MAY/JUNE 1993______VOLUME 14/NUMBER 3

Robert Conquest EDITOR'S NOTE

Robert Conquest

'The task of the historian/' writes Robert Conquest, "is the notori­ ously difficult one of trying to represent clearly and truly in a few hundred pages events which cover years of time and nations of men and women." For the past thirty-five years Conquest has been pursuing the his­ tory of a particularly enigmatic part of the world, the part known until recently as the Soviet Union. In looking at its past, Conquest adds somberly in The Harvest of Sorrow: "We may perhaps put this in per­ spective in the present case by saying that in the actions here recorded Moscow, Saint Basil's Cathedral, Red Square. about twenty human lives were lost for, not every word, but every — © Photo by Craig Line. (Inset) Photo by Elizabeth Conquest. letter, in this book." This issue of Humanities looks at the life and work of Conquest, who has been chosen as the 1993 Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities. He is the twenty-second recipient of the honor, which is the highest award the federal government bestows for distinguished achievement in the humanities. Born in Worcestershire, England, of an American father and an Humanities English mother, Conquest holds dual citizenship. He was educated at A bimonthly review published by the Winchester College; the University of Grenoble in France; and at National Endowment for the Humanities Magdalen College, Oxford, where he read politics, philosophy, and economics. He left the university in 1939 and joined the British army, serving in Italy and the Balkans in World War II; after the war, he joined the British foreign service and served in Sofia, Bulgaria, and with Editor: Mary Lou Beatty the British delegation to the United Nations. He wrote as well, produc­ Assistant Editors: Constance Burr ing novels and books of poetry. Susan Q. Jaffe In the 1950s, having edited a volume of "thaw" poetry by Eastern Ellen Marsh Europeans, Conquest found himself intrigued by the path the Soviet Editorial Assistants: Amy Lifson Union was taking, its history still submerged six years after the death Nadine Ekrek of Stalin. From that interest came a lifelong fascination and continuing Editorial Board: Marjorie Berlincourt, scholarly study. George F. Farr, Jr., Guinevere Griest, Conquest has published fifteen books of Soviet history. In addition to Donald Gibson, James Herbert, Thomas The Harvest of Sorrow, they include Russia after Khrushchev, Stalin and the Kingston, Jerry Martin, Carole Watson Kirov Murder, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties, and most recently, Stalin: Breaker of Nations. He has written three other books on Marketing Director: Joy Evans political themes as well as six volumes of poetry, two novels—one of them science fiction—and a book of literary criticism. He is a former Design: Crabtree & Jemison, Inc. literary editor of The Spectator of London. Since 1981 Conquest has been a senior research fellow at the Hoover The opinions and conclusions expressed in Institution in Stanford, California, and curator of its Russian and East Humanities are those of the authors and do European collection. He is also an adjunct fellow at the Washington not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material appearing in this publication, except Center for Strategic Studies and a research associate at Harvard's for that already copyrighted, may be freely Ukrainian Research Institute. reproduced. Please notify the editor in advance so that appropriate credit can be Conquest follows with interest the events in Russia and the republics. given. Humanities (ISSN 0018-7526) is "History, production figures, census results, were all faked," Conquest published bimonthly for $11 per year by the National Endowment for the Humanities, commented in a recent issue of Freedom Review. "But even more demor­ 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, alizing, the whole sphere of thought was controlled and distorted." He D.C. 20506. Second-class postage paid at writes: "The political situation is still dangerous. But at least they are Washington, D.C., and additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Send address changes to shot of Marxism-Leninism. They may not quite know what they want. Humanities, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., But they know what they don't want." Washington, D.C. 20506. Annual subscription rate: $11.00 domestic, $13.75 foreign. Two —Mary Lou Beatty years: $22.00, $27.50.

Telephone: 202/606-8435. Fax: 202/606-8240.

2 MAY/JUNE 1993 HUMANITIES THE MAGAZINE OF THE NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES

Page 8 Page 4 Page 29

The 1993 Jefferson Lecture Russian Culture Exhibition

8 A Conversation With... 4 The Riabov Collection: 29 Grand Illusions: Historian Robert Conquest A Photo Essay Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 discusses Stalinist terrorism By Laura Randall By Janis Johnson with Humanities editor An emigre bestows three A new exhibition looks at the Mary Lou Beatty. centuries of Russian art on his achievements and flaws of the American alma mater. nation's celebration of its 14 Robert Conquest: coming of age. An Appreciation 23 "...Now History Has Caught Up with Her" By Charles Fairbanks Other Features The life of the 1993 Jefferson By Constance Burr lecturer displays an impatience The detective work of Patricia with orthodoxies, whether Grimsted in documenting the 34 Noteworthy political or cultural. hidden Soviet archives. 35 Calendar 19 The Stages of Struggle 26 Faulkner's Idea By Anthony Hartley of Ownership How the material gathered by By Maya Koreneva Robert Conquest exposed the Humanities Guide The appeal of Faulkner's vision Soviet facade. to the Russian psyche. 39 The Annual List of 20 Excerpts NEH-Supported Books and The writings of Robert Conquest. Museum Catalogues

46 Deadlines

HUMANITIES 3 4 MAY/JUNE 1993 BY LAURA RANDALL The R ia b o v Collection

HEN GEORGE RIABOV WAS A BOY OF THIRTEEN LIVING IN A SMALL RUS­ SIAN EMIGRE COMMU­ NITY IN POLAND IN 1937, HE BOUGHT A POSTCARD OF A DRAWING BY RUS­ SIAN ARTIST IVAN BILIBIN FOR A FEW PENNIES. IT WAS THIS SMALL PUR­ CHASE THAT WOULD LAUNCH RIABOV'S LIFELONG DEDICATION TO SOVIET ARTW AND CULTURE AND ULTIMATELY LEAD TO ONE OF THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE AND UNIQUE COLLECTIONS OF RUSSIAN ART OUTSIDE OF THE The Transfiguration, 17th century. SOVIET UNION. "BEFORE THAT, I HAD ONLY SEEN RUSSIAN ART IN BOOKS," RECALLS RIABOV, THE SON OF WHITE RUS­ SIAN PARENTS, WHO FLED RUSSIA AFTER THE REVOLUTION. RIABOV WAS BORN IN POLAND AND EMIGRATED TO THE UNITED STATES IN 1946. "IT WAS AT THAT TIME I DECIDED THE REST OF MY LIFE WOULD BE DEDICATED TO RUSSIAN CULTURE AND ART."

IT WAS A LIFE THAT WOULD LEAD THE YOUNG ART COLLECTOR FROM CORUN, THE POLISH BIRTHPLACE HE SHARED WITH COPERNICUS, TO

THE DISPLACED PERSONS' CAMPS WHERE MANY RUSSIAN EMIGRES WERE SENT FOLLOWING WORLD WAR II, AND FINALLY TO THE EMINENT

ARTS COMMUNITY OF THE NEW YORK METROPOLITAN AREA. THROUGHOUT HIS TRAVELS AND HARDSHIPS, RIABOV NEVER CEASED

Nick olas Roerich (1874-1947). HIS SEARCH FOR RUSSIAN ART. Costume design for the ha llet, L,e Sacre A FORMER CONSULTANT TO THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART AND du Printemps, by Stravinsky; 1Q13. PART-TIME RUSSIAN ART CONSULTANT TO CHRISTIE'S, RIABOV HAS ALLOWED HIS COLLECTION TO BECOME A PERMANENT PART OF THE JANE VOORHEES ZIMMERLI ART MUSEUM AT RUTGERS UNIVERSITY, HIS ALMA MATER. COMPRISED OF APPROXIMATELY 1,000 PAINTINGS, DRAWINGS, SCULPTURES, AND PRINTS, THE RIABOV COLLECTION OFFERS A BROAD SELECTION OF RUSSIAN ART—FROM A RARE FOUR­ TEENTH-CENTURY RUSSIAN ICON CARVED IN STONE TO MODERN

