan las bibliotecas materia en los países en desarrollo: y constituyeron las bases para las en las tradiciones intelectuales y ¿Cómo definimos la educación actividades con grupos pequeños culturales de Corea, así como las para el uso de la información en el durante el taller. Las evaluaciones iniciativas para lograr que avancen contexto de un país en desarrollo? posteriores al taller ofrecieron en el siglo XXI. ¿Cómo podemos determinar, de la valiosas recomendaciones para mejor manera posible, los objetivos futuros programas. El artículo Daniel G. Dorner y G.E. Gorman. educativos de la formación para el trasmite la esencia del taller según Information Literacy Education uso de la información en el contexto las palabras de las instructoras, cada in Asian Developing Countries: de un país en desarrollo? ¿De qué una de las cuales se centró en la cultural factors affecting curriculum forma el conocimiento de la cultura evaluación a diferentes niveles. Los development and programme puede mejorar la formación para el tres modos debatidos son profesor/ delivery. [Formación en el uso de uso de la información? instructor, estudiante/alumno y la información en países en vías de programático/institucional. desarrollo del continente asiático: Leslie Murtha, Eileen Stec y Marilyn factores culturales que afectan a Wilt. Using Assessment as a Tool Denise Rosemary Nicholson. la elaboración del currículum y al to Improve Learning: an IFLA Intellectual Property – beneﬁ t or cumplimiento de los programas.] Workshop. [Cómo utilizar la burden for Africa?. [Propiedad IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, evaluación como una herramienta intelectual: ¿ventaja o carga para pp. 281–293 para mejorar el aprendizaje: un África?] taller de IFLA.] IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Los modelos actuales de formación IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, pp. 310–324 en el uso de la información pp. 394–309 (Information Literacy Education Este documento resalta algunos o ILE, por sus siglas en inglés) Tres profesionales de las Bibliotecas de los problemas que dificultan se basan contextualmente en de la Universidad de Rutgers el acceso al conocimiento en 389 ResúmenesSommaires

Sudáfrica y otros países africanos, organizar exposiciones y charlas en los archivos. Asimismo, pretende así como las consecuencias de los sobre la paz; asegurar una formación infl uir en el futuro desarrollo de acuerdos de propiedad intelectual continua para las mujeres y las software de código abierto para internacionales que se centran, niñas, etc. Los gobiernos africanos archivos con el fi n de utilizar los principalmente, en los derechos deben asegurar el acceso a la metadatos de respaldo. de autor. En él se demuestra información actualizada por parte que la mayoría de dichos países de las mujeres africanas mediante la Maria Elena Dorta-Duque. tienen problemas para cumplir los dotación de bibliotecas funcionales Governmental Libraries requisitos básicos de los acuerdos y servicios de Internet para que Development: an experience of internacionales en materia de estén debidamente informadas y strategic collaboration in the propiedad intelectual, aunque participen en un debate global, así fi eld of social sciences. [Creación algunos se ven presionados por los como para facilitar su desarrollo. de bibliotecas oficiales: una países desarrollados para adoptar experiencia de colaboración regímenes aún más estrictos mediante Warwick Cathro. The Role of a estratégica en el ámbito de las el Capítulo de Propiedad Intelectual National Library in Supporting ciencias sociales.] (Intellectual Property Chapter) Research Information IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, o “TRIPS-Plus” en los acuerdos Infrastructure. [La función de una pp. 340–344 de libre comercio. El documento biblioteca nacional para respaldar resalta el impacto de algunas de las la infraestructura de información El Instituto de Documentación disposiciones de TRIPS-Plus sobre de investigación.] e Información Científica y educación, bibliotecas y personas IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Tecnológica (IDICT) del Ministerio con discapacidad sensorial, así pp. 333–339 de Ciencia, Tecnología y Medio como sobre salud pública y avances Ambiente de Cuba (CITMA) en general. La Biblioteca Nacional de Australia convocó una reunión en octubre de colabora con un programa del país 1995 para bibliotecas y centros de para mejorar la infraestructura de información ofi ciales y no ofi ciales Bukky O. Omotayo. Women and información de investigación de que gestionan información política, Confl ict in the New Information la nación. Estas actividades han social y económica. El propósito de Age. [Las mujeres y los confl ictos en facilitado una mayor orientación a la reunión era crear un grupo de la nueva era de la información.] la Biblioteca Nacional para cumplir trabajo para promover el desarrollo IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, su compromiso con la comunidad de este tipo de centros en el ámbito pp. 325–332 universitaria. La Biblioteca Nacional de las ciencias sociales. El grupo se ha digitalizado los recursos de encargó de promover una relación La paz signifi ca más que la ausencia investigación, ha desarrollado más estrecha entre los centros, de guerra, violencia o confl ictos. servicios integrados de búsqueda, así como de desarrollar proyectos Entre 1960 y 1980, África libró 32 ha participado activamente en de