HUMANITIES 5 6 MAY/JUNE 1993 custome and stage designs done in proper place for my collection is at an watercolor and gouache. An auxil­ educational institution/' explains iary library of 5,000 books, journals, Riabov, who received a B.A. and M.A. newspaper clippings, and slides in German from Rutgers. bears directly upon the documenta­ The Riabov collection demonstrates tion of the art objects. The museum how Russian art, paralleling other staff recently completed a computer­ European national cultures, covered a ized catalogue of the collection, with full range of historical styles, from the assistance of Riabov and funds neo-Classicism and Romanticism to provided by the National Endow­ Impressionism and Cubism. "We ment for the Humanities. wanted to show that the art of Russia The chance to provide a scholarly reveals international relationships enhancement of his art collection was and contexts like any other nation's a factor in Riabov's decision to donate art would do," says the Zimmerli's the entire 1,000-piece collection to Rut­ assistant director Jeffrey Wechsler. gers. "I believe in education along The manner in which Riabov Nicholas Roerich. The Sacre d Lake, 1917- with art. During the course of my col­ acquired his works of art is as diverse lecting, I was constantly studying, as the collection itself. His paintings doing research, and training my eye to and drawings by unofficial Russian see the historical context in the art. I artists can be attributed to the friend­ like to convey the importance of that ships he established as a young boy to others. That is why I believe the among the emigre community in extensive Russian art and history Poland. "Many of the artists made up development in American museums. the friends who supported me in my They may have some Russian paint­ early endeavor of collecting," he says. ings, but they don't broadly represent Some of the collection's rare icons the styles, movements, and back­ were obtained by Riabov when he was ground of the art." working as a translator in a displaced Now that the barriers of the past persons' camp in Germany after his have made way for an intense curi­ family fled Poland in the early 1940s. osity about the art he loves so much, The icons were an important part of Riabov has become a sought-after the heritage his parents labored to expert on Russian art in the United uphold, says Riabov. "The beauty and States. His flair for art collecting was mystery of icons are a part of the Rus­ noted long before his emigration to sian soul, like reading great Russian the United States, however. Riabov, literature," he says. now sixty-nine, recalls: "When I was Riabov speaks of the "intense" cul­ in high school in Germany, I was tural life the family led in Europe, drawing sketches of Gothic sculpture which included the commissioning by with a classmate. I was never artisti­ his mother of local emigre artists to cally inclined, in the way of creating paint portraits of her children. "We something. A voice behind me said, were a stateless people," Riabov says. 'You shall never be an artist, but "My parents fought to preserve our you shall always be dealing with Aleksei Jawlensku (1864-1941). H ead of Russian heritage in the countries in Christ, 1934. art.' It was a German soldier. He which we lived in exile." turned and walked away and I never Riabov's quest for Russian art did saw him again." □ not wane once he arrived in the (Left) United States. The collector recalls Laura Randall is a free-lance writer in Alexandra Exter (1884-1949). Costume design, during his years at the Museum of Washington, D.C. 1925, possibly for Bronislava Nijinska’s Modern Art, wandering around Man­ Theatre Choreographique. hattan art galleries during his lunch In 1992 the Jane Voorhees Zimmerii hours, magnifying glass in pocket. "It Art Museum at Rutgers, the State Uni­ versity of New Jersey received a $50,000 — Photos courtesy of Jane Vorhees Zimmerii Art Museum, was a matter of ridicule among some Rutgers University grant from Humanities Projects in of my colleagues," he says. "There was Museums and Historical Organizations, no interest in Soviet art at the time." Division of Public Programs, to support Zimmerli's Wechsler echoes documentation of the George Riabov Riabov's view: "You cannot find Collection of Russian Art.

HUMANITIES 7 Robert Conquest (right) with the Bulgarian journalist Ilya Kovachev, in Sofia, 1944. — Courtesy o f Robert Conquest

8 MAY/JUNE 1993 A Conversation With ROBERT CONQUEST

Robert Conquest with his father’s mastiffs, 1919. -courtesy of Robert conquest

WHEN HUMANITIES EDITOR MARY LOU BEATTY SPOKE

WITH ROBERT CONQUEST, THE 1993 JEFFERSON LEC­

TURER IN THE HUMANITIES, THE CONVERSATION TURNED TO

THE ATROCITIES OF JOSEPH STALIN AND THE CURRENT STATE

OF SOVIET AFFAIRS. CONQUEST IS SENIOR RESEARCH FELLOW

AND SCHOLAR-CURATOR OF THE RUSSIAN/CIS COLLECTION AT

THE HOOVER INSTITUTION AT STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN CALI­

FORNIA. HE HAS PUBLISHED FIFTEEN BOOKS OF SOVIET HIS­

TORY, INCLUDING THE HARVEST OF SORROW, THE GREAT

TERROR, AND MOST RECENTLY, STALIN: BREAKER OF NATIONS.

CONQUEST IS ALSO A POET AND NOVELIST.

HUMANITIES 9 EDITOR: You are both a poet and a tracer of the bloody many other Americans. He couldn't get into the British army deeds of Joseph Stalin. I don't want to call this schizoid, but because he was too short-sighted. He won the Croix de certainly they're rather divergent paths. Guerre in 1916. Anyway, after that, he remained in England. CONQUEST: How the poetry comes in, I'm not sure, but I I was brought up in England and France, but I remained and think you needed a lot of imagination to grasp the Stalin phe­ remain an American citizen and dual national. Then, of nomenon. After all, it was better understood by George course, when the war broke out, the second war, I joined the Orwell and Arthur Koestler, the novelists, than by the politi­ British army. I was following in his footsteps in a way. cal scientists. My first two books were a book of poems and a Q: Your Russian must be pretty good. I see you've done a science fiction novel. I think the science fiction side of it at translation of Solzhenitsyn's Prussian Nights. least probably qualifies one to understand the old Soviet CONQUEST: Well, my spoken Russian is not good. My lis­ Union. It was like a totally alien order. tening Russian is not good. My Bulgarian is excellent, and if Q: I gather that Stalin himself was a poet, as was Ho Chi you know Bulgarian, you think you know Russian, and you Minh. Is there some sinister connection between poetry don't. I can give a little speech in Russian if I'm prepared, but and politics? even then I get cases wrong. But then, so do Russians some­ CONQUEST: I once meant to do a book of poems by Stalin, times. Stalin did, too. Ho Chi Minh, Castro, and Mao Tse-tung, illustrations by A. Q: The Stalin biography is wonderful. It is mesmerizing. I Hitler—who, of course, painted, (laughter) was about to ask, why the sudden interest in Stalin, or wasn't Q: In your book you describe Stalin's effect in powerful it so sudden? terms. Let me quote you: "Stalin, to whom the aura of death CONQUEST: If you want the story of how I got into Soviet clings so strongly, is himself only now ceasing to live on in affairs, it's not a particularly logical one. It starts off in 1937.1 the system he created. When he died in 1953, he left a mon­ went bumming around Europe with my best friend, three ster whose own death throes are not yet over more than a months with a backpack, to the Arctic, to Turkey, and so on. generation later." We arrived back in Paris, and I was welcomed by my girl­ CONQUEST: That's still true up to a point. The monster friend. He hadn't got a girlfriend in Paris, so he wandered the has died, but its stinking corpse is still around. What do streets, and by the Sorbonne, he saw two students begging in you do with this enormous dead tyrannosaurus? The the gutter, so, having very little money on him, he joined results are still there, the total failure to keep up the infra­ them, and they turned out to be Bulgarian. We became very structure—the buildings, the sewers, the roads, and so on. good friends of these Bulgarians. That's Act One. It's left a very nasty stench behind, including, of course, the Act Two is I'm in the army and I'm acting as adjutant at my stench of Chernobyl. regiment's infantry training center, and there's an army cir­ Q: Do you think that there are still Stalinists in significant cular, "Officers wanted to learn Balkan languages. Urgent." I positions? They'd be pretty old by now. put my name in, and a few months later, the colonel howled, "What's all this about your going on a course for three CONQUEST: There still are some, but very few. I think one months?" "You remember, sir, you signed it." And so I went of the remarkable things about present-day Russia is that on the Bulgarian course. Then in 19441 was flown in to the practically nobody talks Marxism or Stalinism. Even the con­ Balkans. So I got a Slavic language, I got into Eastern spirators who tried the coup d'etat didn't mention Marxism Europe. After the war, I went back as press attache there, or socialism in their manifesto. They just spoke of restoring and then in 1950, back to the Foreign Office, one of the order and preserving the borders of the old union. But you research departments. never know. In a very dangerous situation, some sort of totalitarian group might gain power. I became interested in Russia. No one else seemed to care about the secrets. I found that five nations had disappeared Q: In your books, you mentioned different sources of from the map and no one had written about them. So I wrote material—dissidents, emigres, and so on. Do you still have to a book, which later was called The Nation Killers, about the protect some of them? deportation of these two or three million people. Really, at CONQUEST: No. Everything is now out in the open and the beginning, it was in a sense trying to find the hidden. It has been for some years, published by the official press. Back was sheer intellectual curiosity. in the '60s and even in the '80s, I had difficulty in construct­ Q: How did you discover that Stalin was a monster, not just ing the true story of the main events of the Stalin period a ho-hum dictator, if you will? because everything was hidden. But there was enough evi­ dence around from various sources to build what turned out CONQUEST: Well, one of the problems with Russia was, to be a perfectly sound picture. Of course, now there are after about 1930, when all the programs went wrong and many more details available—nothing that changes the total everything was in a frightful condition, they lied about it. picture much, but very interesting, fascinating stuff. You had two Soviet Unions. You had the true one, the real one, which was horrible terror, famine, you name it, and then Q: Have you been to Russia? you had this one on paper with posters and demonstrations CONQUEST: Oh, yes. I went when I was a student in 1937 and enthusiasms. One of the troubles was that the West, or for a couple of weeks, without a word of Russian or Slavic or some in the West, swallowed the phony one. Why should a anything. Then I was back in '89, and often since. Westerner believe one story rather than the other? This is the Q: You're the classic English gentleman, I would think. first time I think it's ever happened that a large, important CONQUEST: As to my family, my father was Virginian. He country was falsifying on so big a scale. Some Westerners was in Europe when World War I broke out. He came to could not believe the mere scale of terror. But even now, peo­ England and married my English mother. Then he joined the ple understand the terror more than they do the falsification. French army in the American ambulance service, like so Its terrible omnipresence crushed the Soviet peoples in some

10 MAY/JUNE 1993 ways more than the actual terror. They went together. The ants were usually related to the others. They were villagers terror was to enforce conformity and belief. like themselves. So it was all done from above, by terror Q: You talked about grain production falling and how they and denunciation, and they deported them by the millions therefore changed the classification to //biological yields." to the Arctic. CONQUEST: Yes, what should have been there rather than Q: The figure I heard was thirteen million. the reality. They did that until after Stalin's death. It was CONQUEST: It's hard to say; perhaps a bit fewer. It may denounced, I think, in 1953 or '54. have been something above ten million. Q: Five million people died of starvation, seven million? Q: Including women and children? CONQUEST: It's difficult to say, but my bet is something CONQUEST: Yes, of course, and children died like flies. around seven million. That wasn't a genuine famine—I They were the biggest casualties. The Arctic hadn't been mean, they only died because they took the grain away. The farmed because it wasn't easily farmable; you dump people grain was there, all right. down on the tundra, they're not likely to survive. Some Q: They took it away for the army? did—the prodigious workers, the old Russian peasantry. CONQUEST: They took it away to sell abroad. They sold Q: Were the men put into forced labor camps? several million tons abroad. They also put some into what's CONQUEST: Some were, but others were just left in these called the Strategic Grain Reserve, which wasn't, technically deportation areas. speaking, for the army, but was supposed to be used in case Q: To fend for themselves. of war with Japan. Of course, if you're starving large sections of your own population, you're not going to have very good CONQUEST: Well, they were told to produce, and the ones recruits. Besides, they ruined the army by shooting practi­ that survived did, but many others just died on the spot. It cally all its generals. But the whole thing was, at one level, was one of the biggest operations of its type ever seen. One crazy, paranoia run mad. So they crushed the peasantry. The of the most infuriating things was to read in some of the basic reason was simply ideological, that an independent Western writers' that institutional and structural changes class could not exist under the Marxist schema, as they were more important than the terror and deportations. If understood it, and they had to get rid of it. They had first to millions of people were involved, in what sense does social collectivize it and then to crush its remnant resistance. or structural or institutional change matter more than these vast events, which were much, much more the essence Q: What were the kulaks supposed to have? They were peo­ of Stalinism? ple who had fifty to one hundred hectares of land? Q: You borrow a line from Joseph Conrad about "hopes CONQUEST: Nothing like that. At the beginning of the grotesquely betrayed, ideals caricatured." regime, the peasants took the landlords' land. There were then a million or so richer peasants, of about fifty to CONQUEST: I think the idea was flawed in the first place. eighty, as you say, hectares, who at first went untouched. The notion that the state can run an economy is not a sound The communist state took their land in 1918-1919, and one in the total sense, anyway. And, also, their analysis of there weren't any rich peasants after that. The people they social forces was largely fantasy. So what with one thing and went on calling kulaks were people with two cows and another, it was a disastrous aberration, I mean unbelievably twenty acres. It was a category invented to provoke what disastrous. I don't think it's true that Stalin failed to carry out the regime thought would be a class struggle in the coun­ the original ideas. He did carry them out. tryside, but there wasn't any class struggle. The poor peas­ Q: Perfectly?

Conquest, at left, in Bulgaria with a colleague and a Soviet officer and translator, 1944.

— Courtesy of Robert Conquest

HUMANITIES 11 CONQUEST: Well, as much as they could be, yes. Molo­ Q: Well, I was intrigued by Lenin's doubts about Stalin as a tov, his chief accomplice until he turned on him in his last member of the Politburo, as Lenin was having his second or year, said later that people thought Lenin would have car­ third stroke. But the doubts never come to light, and Stalin ried out the collectivization without so many losses: but slides through. Of the eight in that original group, he is the Molotov added, "How could it have been carried out with­ one who survives, and indeed prevails. out such losses?" CONQUEST: Yes, but Lenin's quarrel with Stalin was really Q: It's ironic to see that picture in your book of, who is it, mainly a personal one. I mean, he found Stalin's crudity and Stalin's daughter in a very fond moment with Beria. brutality annoying, particularly when he tried it out on CONQUEST: There's also a picture of Stalin with the little Lenin's own wife. But Lenin hadn't got much trust in any of daughter of a Buryat-Mongolian communist, Ardan Marki- his subordinates. Lenin was an extremely egotistical man in zov. That picture was made a statue of in the subway after his own way, of course, and a terrorist. I saw in one of the he'd shot her father. last issues of the official party ideological organ, Kommunist, an article which said that Stalin was a usurper, but a usurper Q: Clearly, Stalin has to be a psychopath. within the system, and that the rest of Stalin's rivals would CONQUEST: Well, in Russian psychological circles, they're have carried out much the same program. I think that's prob­ discussing to what extent he was, strictly speaking, insane. I ably about right, although Stalin made things as bad as they don't know about the medical definition, but he was certainly possibly could be. I remember a Trotskyite in 1931 or '32 who paranoid; and a psychopath in the sense that he had abso­ said, "Well, we must back Stalin. He's doing it in a crude lutely no qualms about killing people. He rather enjoyed it. way and his people aren't as intellectual as ours, but, still, Q: His seminary training apparently did him no good. It he's doing it." looks like a classical curriculum—plus liturgy, scripture, Q: Who survives in this situation? Is it the poets, the writers? Church Slavonic, and so on. CONQUEST: No, no. They got shot on a big scale, purged. CONQUEST: It wasn't in itself a bad curriculum, but it was Q: I meant spiritually. Solzhenitsyn in exile, Akhmatova. rather narrow. And the teachers were anti-Georgian, which left a mark on him because he was Georgian. Stalin wasn't in CONQUEST: Akhmatova is a wonderful example. She really some senses uneducated; there was self-education, reading was in one sense the alternative view of the human being. But in his spare time.... There is a remark by Churchill about you had to be pretty tough. Solzhenitsyn survived. He was in Hitler, that he was "loosely educated," and I think that also a labor camp, of course, but he survived. There were many applies to Stalin. people who didn't survive, including great poets like Osip Mendelstam, who died in camp. I think you could argue that Q: But how does he become a socialist, a communist? Or is a tough-minded generation evolved that included Solzhenit­ he just a rebel in that period? syn and, of course, people like Sakharov. That's what I felt CONQUEST: Well, he was a rebel, but, of course, other when I spoke to them. They had gone through the mill and rebels took to other factions or other views. I think, as one of they didn't give a damn. As I think Solzhenitsyn points out, Lenin's earlier collaborators says, that Marxism came to look the Bolsheviks whom Stalin shot, who confessed, had been so fresh and scientific; it promised on scientific grounds that treated very softly under the tsarist regime. They were jailed they would win. It hadn't got the smell of the Russian earth, and then exiled with an allowance and housing. It's quite dif­ although, as he put it, they took it up with a sort of enthusi­ ferent going to one of the torture chambers of Lubyanka, or asm and a sort of fanaticism which wasn't originally quite being in a cell with a hundred people, standing up, and then there in the western version. But basically they thought that being beaten up for days to confess. They weren't ready for it. this was a new belief which would trample over the church, But the people under Stalin who survived were more or less which Stalin disliked—religion and every other class or idea ready for it, as you can see at the end of Solzhenitsyn's First that stood in its way. Circle. A really tough element, intellectually tough and physi­ cally, morally tough, was produced. They're, in one sense, the hope of Russia. Q: Do you think Solzhenitsyn will ever go back there? CONQUEST: Well, I think he'd like to in certain circum­ stances. But it's hard to say because, as he says himself, his going back is bound to be a political event. He has to choose what he does and when he does it. Q: One of the controversies in your career was the one over numbers in the Great Terror. You put the numbers, what, at seven million arrested, a million executed? CONQUEST: Yes. Well, that hasn't really settled yet, but it's settling down. Where I've gone wrong on that—not essentially, but it makes quite a difference—is that we under­ estimated the number executed. So as a result, we overesti­ mated the number in camps. The arrests are probably about right. Both the head of the Russian Parliamentary Commis­ sion on the Terror and the head of the security ministry's own research branch are now saying that here were nineteen Senior Research Fellow Robert Conquest, and former Prime Minister to twenty-two million arrests of whom seven million were Margaret Thatcher, at Stanford, 1991. — Courtesy of Hoover Institution executed over—they give slightly different periods, but,