colaboración, promover las guerras que provocaron la pérdida de tres proyectos de infraestructura alianzas, la cooperación y coordinar millones de vidas y más de un millón de información de investigación, tareas específi cas. Este documento de refugiados. Estos confl ictos, que y ha trabajado con socios para describe el trabajo y los logros del aún continúan, junto con la pobreza crear soluciones que resuelvan el grupo, el Comité de Coordinación y las enfermedades, amenazan la problema de mantener los archivos de los centros que manejan estabilidad del continente. Son de las universidades para que Información Política y Social, muchos los conceptos que entran soporten el acceso a largo plazo. COIPS, que ahora se compone de en juego a la hora de crear la paz, El documento también describe 32 centros. y uno de los más importantes es el proyecto ARROW (Australian establecer canales mejor defi nidos Research Repositories Online to Emma Voskanyan. Government para difundir la información entre the World), que está desarrollando Information and Centers of los ciudadanos de a pie y los una solución para los archivos Business and Legal Information políticos. Ésta es la función de los institucionales en colaboración in Russia. [Información ofi cial y bibliotecarios, y, especialmente, con una empresa y la Australian Centros de negocios e información de las mujeres que se dedican Partnership for Sustainable jurídica en Rusia.] a ello. Por tanto, la labor de las Repositories (Alianza australiana IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, bibliotecarias consiste enfacilitar y para archivos sostenibles, APRS). pp. 345–355 difundir información útil y precisa En este proyecto, la Biblioteca sobre la paz y los movimientos Nacional ayuda a desarrollar un Rusia es uno de los estados con en esta materia, así como sobre método consistente para evaluar más recursos de información, tanto los grupos formados por mujeres; el riesgo de obsolescencia de los mediante tecnologías tradicionales luchar por la libertar de acceso a la formatos de archivos, y presta como nuevas. El Estado ruso, información; aumentar el hábito de asesoramiento para una estrategia consciente de las disposiciones de lectura de las mujeres y los niños; que incluya metadatos de respaldo los documentos internacionales 390 PефератыSommaires статей sobre estas cuestiones, estudia todas los centros de información legal, Jong-Ae Kim. Measuring the Impacts las posibilidades para que el acceso junto con sus variantes. El sistema of Knowledge Management. a la información más importante funciona con gran efi cacia. [Evaluación del impacto de la resulte más fácil para todos. Entre gestión del conocimiento.] las instituciones encargadas de Wu Shushi. Cooperation on IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, recopilar, organizar y difundir Local History and the Concept pp. 362–367 la información, las bibliotecas of Network Building between desempeñan una función muy Libraries, Museums and Archives Con la creciente popularidad importante. A comienzos de la in China. [Cooperación en historia de la gestión del conocimiento, década de los 90, los especialistas local y el concepto de creación de los profesionales reconocen la rusos en reformas legales llegaron redes entre bibliotecas, museos y necesidad de disponer de estructuras a la conclusión de que el problema archivos en China.] para evaluar los efectos de esta principal radica en dónde IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, actividad en el funcionamiento encontrar las fuentes acreditadas pp. 356–361 de las organizaciones. A pesar de de información ofi cial, así como los los grandes avances en la gestión conocimientos jurídicos necesarios Los libros chinos antiguos y los del conocimiento, aún no existe para garantizar que pueden ofrecerse documentos sobre la historia una estructura estandarizada para uso público. Los expertos rusos local se coleccionan en archivos, para evaluar los resultados en las consideran que dichas fuentes bibliotecas, museos (ALM), así como organizaciones. Este documento podrían ser las bibliotecas públicas en otras instituciones académicas ofrece una visión general de los rusas. El sistema de bibliotecas, que del país. Este documento presenta distintos métodos para evaluar de se creó durante los años del poder la cooperación en el ámbito de qué forma los avances en esta materia soviético, demostró ser uniforme la conservación de documentos y contribuyen al funcionamiento de las y flexible, y dicha comunidad catalogación que se produce entre organizaciones. También presenta ha sido la que más receptiva se ha mostrado a los cambios. El ALM en China. Asimismo, describe métodos, como la rentabilidad documento describe de qué forma de manera sucinta el proyecto digital de la inversión, cuadro de mando los encargados de las reformas sobre historia local que ha llevado integral, casos prácticos cualitativos gubernamentales se basaron en la a cabo la Biblioteca Nacional de y casos de éxito para ayudar a los sólida estructuras de bibliotecas China. Por último, propone el profesionales a identifi car y crear para crear modelos especializados concepto de cooperación entre las estructuras de evaluación. Por de acceso a la información por archivos, bibliotecas y museos en tanto, su objetivo es servir como todo el país, como los centros el ámbito de la digitalización de la base para una labor posterior de de información empresarial y historia local. investigación y desarrollo.