12 MAY/JUNE 1993 roughly speaking—1935 to '41 or 1935 to '46. If seven million were executed, then there were fewer to go to camp, obviously, of the number arrested. Basically it shakes out. The lowest figures now given imply that, in the camps and colonies, about fifteen million people went from the period after 1935; if you put that with the seven million shot, that gives roughly the figure. And then you have to add in those people, the two to three million deported 1943 to 1945 and so on. But all these figures are still inexact. Q: I gather you're something of a hero in the Soviet Union. CONQUEST: Well, I got a very good reception there the first year or two of glasnost when this was new to them. In fact, I still do. They're still publishing my histories of the Great Terror in the commu­ nist countries. The trouble is that their trained historians A chart indicating that the industrial production of the USSR far surpassed that of the United States, Great Britain, and France, was among the gifts from the French Communist party to were trained not to write history or to Stalin in honor of his seventieth birthday in 1949. — National Archives, Washington, D.C. write non-history; so the history depart­ ments were frightfully bad. They had literary people like Solzhenitsyn, who CONQUEST: I don't think that's quite right. Of course, the wrote The Gulag, which of course was a fascinating old Soviet Union was itself basically a feudal structure. I document, but they still don't have full histories of their remember saying to Yuri Afanasiev, democratic leader, five own periods, so they still to some extent use my work. or six years ago, that what was needed in Russia, the Soviet Q: I guess the question is, who will write the history books Union, as it then still was, was the destruction of the feudal for the various parts of the Soviet Union and Central element, because everything in the old Soviet Union, every Europe? Where does truth begin in certain parts of their his­ appointment, every job, every profit depended on appoint­ tories? It comes at different times in different places. ment, as it did in the feudal system. CONQUEST: Yes. It was almost incredible. The level of fal­ Now, when Lukacs talks about nationalism versus democ­ sification wasn't only historical; it was economics, demo­ racy, these are not in fact contradictories. France has always graphics everywhere. Even now we don't know quite what been nationalistic and often been very democratic. I don't the five-year-plan figures were. They used to give huge fig­ think these contradict each other in essence. They do beyond ures for the alleged industrial successes, which supposedly a certain point. If you get the perverse nationalism and the compensated for the terror, but they now say that the Nazi ideological nationalism, or the super tribal-murder increase was about the same as in Germany. nationalism—what's now going on in the Balkans—yes, of Q: We haven't gotten into that at all, parallels between the course these are incompatible with democracy. But I don't Soviet Union and Germany. think that it's a true statement of most of Eastern Europe CONQUEST: Well, there wasn't an economic parallel. and even of Russia as yet. It's true that they haven't yet got The German improvement was done under normal condi­ democracy and they haven't yet got what to my mind is tions. I'm talking about the 1934 to 1939 time period, more important than formal democracy, the rule of law. where the Soviets used to claim a growth figure like 800 After all, how democratic was England in the 1800s? It was percent, and it turns out to be about 3 percent per annum. democratic in one sense: it was consensual, it was civic. But And even that doesn't allow for the fact that most of the only a tenth of the population if that had the vote. The rule products weren't any good. So these sacrifices were made of law they did have. In England even today you don't hear for almost nothing. I remember once, somebody saying, the expression, "We're a democracy," in pubs. You hear the "Ah, Stalinism is one method of industrializing," and I expression, "It's a free country, isn't it." And I think free­ answed, "Well, yes, and cannibalism is one method of dom, political freedom, is more important and more basic getting a high-protein diet." But even that was too than democracy. favorable a view. Q: What do you see happening in the next five years? Q: Let's turn to the future for a moment. In John Lukacs's CONQUEST: I'm not as clear on these matters as perhaps new book, The End of the Twentieth Century, he puts the Mr. Lukacs or, indeed, Mr. Fukuyama, seem to be. I think beginning of the twentieth century at 1914 and the end in this is very difficult to predict. There is indeed going to be a 1989, with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the beginning of the great deal of trouble of one sort or another, and much of that disintegration of communist states. He says we are not see­ is associated with nationalism. Assuming that a total break­ ing a democracy, really; that in Poland, Czechoslovakia, down can be avoided, in Russia in particular, I think the Hungary, Russia itself, the situation is one of moving evolution can take place. I'm not saying it will. I'm saying toward nationalism, and to what he calls a new feudalism we're at one of those cruxes of history where a lot of things in the world. could happen. □

HUMANITIES 13 was hard to recognize, hard to respond to, hard to fight because it was in some way a mysterious double of Western civilization, a kind of secret sharer. Now that totalitarianism in its twenti­ eth-century form is expiring, we owe a special debt to those who helped us to distinguish totalitarianism as something different and frightful when it was thor­ oughly unpopular to do so. Robert Con­ quest is one of those rare human beings. Conquest has given us a vast and diverse body of work on the Soviet form AN of totalitarianism. His fifteen books related to this sub­ ject cover Politburo politics, literary policy, the nation­ APPRECIATION: alities, the Soviet future, the terror, the collectivization and famine, Lenin, and more general issues such as the dif­ ferences between "despotic" and "civic" culture. This work is particularly distin­ Robert guished by the rare combination of abili­ ties to talk (in The Great Terror, for example) about both high politics and its effects on the society. Conquest Conquest grasps the suffering of ordinary people with the imagination of a poet, and the endless contention of powerful men with the weary recognition of someone who knows it from the inside. He cuts through the abstract debates about whether Soviet leaders are motivated by ideology or by the desire for power, or are trying to be good managers, with an example from university politics ur century will be forever Western political dialects. But the and this persuasive phrase: "Idealism, remembered in history as the century Soviet leaders are as much as any conviction, careerism, and factiousness of totalitarianism, which came to Sultan or Mahdi the product of formed an inextricable blend. Anyone power out of World War I and is now centuries of history very different who has been connected with a large collapsing with the end of the cen­ from our own. organization will recollect similar tury. The horrors that distinguished Totalitarianism kept fading from instances." Unlike many of our schol­ earlier centuries—the Mongol inva­ view and reappearing, and this was no ars, Conquest is worldly. sions, the Black Death, the wars of accident. Socialism and nationalism Conquest adorns his unpretentious religion—were easy to recognize but were, in various Western countries, the narrative with an art of graceful allusion ours were not. Communism and fas­ very definition of respectability; and all and comparison, ranging from paleon­ cism not only had millions of sympa­ the ideas of totalitarianism originated tology to the historians of the Mameluke thizers and apologists, they gained in the West. How strange it is to realize sultanate. These riches are strewn about also from the tolerance of establish­ that you yourself, on a vacation in with an effortless, absentminded air. ment figures. Robert Conquest has Paris, may have brushed up against the Conquest has a gift for the telling fact eloquently described our difficulty: student Pol Pot on the crowded Boul' and for the phrase that brings it deci­ A periwigged Hanoverian king Mich. Pausing briefly at the sidewalk sively to our awareness. In the new would never have thought that the used-book tables of Gibert Jeune, you Stalin biography, for example, we read intentions of a turbaned and scim- may have glanced briefly at one of the that "On 12 December 1937 alone, Stalin itared sultan were the same as his wordy treatises that inspired him to the and Molotov approved 3,167 death sen­ own. Gladstone can hardly have murder of millions before tossing it, tences, and then went to the cinema." believed the Mahdi's deepest entirely uninterested, back on the pile. Lysenkoism (the crank genetics of motives to be much like those of a In fact, totalitarianism is not only the Stalin's court biologist) appealed British Liberal. Nowadays the product of what is worst in us, but of because it "promised the submission of Politburo in Moscow wear Western what is best in us: of idealism, commit­ the plant world to the orders of the suits and speak a variant of the ment, loyalty, hope. Totalitarianism party." When he hits his stride Con-

14 MAY/JUNE 1993 quest can be quite funny. He expressed and to feel obliged to purge our pre­ bookstore in terza rima. (What an the predicament of the critic in assess­ sentation of every element of charm, is extraordinary combination: Aristo­ ing Ezra Pound's poetry as follows: to turn scholarship into a form of work, phanes and Solzhenitsyn in the No one can criticize him 'rigor­ that is, pain we undergo for the sake of same body.) In lieu of these, an impres­ ously' until he has actually read all a reward external to it, money or van­ sion of university life; imitating the Cantos.. ..Clear-eyed marksmen ity. Our own human activity becomes W. M. Praed: who can shoot the pip out of an ace an alien power, watching over us, forc­ Good night to the year Academic, with their Winchesters are at a loss ing us, torturing us. It finally crept to a close: when bogged down before mile These very real problems of the aca­ Dry fact about physic and chemic, upon mile of impassable earth­ demic division of labor may explain Wet drip about people and prose. works, barbed-wire entanglements why Conquest brought back together, Emotion was down to a snivel and mud churned into a morass. for one lifetime, some ever more sepa­ and reason was pulped to a pap, rated human possibilities. He over­ Sociologists droning out drivel Desecrating Specialization came powerful worldly incentives to And critics all croaking out crap. Robert Conquest is not only a distin­ specialize in a single area as well. The human being who writes this guished Soviet specialist, but a poet, sci­ Scholars are evaluated on one area; poem or is depicted, even in comedy, ence fiction writer, literary critic, and everything Conquest learned about in it, is not good raw material for the parodist. It is odd that he criticizes Stalin poetry or paleontology or the Mame­ vast Utopian social experiment for his belief that he could direct many luke sultanate was time lost from labo­ planned by the humorless Lenin. fields because Conquest must be, out of riously heaping up the pile of data on Conquest's Soviet history, poetry, the four billion human beings who which he would eventually be judged. and literary criticism are united by a crowd the earth, the one unique person (Conquest has never held a tenured certain common taste: a joy in the vari­ who is simultaneously all these things. position in any university.) If Conquest Conquest is one of the scholars who still wanted to nail down just what had ety and complexity of life, an impa­ give the concept of "the humanities" gone on in the USSR, as he clearly did, tience with orthodoxies, political or some reality in our times: normally the why did he waste his time with poetry cultural, that try to iron all this flat, and historian works in isolation from the lit­ and a lot of other things? above all a desire to call things by their erary critic, the art historian, and so Conquest's tastes, their range, real and simple names. He does not forth. In our time everything is being complexity, and contradictions, are shrink from using four-letter words, whirled apart, like a pile of autumn most visible in his poetry. Though he and he calls murder murder. Perhaps leaves scattered every which way by the has been seen by social scientists as the simplicity and immediacy of the wind. The thinker is no longer an artist an unrelenting moralist and judge, he poet's responses countered, for Con­ who tries to write beautifully, the scorned the abolitionists in verse. The quest, our tendency in politics to take administrator no longer a man who celebrant of love in language conven­ words for things, illusion for reality. reflects, the man who proves things no tionally "poetic," he also wrote epi­ Conquest wrote in an early poem longer a man of feeling. grams and limericks lewder than about the United Nations: This turn in human existence is preg­ Catullus', as well as the invocation of In the foreground, outside the nant with consequences. There is more the pleasures of a Soho pornographic vacant lawns, and more "data" or research, in a hun­ dred different compartments, but it is less and less clear how one would turn it into any broad overarching theory; as a result, the contact of such theories tends to come from Paris or from mere prejudices. And out of the contempo­ rary division of labor there tends to arise a mutual hostility between the scholar and the public. If scholars are narrow specialists, and if we no longer make any effort to be "artists" in our presentation, our lifework will neither interest nor attract the public. Con­ versely, specialization gives us a source of superiority in our given area and of pride that cannot be shared by the pub­ lic, which is shut out of it. Finally, there is the alienation so powerfully described by Conquest's foe, Karl Marx. To inter­ pret our human experience or some major part of it, and to describe it as gracefully as we can, is a natural joy. But to interpret a tiny, isolated part of our Police report on the status of extradition proceedings initiated by tsarist government rep­ experience by means that are imposed resentatives in France in 1908 against Maxim Litvinov, future foreign minister of the on us externally (e.g., a "methodology") Soviet Union. —Hoover Institution