Pефераты статей

Дае-Юнг Ким. Libraries: Prime культурных традиций Кореи, а также в социальных и интеллектуальных Movers for the Age of Knowledge усилия по развитию этих традиций структурах Запада. В целом, эти and Information. [Библиотеки: в 21 веке. модели соответствуют таксономии, Движущая сила к эпохе знаний и разработанной в 1950-ых Блумом информации.] Даниэл Г.Дорнер и Г.Е.Горман. и принятой как подходящей для IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Information Literacy Education развивающихся обществ. При этом, pp. 278–280 in Asian Developing Countries: однако, не был учтен контекст, из cultural factors affecting которого они произошли и в котором Основной доклад на церемонии curriculum development and применяются. Для того чтобы открытия Всемирного конгресса programme delivery. [Обучение модели ОИГ могли быть разумно по вопросам библиотек и информационной грамотности в интегрированы в образовательную информатизации: 72-ая Генеральная развивающихся азиатских странах: ткань развивающейся страны, конференция и Совет ИФЛА, 20– культурные факторы, влияющие на важно учитывать ряд контекстных 24 августа 2006 г., Сеул, Корея. разработку учебного плана и подачу переменных, влияющих на то, как Описывается кардинальная роль, программы.] и почему учатся индивидуумы. которую должны сыграть библиотеки в IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, Рассматривая ОИГ сквозь призму определении того, будет ли успешным pp. 281–293 культурного контекста, данная работа достижение желаемых результатов делает акцент на трех вопросах, в век знаний и информатизации. Превалирующие модели обучения касающихся ОИГ в развивающихся Рассматривается место библиотек в информационной грамотности (ОИГ) странах: Как определить поддержании интеллектуальных и находят свою контекстуальную основу информационную грамотность в 391 SommairesPефераты статей

контексте развивающейся страны? Как benefit or burden for Africa? женщины-библиотекари. Роль лучше определить образовательные [Интеллектуальная собственность женщин-библиотекарей заключается цели повышения информационной – преимущество или бремя для в следующем: предоставление и грамотности в контексте Африки?] распространение полезной и развивающейся страны? Каким IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, достоверной информации на тему образом культурная осведомленность pp. 310–324 мира, движения за мир, деятельности может способствовать повышению женских групп; борьба за свободу информационной грамотности? В этой работе выделены некоторые доступа к информации; улучшение аспекты, влияющие на доступ к читательских навыков женщин и детей; Лесли Марта, Эйлин Стек и Мэрилин знаниям в Южной Африке и организация выставок и диспутов на Уилт. Using Assessment as a других африканских странах, а тему мира; обеспечение непрерывного Tool to Improve Learning: an также последствия внедрения образования для женщин и девочек IFLA Workshop. [Использование международных соглашений в области и т.д. Правительства африканских оценки в качестве инструмента интеллектуальной собственности, в стран должны обеспечить своим совершенствования обучения: основном касающихся авторских прав. женщинам доступ к насущной семинар ИФЛА.] Констатируется, что большинство информации посредством организации IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, этих стран стремится к тому, действующих библиотек и условий pp. 294–309 чтобы отвечать самым основным выхода в Интернет для того, чтобы требованиям соглашений в области женщины были должным образом В ходе 69-й Генеральной конференции интеллектуальной собственности. информированы и участвовали в и Совета ИФЛА в Берлине, Германия В то же время некоторые из этих глобальных дискуссиях, а также для в 2003 г. три библиотекаря, стран подвергаются нажиму со повышения их социального статуса. представляющих библиотеки стороны развитых стран, требующих Университета Рутгерс, провели принятия еще более строгих Варвик Катро. The Role of a National совместный семинар по программе режимов защиты интеллектуальной Library in Supporting Research «Использование оценки в качестве собственности путем присоединения Information Infrastructure. инструмента совершенствования к разделам по интеллектуальной [Роль национальной библиотеки обучения». Семинар был нацелен собственности или ‘TRIPS-Plus’ в в поддержке информационной на то, чтобы способствовать более Соглашениях о свободной торговле. инфраструктуры исследований.] глубокому пониманию участниками В работе рассматривается воздействие IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, методики оценки, а также некоторых положений ‘TRIPS-Plus’ pp. 333–339 передать опыт по эффективному на образование, библиотеки и людей ее использованию в качестве с сенсорной нетрудоспособностью, а Национальная библиотека инструмента, способствующего также на здравоохранение и развитие Австралии принимает участие в совершенствованию обучения. в целом. национальной программе по Семинару предшествовал улучшению информационной этап предварительной оценки, а инфраструктуры исследований в в завершение была сделана Баки О. Омотайо. Women and стране. Данная сфера деятельности заключительная оценка. Результаты Conﬂ ict in the New Information обеспечила Национальной предварительной оценки Age. [Женщины и конфликт в свидетельствовали о правильности новую информационную эру.] библиотеке необходимую базу для выбранной темы семинара, IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, взаимодействия с университетским понимании ( в первом приближении) pp. 325–332 сообществом. Национальная контекста деятельности и опыта библиотека работала над оцифровкой отдельных участников. Была Мир – это не просто отсутствие войны, исследовательских ресурсов, также сформирована основа для насилия или конфликтов. Между 1960 разработала интегрированные работы небольших групп в рамках и 1980 годами в Африке разгорелось поисковые сервисы, активно семинара. На этапе заключительной 32 войны, которые унесли миллионы участвовала в трех исследовательских оценки были предложены ценные жизней и сделали более миллиона проектах по информационной соображения для организации людей беженцами. Эти конфликты, инфраструктуре, а в сотрудничестве дальнейших программ. В статье которые все еще продолжаются, с партнерами работала над решением описывается сущность семинара со сопровождаются нищетой и проблемы создания устойчивых слов модераторов, каждый из которых болезнями, угрожают стабильности университетских хранилищ, специализировался на модели оценки всего континента. Существует обеспечивающих долговременный определенного уровня. Обсуждались много концепций восстановления доступ. Описывается проект модели трех уровней: учитель/ мира, среди которых одной из ARROW (Доступ к австралийским инструктор, учащийся/студент и основных является создание более исследовательским репозитариям в программный/институциональный. свободных каналов распространения режиме он-лайн), в рамках которого НБ информации среди обычных людей и совместно с коммерческой структурой Дениз Роузмари Николсон. политиков, то есть та роль, которую и Австралийским партнерством по Intellectual Property – играют библиотекари, особенно созданию устойчивых репозитариев 392 PефератыSommaires статей

(APSR) разрабатывает разумные и центры предоставления деловой библиотеками, музеями и архивами подходы по оценке рисков устаревания и юридической информации в в Китае.] старых форматов; консультирует России.] IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, по вопросам стратегии включения IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, pp. 356–361 данных о сохранности в метаданные pp. 345–355 и их использования репозитариями, а Древние китайские книги и также стремится оказывать влияние Россия относится к числу наиболее местные исторические документы на будущие разработки открытых богатых в информационном отношении собираются в архивах, библиотеках программных средств для создания стран, а ее информационные и музеях (АБМ), а также других репозитариев, предусматривающих ресурсы предоставляются как с академических институтах по всей использование