HUMANITIES 15 point the impacts of the sixties protest against the Cold War and of social sci­ ence hit the field of Soviet studies almost simultaneously and reinforced each other. Conquest's work was labeled as "political journalism" rather than political science. It is now easy to forget the enormous hopes and claims set out by scientific social science in the sixties. Social science claimed that it would develop by specialization a value- free science of man that was as rigorous and precise as natural science, that this science would rapidly make huge advances over non-scientific work like Conquest's. Contemporary social sci­ ence makes the demands that scholar­ ship be theoretical in the sense of posing clear generalizations (as Con­ quest indeed does not) and confirming Lenin's successors take a walk, Moscow, 1925: Stalin, Alexi Rykov (shot 1938), Leo or refuting these by a definite body of Kamanev (shot 1936), and Grigory Zinoviev (shot 1936). —National Archives, Washington, D.C. evidence, preferably quantitative, and a testing process ("methodology") Amazingly vivid leaves are sense that takes place most easily in defined ahead of time. slowly falling; small, closed groups like the Politburo Those criticisms did point to ways in And in here, in a sense at the heart or Hitler's alter Kaempfer. Every small which Conquest's work had visible limi­ of the human world closed community has its idiosyncratic tations, which show themselves, for Those tangibles are merely memory, way that seems utterly normal and nat­ example, in attributing to Stalin "pro­ And paper and words are ural. The evidence: every family, mine found mediocrity." The critics provided a program for overcoming those limita­ immediately real.... and yours. In such groups, there is also tions. And they cannot be faulted for the Conquest and his friends, such as the terrific pressure to conform. Take com­ munist "democratic centralism": at the notion that descriptions of a social real­ novelist Kingsley Amis and the late ity ought to be judged by empirical tests Moscow trials, brave and intelligent poet Philip Larkin, don't like lying, of correspondence with that reality. men confessed to baseless charges and don't like pretentiousness; and he sees In the last twenty years a vast amount went to their deaths rather than be sepa­ them both in communist politics and in of research and writing was done in establishment literature and criticism, rated from the party. In this atmosphere mass murder becomes the thing to do. fulfillment of this program. Then came especially of the modernist persuasion. the collapse of Soviet communism, For us, the tribe has vanished and the Conquest is a natural rebel. which provided an empirical test of the family is sickly. More and more, the Perhaps Conquest actually gained adequacy of alternative understandings small closed community means the understanding of his Soviet specialty of the Soviet system. It turned out that professions, the interest groups, and itself from his profligate dispersal of none of the prominent social science the academic disciplines. Common energies. To know that tyranny really analysis on the Soviet Union had sense suggested that a lot of people did exist in Byzantium or in Baghdad allowed for any possibility of the sys­ were killed in Stalin's terror, or that the is to open yourself to the possibility tem's sudden destruction. Social sci­ Soviet Union of Brezhnev still did not that it might exist among people who ence clearly had not understood the look like a "pluralist" system with look and talk like us. History, anthro­ regime's fragility and unpopularity. "extensive political participation." But pology, and literature activate the Conquest was wrong on points, partic­ within the field of Soviet studies, with imagination, which was, before Gor­ ularly on the openness of the ruling its wider sources, its special methods, bachev and even after, so dormant in elite to reform. But statements of the its refinements and its distinctive in­ our assessment of the Soviet future. As following kind, made in 1965, are far group psychology, we had difficulty in Conquest has argued, more prescient than the scholarship enunciating these truths clearly; or we One of the tests of a scholar is that that emerged from the social-science paid the price Conquest paid. he knows not only his chosen critique of Conquest: field,.. .but also much in other fields Conquest and His Critics .. .a faction within [the apparat] peripheral to it or illuminative of it. Conquest's works have evoked wide might feel bound to attempt Indeed, without some perspective admiration from the scholarly commu­ alliance with something in the on other times and other cul­ nity and been widely read by the gen­ nature of a genuine democratic tures. . .he is hobbled. eral public. But it would be wrong to force. This cannot be excluded... What reforms of scholarship and of gloss over the serious criticism to when it is evident that the social, education would be required if we took which they have been subjected. This economic, and intellectual tides this seriously? criticism came in two waves. The first have set in firmly against the sys­ In fact, the cruelties of totalitarianism wave came from political scientists, tem, then, in the long run, the are not unrelated to the loss of common beginning in the mid-sixties. At this apparent and visible stability is mis­

16 MAY/JUNE 1993 leading. The Soviet Union must always, was that of a balancer or leaders or other—it is the essence now be regarded as being in a most makeweight....He preferred the role of the model in which we lived. unstable condition and subject to of mediator." In the terror, it "seems It is its mainstay. extreme change over perhaps quite far more realistic to suspect that Stalin, On the terror, the opening of mass a short period. like everyone else, was reacting to graves (more than one hundred discov­ For many decades the humanities, events rather than instigating them." ered so far), free discussion, and prelim­ most recently history, have been under On the oppressiveness of the sys­ inary searches of official records have pressure from the intellectual claims of tem, the revisionists argued that "the left no doubt about its staggering scale. social science. The unexpected collapse Ezhovshchina (1937-38) was an aberra­ The lowest Western guesses, such as of communism ought to spark a wide tion," that many social groups were those of Jerry Hough, are comparable to debate on all of our assumptions about little affected, and that in any case the figures now given officially for politics and society. That debate ought to "general fear did not exist in the Leningrad deaths alone (sixty thou­ reassess the success of all the methods of USSR at any time in the late 1930s." sand) or even for NKVD men alone understanding man prevalent in the Morally, Stalin was at fault, Getty (more than twenty thousand). For the social sciences, the humanities, and the admits, for the famine that followed whole country, official estimates of the creative arts. the collectivization, Russian Ministry of Security, formerly The second wave of criticism of Con­ But there is plenty of blame to go the KGB, now run to eighteen million quest peaked in the late seventies and around. It must be shared by.. .the arrested during the years 1935-1945 the eighties, and came mainly from peasants who chose to slaughter and seven million sentenced to death historians and demographers. animals, burn fields, and boycott (apparently not including camp deaths) While the first wave of criticism had cultivation in protest. —figures actually higher than Con­ assumed that Stalin's Russia was totali­ On the scale of the terror, Jerry quest's estimates of eight million arrests tarian, but the contemporary Soviet Hough suggested that as few as "tens and one million death sentences for Union no longer so, the second wave of thousands" of people may have died, 1937-38 only. tried to show that even the Stalin in contrast to Conquest's early estimate On the question of terror "from period was not totalitarian. As Roberta of twenty million for the entire Stalin above" or "from below," scholars have Manning put it: period. Demographers such as Stephen now seen the actual documents in .. .we find at the grassroots a gov­ Wheatcroft, Brian Silver, and Barbara which Stalin and his lieutenants ernment far more human, more Anderson argued that "These wild approved hundreds of thousands of prey to events outside of its control unscholarly estimates serve neither sci­ executions by individual name; he was (like crop failures) and more vul­ ence nor morality," drawing Conquest, often informed of decisions as minor as nerable to the vagaries of public with Steven Rosefielde, into a long the arrest of five or ten ordinary citi­ opinion than any of us have hith­ exchange of polemics. Conquest and his erto dared to imagine. In 1937 in opponents argued from different plan­ Belyi raion, the Soviet regime gov­ ets: Conquest believed the 1939 census erned the countryside insofar as the was a "fake" because it replaced a 1937 countryside was governed at all, census that was suppressed, its authors dependent ultimately, like all govern­ having been shot for minimizing the ment, on the consent of the governed. Soviet population. Silver and Ander­ It is strange that the thirties reemerged son, who do believe Stalin killed several in the eighties as a burning issue. The million people, see no reason to believe reasons may emerge in a polemic he would have issued false statistics. against Conquest by one revisionist, Conquest and the Future Robert Thurston: This last and most desperate attempt Everyone in the field realizes the to defend the Soviet regime took place importance of studying these in the very final days before its repudi­ issues; one's assessment of them ation by the Soviet public and by its bears enormously on one's view of own leaders. The Soviet opinion of the the entire Soviet experiment and of Soviet system that suddenly burst free the U.S.S.R. today. of censorship was, to be brief, very sim­ The revisionists' critique reopened ilar to the one that Conquest had long most of the questions about Stalin's argued in the face of Western opposi­ Russia that seemed to have been tion. It suffices to use the words of decided in the thirties and forties. Arch the USSR Prime Minister, Nikolai Getty, for example, suggested again Ryzhkov, a figure far more conserva­ that Tukhachevsky and the other gen­ tive than Yeltsin or even Gorbachev: erals might have plotted a military You know that in our society the coup against Stalin. The revisionists supremacy of ideology over argue against Conquest that "Central everything else did in fact control, in the traditional sense, was always occur....The priority of nonexistent or ineffective," and see ideology over the economy is not Stalin very differently from Conquest. a trifle, not a detail, not volun­ Stalin voting in Moscow, 1947. Getty says that "his position, as tarism, not the stupidity of some —National Archives, Washington, D.C.

HUMANITIES 17 A mass of rags covered his shoul­ ders, and an old staved-in beaver hat, rounded off into the shape of a basin, hid his face; but, when he took it off, he uncovered in the place of eyelids two gaping sock­ ets, all bloody. The flesh was frayed into red shreds, and from them poured liquids that con­ gealed into green scabs down to his nose, whose black nostrils sniffled convulsively.... I This frightful sight, who makes his final appearance just as Madame Bovary is dying, seems to embody within Flaubert's fiction the irreduci- bly tragic or ugly side of life, which we avert our eyes from but which keeps forcing its way into our awareness. Appropriately, the great foe of this blind beggar is the sophisticated phar­ Winston Churchill, Harry Truman, and Joseph Stalin at Potsdam, July 23, 1945. macist Homais, all of whose tastes are —National Archives, Washington, D.C. shaped by science, enlightenment, modernity: the sightless creature, hor­ zens. This does not settle the question particularly to the intellectuals. The rible and incurable, is a constant of the extent to which Stalin also mobi­ blemishes of the status quo suggest reminder of the limits of science and lized terror from below, a question use­ inevitably an alternative, a counter­ progress. And at the end of the novel fully raised by the revisionists, but it order, which easily turns into a Utopia. Homais, who had earlier failed to cure suffices to refute their overall image of In the history of the West the greatest the blind man, does succeed in getting Stalin and of the system. barrier to this evolution was religion, him out of sight by having the authori­ What will become of Conquest's life- which argued that the good social ties lock him up in an asylum. work now? For the rest of Conquest's order is not attainable on this earth. But Robert Conquest, like Flaubert, lifetime, he can rightly feel a sense of in our secular society, science and the insisted on showing us what we triumph. With the revelations of glas- taste for progress are far more power­ simply don't want to see, the horrible nost, most of what Conquest wrote ful forces and they implicitly suggest side of modernity, which accompa­ about the terror has been confirmed. the opposite: the availability of radical nies, as a secret sharer, our compas­ Soviet scholars who had attacked Con­ improvements and of the truth made sion, prosperity, order, and progress. quest have apologized, and he has real and palpable, as in technology. He insisted on showing us fanaticism, become a popular figure in Russia. Intellectuals are particularly tempted relentless cruelty, the helplessness of For those of us who feel the need to by Utopian rebellion. Every specialist people in the face of absolute power, rethink the meaning of the twentieth- is conscious of understanding some­ the truth effaced by lies, the empty century totalitarian experience, Con­ thing we believe important but which place where justice ought to be. It was quest's works will be an enormous is shockingly muddled in the public probably the insistent and under­ resource and a direction to pursue. discourse, in the newspapers and TV. standable need to somehow or other But for the remoter future, isn't this This is cause for a natural pride in no get this awful stuff out of sight, to all purely academic? Totalitarianism in way rewarded by democratic society. say it wasn't as bad as it seemed, or its twentieth-century form is clearly Democratic society will never treat that it belonged totally to the past, doomed, and Stalin may become what intellectuals as aristocrats. Hence that accounted, as much as politics Attila and Genghis Khan have become: arises the attachment of the intellectu­ and social science, for the critical reac­ a joke. The Gulag will turn into als to the adversary culture, Lionel tions to Conquest. Totalitarianism can "Hogan's Heroes." This outcome Trilling's term for the intellectual's acquaint us, if we are willing to gaze critical or judging stance toward the would be regrettable. It presupposes at it, with extremities outside our surrounding society. Of course, the that the possibility of a new totalitari­ normal experience. The work of Con­ attachment of the intellectuals to the anism is excluded in the future. To quest can serve for future generations, adversary culture is speeded by the assume this is to forget, first of all, that as it did for us, to reveal the blind real defects of the status quo, defects totalitarianism is that curious double of beggar who lurks beside the familiar, that will not soon vanish. modern democratic civilization, a well-travelled road. □ secret sharer in our normal life. Con­ Conclusion cretely, the dissatisfaction with the sta­ tus quo and with its establishment, In Flaubert's Madame Bovary the hero­ Charles H. Fairbanks, Jr., is Research which so inspired the young Conquest ine keeps encountering, while traveling Professor of International Relations at and his friends, remains a permanent to and from her trysts with her lovers, the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced possibility, ever-beckoning to the a blind beggar, who haunts the roads International Studies, Johns Hopkins young, the restless, the ambitious, and into Yonville, singing racy folk songs. University.

18 MAY/JUNE 1993 The police record of Joseph Stalin. —Courtesy of Hoover Institution

The Stages

o f But the destruction of truth did . not happen. First, the Hungarian revolution in 1956 showed that the conquered peoples of Eastern StruggleEurope could not be compelled to become believers. And gradually the spiders' webs of falsehood and sophistry were swept away through the toil of historians and political scientists, and it became impossible for anyone who was Anthony not determinedly myopic to see Stalinism and the Soviet regime as anything other than it was. It was with growing Hartley relief that one realized how fast the number of convinced Communists was dwindling, how few of Malraux's conquerants there were left. No writer played a greater part in this crucially important ow that what used to be called the "Cold War" has work than Robert Conquest. His book on Stalin's purges, been concluded by the victory of Western democracy The Great Terror (1968), provided overwhelming evidence of and the defeat of a cheerless ideological tyranny, it is the true nature of Soviet totalitarianism. After its publica­ Nsalutary to look back on the stages of intellectual struggletion in there was no longer any excuse—if, indeed, there ever which the soul of the world was at stake. Those who had been—for judgments like that of Ambassador Joseph opposed Soviet Communism did so because its nature dis­ Davies, who reported to the State Department that there gusted them and because they apprehended its power. Only was "proof...beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict for a time was there real fear. The fear was this: Would not of guilty of treason" or of the British-Russian historian Sir all the lies and suppressions of the truth, deriving from Bernard Pares, who wrote in a standard work, re-published Soviet propaganda, finally, by force of repetition over a long as late as 1962, that "Nearly all admitted having conspired period, come to be believed by a wearied world? Were we against the life of Stalin, and on this point it is not necessary not bound for Orwell's 1984, where reality vanished in the to doubt them." Naivete and casuistry were simply swept ash of a burning document? Even the Kravchenko libel case out of existence by Conquest's massive accumulation of in Paris, during which the nature of Stalin's rule and the facts. Since 1968 these have been confirmed over and over horrors of Soviet forced labor camps were fully explored, again by witnesses like Solzhenitsyn and, more recently, by was simply ignored by many left-wing intellectuals. Too the opening of the Soviet archives, which have provided much faith had been invested in the "Socialist Sixth of the additional facts for a revised edition of The Great Terror: A World" for it to be disturbed by mere facts. Reassessment (1991). „ , ^ Con't on page 36

HUMANITIES 19 Excerpts from the Writings of Robert Conquest

Slalin: Breaker irt Nations uch bold champions of glasnost as the USSR is to break out from its present lines... .The other SLev Razgon and Vitaly Korotich tell pressure on the ideology is the international situation. It is the same story. Razgon says, "The not simply that the ruling group is faced with powerful servile terror of Stalin lives in the states fully determined to prevent expansionist adventures. bones and veins of people who never It is the fact that is generally penetrating the consciousness knew him;" Korotich, "All my life I of the Soviet leadership, that the risk of war is one that can­ had Stalin inside me," though he not be seriously taken with modem weapons.... adds, "It was a small schoolboy ON FEDERATION: Meanwhile, we may note that if the Stalin; those who were politicians, Soviet Union is to deal with its colonial problem in even the they had big Stalins.' most superficially adequate way, it has no real choice but to If there is one point that has been insufficiently stressed in turn itself into a genuine federation. But if the unity so cre­ this book, if only because it is almost impossible to stress it ated were voluntary, it might be temporary and precarious. sufficiently, it is the psychological horrors of mass falsifica­ The present rulers would certainly make no move in such a tion, more than the physical horrors of mass terror. What direction if they could possibly help it. But they may yet was imposed on the population was a disjunction not find themselves constrained by forces outside their control merely between truth in general and the official interpreta­ to make concessions—which could only lead to bigger tion, but between the experienced reality of their own and demands, put forward from positions of increased strength. their country's life and the fantasy world they had mentally The question is critical, and not only is it unsolved, but it is to accept. As the Soviet historian Natan Eidelman says, in probably insoluble under the present system. That is to say, the Stalin period a significant part of the Soviet population it is one of the elements in the present general crisis of the "was living under a special hypnotic spell." Exorcism Soviet system, and one that could lead to future changes proved immensely difficult and painful. which may now appear remote and extravagant. Here, ON THE POET AKHMATOVA: Anna Akhmatova, espe­ again, we should remember that the Soviet future is cially, may indeed be seen as defining Stalinism and Stalin's unlikely to comprise an easy and evolutionary develop­ own personality by its opposite. She did stand for the per­ ment, and that any too cautious or conservative view of its sonal life and the personal conscience, for the autonomy of potentialities is certain to be wrong. the individual and of art. Like most, she had not been Russia After Khrushchev (London: Pall Mall Press, 1965, exempt from the public events that had racked and were New York: Praeger, 1965). still racking Russia. Her first husband, the poet Nikolai Gumilev, had been shot as a counter-revolutionary in Lenin's time. Her second husband was a victim of Stalin's. arx (like others facing a fresh social phenomenon) came Her son by Gumilev had been arrested and this led to her to his conclusion about the mystic historical nature of the magnificent (and long unpublished) cycle of poems Requiem M new proletarian class before he had even seen an actual which (in a sense Stalin would not have approved of) is pro­ proletarian—as, indeed, was true of Lenin in the 1880s. foundly political—the protest of the helpless individuals But, come to that, Marx seems to have had a very odd idea against a politics designed to crush the personal life. She of the bourgeoisie. Who can read without laughter those speaks of her mouth as one "through which a hundred mil­ paragraphs of the Communist Manifesto, which are sol­ lion people cry." But what we may find in Akhmatova is emnly printed year after year, about bourgeois sex life in not only her voice, but also that extraordinary toughness of Victorian times? mind which enabled the best of the Russian people, of the Russian intelligentsia, to outlast Stalin and Stalinism. And The Communists have no need to introduce community Stalin was right to see in her principles a fundamental threat of women; it has existed almost from time immemorial. to his system. Over the long run they helped to destroy it. Our bourgeois, not content with having the wives and Stalin: Breaker of Nations (New York: Viking, 1991). daughters of their proletarians at their disposal, not to speak of common prostitutes, take the greatest pleasure in Crises and Power Grabs seducing each other's wives. deologies do evolve. They evolve under pressures. And if Bourgeois marriage is in reality a system of wives in I we ask ourselves what the relevant pressures are in the common.... Soviet Union, we see that they are twofold. In the first place, there is the pressure of what may be thought of as the per­ Even apart from the notion of the Victorian bourgeoisie manent economic crisis. The whole tendency of society in sharing each other's wives on this grand scale, there is