данных о сохранности помощью традиционных, так стране. В данной работе представлено в метаданных. и новых технологий. Российское сотрудничество по вопросам правительство, признавая положения консервации и каталогизации, Мария Елена Дорта-Дьюк. международных документов по этим которое осуществляется между Governmental Libraries проблемам, делает все возможное китайскими АБМ. В ней кратко Development: an experience для облегчения доступа каждого описывается Цифровой проект по of strategic collaboration индивидуума к наиболее важной для местной истории, разработанный in the field of social sciences. него информации. Среди учреждений, Национальной библиотекой Китая. В [Развитие правительственных отвечающих за сбор, организацию заключение предлагается концепция библиотек: опыт стратегического и распространение информации, сотрудничества архивов, библиотек взаимодействия в области значительную роль играют библиотеки. и музеев по оцифровке документов, общественных наук.] В начале 1990-ых российские относящихся к местной истории. IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, специалисты по правовой реформе pp. 340–344 пришли к заключению, что главной Йонг-Ае Ким. Measuring the Impacts проблемой является определение of Knowledge Management. Институт научной и технологической места размещения авторитетных [Оценка влияния управления документации и информации (IDICT) источников официальной информации знаниями.] Министерства науки, технологий и и правовых знаний, так чтобы IFLA Journal 32 (2006) No. 4, окружающей среды (CITMA) Кубы в сделать их открытыми для общего pp. 362–367 октябре 1995 года провел совещание пользования. Российские эксперты представителей правительственных решили, что таким источником могли По мере роста популярности темы и неправительственных библиотек бы быть российские публичные управления знаниями практики и центров информации в области библиотеки. Библиотечная система, приходят к выводу о необходимости политической, социальной и выстроенная во времена советской механизма по оценке влияния экономической информации. Цель власти, доказала свою устойчивость управления знаниями на деятельность совещания заключалась в создании и одновременно свою гибкость, а организации. Несмотря на широкое рабочей группы, содействующей библиотечное сообщество было использование управления знаниями, развитию центров такого типа в сфере наиболее восприимчивым к все еще отсутствует стандартный общественных наук. Группе было переменам. В работе описывается, механизм оценки деятельности поручено наладить более тесные каким образом, опираясь на солидную внутри организаций. В данной работе связи между подобными центрами, базу библиотек, правительственные рассматриваются подходы к оценке разработать совместные проекты, реформаторы создали в 1993 году позитивных сторон использования стимулирующие партнерство, специализированные модели доступа управления знаниями для деятельности сотрудничество и координацию к информации по всей стране, такие, организации исполнения. В ней специфических задач. В данной как центры деловой информации, рассматриваются такие методики как работе описывается деятельность и центры юридической информации расчет прибыли на инвестированный достижения этой группы - the Comité и их производные. Эта система капитал, сбалансированный учет de Coordinación de los Centros que функционирует очень эффективно. результатов, качественный разбор manejan Información Política y Social конкретных случаев, а также методика (COIPS), объединяющей в настоящее Ву Шуши. Cooperation on рассмотрения успешного случая, время 32 центра. Local History and the Concept способствующая идентификации и of Network Building between развитию оценочных механизмов Эмма Восканян. Government Libraries, Museums and Archives практиками. Таким образом, Information and Centers of Business in China. [Сотрудничество по работа может служить основой and Legal Information in Russia. вопросам местной истории и для дальнейших исследований и [Правительственная информация концепция построения сети между разработок.