20 MAY/JUNE 1993 way, one of the Nazi gas chamber operators, Roze, is a mild character who "had never doubted that the Party had set Stalin: Master Manipulator itself one aim only: the wellbeing of the small and weak." For, Grossman insists, about the Nazis too, "the sun has or Stalin's political genius con­ been extinguished by the smoke of the gas ovens. And even Fsisted precisely of this: he recog­ in these crimes, crimes never before seen in the nized no limitations, either moral Universe.. .have been committed in the name of good." or intellectual, in his methods of Grossman's essential argument is that the human being securing power. must be treated as an individual, not as a pawn in some His calculation about the effect struggle of transcendent theories: even Tolstoy seems to abroad was on the whole sound. It is him to err in this direction. He appeals, in a magnificent true that the frame-ups were clumsy apostrophe, to Chekhov as the exemplar of humanity as fabrications. It is also true that Stalin against Lenin and all other inhuman manipulators. His cen­ did not in fact silence everyone who knew anything about tral point is that "the extreme violence of totalitarian social them. But he did not have to. The notion that things would systems proved able to paralyse the human spirit through­ have been very different if the frame-ups had been seam­ out whole continents." lessly perfect and if everyone who had known the truth had But it is not only overt violence which is its enemy. The lie instantly been shot is a superficial one. Stalin had a clearer is the other side of the coin of terror. idea of the state of public mind both in Russia and in the ON SOLZHENITSYN: More broadly, what may be seen West. It is only too plain that he was right. Those who were in the whole of Solzhenitsyn's work, concentrated out of prepared to believe his story believed it regardless of its the experience of millions of his compatriots, is an peripheral faults, and rejected accounts put out by people entirely new historical phenomenon—a liberalism of the who had had access to the correct information. Thus a State catacombs. For this is the first time that, over a long his­ prepared flatly to deny its own malpractices, and to prevent torical period, modern humanist ideas which had already open access to the facts, could successfully persuade many emerged in a national literature and an intelligentsia, people abroad, even in spite of a large and growing body of have been crushed and repudiated. The difference in tone first-hand evidence from those who had actually experi­ between Solzhenitsyn's Russian attitudes and our own is enced the Terror. This is a lesson that has clearly been not so much one of essence, as a matter of this experience learned by similar regimes in other parts of the world, and which he and his have faced and we and ours have not. is still the basic principle of much misinformation that On the other hand, he is harder, more hammered and appears in the West. tempered, than the writers of the West; on the other, his The Great Terror: Stalin's Purges of the Thirties (London: liberalism has been purged of illusion—the comfortable Macmillan, 1968; New York: Macmillan, 1968; revised edi­ fat has been sweated off it. tion, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971). ON ORWELL: Above all, Orwell had the imagination to understand that there are people who would find it per­ fectly satisfactory to see the future in terms of a "boot stamping on the human face—forever." The parochial Poems notion that everyone is much the same, that we all dislike |le£ Lost, Gulag Archipelago! war or terror, is absent from his view of history—as well it might be in the twentieth century. He saw that Stalin, like Tamerlane or Jenghiz Khan, was not in the least put out by "The present Soviet generation is not the idea of the killing of millions. He knew that there have obsessed with the errors of the past. been cultures where torture was commonplace. That is to It looks to the future.. say, he knew that there are people, now as in earlier ages, who are not the product of the moral principles to which he himself gave assent. For years those dreary old complaints Even today, the greatest hurdle to understanding the That we'd unfairly snuffed the lives Soviet Union or similar regimes is the unthinking and (We've never claimed we're plaster saints) inexplicit assumption that the basic motivations of the Of husbands, brothers, sisters, wives. Soviet leaders differ little from our own. It was an advan­ tage to Orwell that he knew nothing of one sort of "politi­ Thank God for the present lot! cal science"—a supposed discipline which to this day, by concentrating on forms and structures, removes the They won't act up like those others. essence of a given polity from active consideration. It is After all, we only shot a notable fact that Orwell, like Koestler, was a novelist Their fathers, uncles, aunts and journalist, and that in general, the record of such and mothers. writers is far better than that of many "serious" students. Perhaps the reason is that to understand the Stalin New and Collected Poems (Irvine: Schlacks, 1986). regime took an effort not only of the intellectual, but also of the imagination. Tyrants and Typewriters: Communiques from the Struggle for Truth (New York: Macmillan Free Press, 1989).

22 MAY/JUNE 1993 ntriguing fragments of the Soviet past continue to emerge from the newly opened Russian archives. Previ­ ously censored documents have revealed a cache of secrets, from warnings of construction flaws at Cher­ " ...N ow nobyl to exposure of the Afghan war debacle.