393 Wolfgang Ratzek IFLA Vol. 32, 2006 INDEX

Knutsen, Unni, Bibliographic Control in the Nordic Articles Countries, 32(1), 5–12. Koontz, Christie M., Dinesh K. Gupta and Sheila Webber, Key Publications in Library Marketing: a review, 32(3), Butler, Barbara A., Janet Webster, Steven G. Watkins 224–231. and James W. Markham, Resource Sharing within an Murtha, Leslie, Eileen Stec and Marilyn Wilt, Using International Library Network: using technology and Assessment as a Tool to Improve Learning: an IFLA professional cooperation to bridge the waters, 32(3), Workshop, 32(4), 294–309. 189–199. Nicholson, Denise Rosemary, Intellectual Property: benefi t Byrne, Alex, Libraries: the information society in action, or burden for Africa?, 32(4), 310–324. 32(1), 64–65. Omotayo, Bukky O., Women and Confl ict in the New Byrne, Alex, Claudia Lux and Peter Lor, IFLA 2005: Information Age, 32(4), 325–332. Report of achievements, 32(1), 62–63. Ostby, Jon Birger, Cross-Sectorial Challenges for Archives, Cathro, Warwick, The Role of a National Library in Libraries and Museums, 32(3), 232–236. Supporting Research Information Infrastructure, Parker, J. Stephen, Editorial: Oslo Conference Papers, 32(4), 333–339. 32(1), 3–4. Copeland, Lynn, There Be Dragons … Learning Parker, J. Stephen, Editorial: East is East, 32(2), 91–92. Management and Library Systems in Canada, 32(3), Parker, J. Stephen, Editorial: Principles and Practice, 200–208. 32(3), 179–180. Dorner, Daniel G. and G.E. Gorman, Information Parker, J. Stephen, Editorial: Success in Seoul!, 32(4), Literacy Education in Asian Developing Countries: 275–277. cultural factors affecting curriculum development and Raftse, Elisabeth Tallaksen, Tove Pemmer S&ae;tre and programme delivery, 32(4), 281–293. Ellen Sundt, Norwegian Policy for Empowering School Dorta-Duque, Maria Elena, Governmental Libraries Libraries, 32(1), 48–53. Development: an experience of strategic collaboration Ratzek, Wolfgang, Libraries on the Agenda! The President- in the fi eld of social sciences, 32(4), 340–344. Elect's Planning Session in Seoul, 32(4), 368–373. Durrant, Fay, The World Wide Web Enhancing Richardson, John V., The Library and Information E-government in the Caribbean: an assessment of Economy in Turkmenistan, 32(2), 131–139. government portals or gateway websites, 32(3), Shushi, Wu, Cooperation on Local History and the 240–250. Concept of Network Building between Libraries, Evans, Roger, Delivering Sizzling Services and Solid Museums and Archives in China, 32(4), 356–361. Support with Open Source Software, 32(1), 19–27 Stange, Kari, Caught between Print and Electronic, 32(3), 237–239. Filatkina, Irina V., Between East and West: libraries of the Sturges, Paul, Limits to Freedom of Expression? Russian Far East, 32(2), 147–152. Considerations arising from the Danish cartoons affair, Forrest, Margaret E.S., Towards an Accessible Academic 32(3), 181–188. Library: using the IFLA Checklist, 32(1), 13–18. Voskanyan, Emma, Government Information and Centers Franklin, Brinley and Terry Plum, Successful Web of Business and Legal Information in Russia, 32(4), Survey Methodologies for Measuring the Impact of 345–355. Networked Electronic Services (MINES for Libraries), Watts, Chris and Ijeoma Ibegbulam, Access to Electronic 32(1), 28–40. Healthcare Information Resources in Developing Gengsheng, Tang, The Vigorous Advancement of Libraries Countries: experiences from the Medical Library, in China, 32(2), 113–118. College of Medicine, University of Nigeria, 32(1), Hosono, Kimio, Changes in University and Public 54–61. Libraries in Japan, 32(2), 119–130. Wells, GladysAnn and Richard Pearce-Moses, From Houston, Cynthia, Building Capacity for Global Education Bibliographer to Curator: archival strategies for in a School Library Media Education Program through capturing web publications, 32(1), 41–47. International Exchange, 32(3), 209–213. Xia, Jingfeng, Scholarly Communication in East and Hovius, Beth, Public Library Partnerships which Add Southeast Asia: traditions and challenges, 32(2), Value to the Community: the Hamilton Public Library 104–112. experience, 32(3), 214–223. Xiaolin, Zhang, Sustainable Digital Library Development Kim, Dae-Jung, Libraries: Prime movers for the age of for Scientifi c Communities in China, 32(2), 140–146 knowledge and information, 32(4), 278–280. Yoon, Hee-yoon, Duk-Hyun Chang and Young-seok Kim, Jong-Ae, Measuring the Impact of Knowledge Kim, Libraries in Korea: a general overview, 32(2), Management, 32(4), 362–367. 93–103.

Copyright © 2006 International Federation of Library Associations & IFLA Institutions (www.iﬂ a.org). IFLA Journal 32(4): 394. 394 ISSN: 0340-0352. DOI: 10.1177/0340035206074637 Limits to Freedom of Expression?

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