Nearly thirty years before Russian government reform made these disclosures possible, American his­ torian Patricia Kennedy Grimsted began tracking down Ithe whereabouts and describing the history of archives History in the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. She has often been a solitary researcher, documenting this vast, elusive legacy for the past three decades. In her view, "Russian archives are now opening their doors and provid­ ing access to information few would have thought possible. They are being caught in the crossfire in the current chaotic government situation, however, and find themselves thrown into an international arena of intense public interest." Has In 1992 Grimsted spent six months in Russia updating her Handbook for Archival Research in the USSR, (1989) and pre­ paring a computerized directory of holdings in close to two hundred Moscow and St. Petersburg archives. She has been using a new database and publications system that she developed for the project and named ArcheoBiblioBase. With three computers operating in Moscow and St. Peters­ burg, Grimsted has been able to work collaboratively with Russian specialists for the first time, a dramatic reversal Caught Up made possible by the collapse of communism. Pre-glasnost and post-Soviet, Grimsted has served as the chief guide to American scholars seeking access to extensive archival holdings that were censored, renamed, destroyed, reorganized for political purposes, or dispersed in the Russian diaspora. She is the author of an ongoing multivol­ ume directory of archives and manuscript repositories in the former USSR, funded by a series of research grants from the Endowment. The directory provides historical background with Her" on former Soviet archives. Under International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX) sponsorship, she is working with the State Archival Service of Russia (Rosarkhiv), the State Public Historical Library, and the St. Petersburg Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences. This database for a directory and bibliography of finding aids for archives and manuscript repositories is being adapted for a parallel Russian-language version, and Patricia Grimsted's by the end of 1993, coverage will extend to archives through­ ‘ V-v ••• S'* \ -jit''W* out the Russian Federation. Grimsted describes recent transformations in archival orga­ nization and access in the framework of broad government reform, political and economic upheaval, and the struggle to detective work ia the obtain Western financial aid to offset decimated archival bud­ gets. Ending centuries of secrecy, the first comprehensive leg­ islative act regarding Russian archives since Peter the Great was enacted June 19,1992. This regulation of the Supreme Soviet archives Soviet of the Russian Federation provides for access to govern­ ment records within thirty years of their creation, except for files legally classified as state secrets. It applies to citizens and organizations of Russia and foreign countries alike. Docu­ ments relating to individual citizens are accessible after sev­ By Constance Burr enty-five years. The decree confirms the right of Rosarkhiv to sell licenses of documents for commercial purposes. "I think some of the alarm expressed about profiteering and commercializing of the archives is overstated," she says. "Westerners do not always see the full context of theHUMANITIES eco­ 23 nomic and financial crisis in which the archives are trying to "Russians simply do not understand the Western concept of public domain." One of the most outspoken criticisms appeared in the Over the years, Grimsted's knowledge of the locations and Russian press following the announcement of a Hoover Insti­ descriptions of the archives have led to major discoveries, tution/ Chadwyck-Healey agreement in April 1992 to micro­ among them, extensive captured records held by Soviet author­ film documents in high-level CPSU archives. Writing in ities since World War II. She was one of the first Western schol­ Izvestiia, Iurii Afanas'ev, rector of the Russian State University ars to have found out that long-lost pre-1939 French intelligence for the Humanities, feared that documents transferred to records that had been plundered by the Nazis and sequestered Hoover might be accessible there even before they were avail­ in Czechoslovakia were found by the Soviets in 1945. They had able in Russia; that Russian historians were being slighted. been held in secret in Moscow since then. According to Grimsted, such complaints were groundless. "That discovery happened by chance. A Ukrainian col­ "Rosarkhiv officials have tried to point out the benefits of league and I were trying to follow the fate of a major archive such projects to Russian researchers and to the archives— taken by Nazis from Kiev that had also been moved to technical assistance, preservation microfilm, and copies of Czechoslovakia when we discovered a file explaining how Russian materials abroad—given the lack of material and Soviet authorities had found the French intelligence records. technical resources that prevents Russia from preserving its Twenty-eight railroad freight cars brought the records to own archives," Grimsted states. "Particularly misleading are Moscow by Beria's personal order. the inflated figures that Russians are quoting of prices for "At the same time, Soviet authorities had found other microfilm abroad. records captured by the Nazis hidden in various castles, "Afanas'ev was claiming in an article that the world price for monasteries, and salt mines in what is now Germany, microfilm was between $3 and $5 per frame. (Major U.S. Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The captured records held in libraries report a median price of thirteen cents per frame for Russian archives in addition to the French intelligence negatives and twenty cents per running foot for positive copies.) archives, include many records of Masonic, Socialist, and When Terry Emmons from Stanford University responded in Jewish groups, gathered by the Nazis throughout Europe, as Moscow News that the U.S. National Archives charges about $23 well as Nazi wartime occupation records. What the Soviets a roll, it got translated into Russian as $23 a frame." found had been kept secret for more than fifty years." Grimsted believes that Afanas'ev and others want to push Grimsted gave a talk in Paris in November 1992 that prices and royalties higher in an attempt to redress economic detailed the French intelligence odyssey. "Coincidentally, woes with higher foreign currency income from the long- after a year of negotiations, an agreement for the return of suppressed files. "What he fails to realize is that few univer­ these records to Paris was signed the day after my talk." sity libraries can afford such exorbitant rates." Complicated negotiations are underway for the restitution Russian archivists must now participate in a nascent market of captured records to Dutch, German, Austrian, Belgian, economy without experience in Westem-style publishing rela­ Norwegian and other authorities—many of whom didn't tionships. Allegations that bribes rather than regulations are even know they had been saved after the war. determining access have appeared in the Wall Street Journal Grimsted also discovered more detailed information about and elsewhere. But without hard currency, copy machines and the Nazi capture of the Communist Party archive from computers—even microfilm and toner—are usually gifts from Smolensk that was later captured by Americans. It is slated foreign institutions or barter for copies. As long as equipment to be returned to Russia from the U.S. National Archives. and supplies are otherwise beyond reach, Grimsted contends, "There is so much interest in trying to right the wrongs and such contributions ought to be encouraged. get the records back where they belong. But there's also inter­ Another casualty of the economy that affects the publication est in following details of the migration and destiny of other of research is the almost total breakdown of academic pub­ cultural treasures as a result of the war." She is collaborating lishing. "Russians simply cannot afford the higher cost of with archivists in Bremen, Kiev, and Moscow to set up a data­ paper, nor can they afford the higher cost of books that would base on displaced archives, libraries, and works of art. She have to be charged to make a go of it. This is one of the main hopes to find time to write a longer book about them. reasons so many of them are searching for Western partners "Grimsted's work has a prescient quality," notes Edward and publishers." The factors of financial need, legalized Kasinec, chief of the Slavic and Baltic Division of the New license fees for commercial publication, search fees for read­ York Public Library. "Years ago, her work was seen as recon­ ers, and the lack of a tradition of a public reference service dite, abstruse; now history has caught up with her. Thanks to have created problems. Also, says Grimsted, researchers need her foresight and persistence, we are positioned to fully to remember that they are dealing with many of the same exploit collections that political events have made accessible. archivists who for decades were taught to withhold archival When the authoritative history of Slavic and Eastern Euro­ files and provide disinformation, especially to foreigners. pean scholarship in the U.S. is written, her place is assured."□ "When I last met with Rudolf Germanovich Pikhoia, the chairman of Rosarkhiv," Grimsted recalls, "he hoped that the new State Archival Service would create a better paid Patricia Kennedy Grimsted is a research fellow of the Russian and more professional civil service and eliminate some of Research Center and a research associate at the Ukrainian Research the fees and alleged corruption. The country has become so Institute at Harvard University. used to bribes—there have always been under-the-table deals for services—that I think institutionalizing the ideas of Since 1974, Grimsted has received $992,000 in grants from the public service and public domain will be difficult. Division of Research Programs for equipment and personnel to "Since archives always reflect and serve the society in support her work on guides to archival and manuscript repositories which they operate, the archival scene in the Russian Federa­ in the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. tion cannot be expected to stabilize before there is political and economic stabilization as well," she states. Constance Burr is assistant editor o/Humanities.

HUMANITIES 25 FAULKNER’S IDEA — Courtesy of the Center for the Study of Southern C ulture

OF Russian scholar Maya Koreneva. OWNERSHIP

BY MAYA KORENEVA William Faulkner was introduced to the Soviet people in a 1934 anthology published in Moscow; American Short Stories of the Twentieth Century. For years his work was politicized, though it defied easy categorization: Was he "formalistic," "decadent," or "bourgeois"? The process of Faulkner's "rehabilitation" began during the Khrushchev thaw in 1955. An essay on his work, then three short stories, then full versions of his works, began to be available to Russian readers. Maya Koreneva, senior researcher at the Gorky Institute of World Literature in Moscow, delivered this essay at the nineteenth Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha Conference of the University of Mississippi.

one of us is ideologically and believed about him "not even presented in a complicated, even innocent. So it's better to provided it be derogatory but ambiguous way. plead guilty at the begin­ merely bizarre enough and strange Go Down, Moses reaches its climax ning, and proceed with the enough," though at the time it was in Ike's relinquishment of his subject of our discussion. also certainly derogatory enough. patrimony. He repudiates it, because When in Faulkner's Intruder in the All ideologies make people blind he believes that God "made the NDust Chick Mallison speculates and deaf. "You don't listen," the earth" and "created the man" "not about the North which, he remarks, young girl, one of the protagonists to hold for himself and his descen­ is not "even a geographical place of Edward Albee's play Listening, dants inviolable title forever, but an emotional idea," in the end keeps saying to the other characters, generation after generation, to the Faulkner makes him summarize ending the play with the symbolic oblongs and squares of the earth, this idea the following way: "a act of slashing her wrists. Rather but to hold the earth mutual and volitionless, almost helpless than symbolically slash their own intact in the communal anonymity capacity and eagerness to believe wrists, our countries went for each of brotherhood." anything about the South not others' throats. God's wish, Ike argues, was vio­ even provided it be derogatory Had Faulkner's works been read in lated when the Indians sold it for but merely bizarre enough and a way that would have allowed those "white man's money," and even strange enough." who attacked him to hear what he before that, "because on the instant This is true not only of the relation­ was saying, they might have found when Ikkemotubbe discovered, ship between the North and the there something that could have realized, that he could sell it for South, or the South and the North. made them change their views of money, on that instant it ceased The words, of course, have a wide ref­ him and even to sympathize with ever before that, too, for the erence, and can be attributed to any­ him. Yet, they did not and they could accursed even as Ikkemotubbe thing if it is taken to be "an emotional not, blinded even not so much by the and Ikkemotubbe's father, old idea." Or anybody, even William ideology of communism, as that of Issetibbeha, and old Isseibbeha's Faulkner himself. the cold war. Time for that did not fathers, too, held it, already tained So when the cold war was trans­ come until many years later. even before any white man ferred to the literary front, Faulkner Throughout his career, since his owned it...." became a target of most vicious early novels, Faulkner was consistent What we have in the end is Ike's attacks in the Soviet Union. Pre­ in his castigation of money fixation, vision of "Dispossessed Eden" sented as a degenerate artist, full of be it Jason in The Sound and the Fury with the fall translated from the contempt and hatred for man, with or Flem Snopes, who are obsessed myth into the historical process Intruder in the Dust providing, from with money, or the very instinct that, and presented as the establishment the point of view of Soviet cold war as Faulkner could not help noticing, of the institution of ownership. ideologies, ample material to accuse has eroded the nation's set of values, Obviously, Ike's repudiation of him of decadence and misanthropy, the American ethos. his patrimony does not and can in general, and necrophilia in The category of ownership is not solve the problem that he tries particular, Faulkner was used as closely related to the obsession with to deal with, for it's beyond Ike's "an emotional idea," the epitome of money associated with most repulsive power to restore the earth through the "American Writer" at the time Faulkner characters, though it is, of his act to its prelapsarian state that of war. So anything could be said course, much more complex and is we all have for the lost innocence.

HUMANITIES 27 It can and should be argued, though, Though Lucas's feelings towards the earth by man, the white man, primarily, that Ike's vision belongs to and char­ land are devoid of Biblical connota­ is given voice in Requiem for a Nun. acterizes just him, one of the charac­ tions so important for Ike, his spiritual Now it is the narrator's voice which, in ters of the novel, even if one of the bond with the land is closer to Ike's its anonymity, can be taken largely for main ones, or the main one, and it is idea of "the communal anonymity of the author's. Since there are no indica­ juxtaposed with others' views of the brotherhood" than to the idea of land tions of a distance between Faulkner as matter. These characters indicate that as commodity on which the the author of the novel and the narrator there are limitations to the authority of McCaslins' and Edmondses' and persona, one may assume that in these his vision, not only because their Carothers' and all the others' owner­ passages we hear Faulkner addressing views and practices are so different ship of it is based. the reader directly. from or opposite to Ike's. Their very It is also closer to the idea expressed This time again, Biblical allusions, so presence helps the reader to realize aphoristically by Chick in Intruder in operative in Go Down, Moses, are not that each of them as well as all of them the Dust, ".. .one shame must be, one part of the overall picture and the few together are but a small part of an expiation since expiation must surely of them that appear there are mostly immense world, and as such cannot be but above all one unalterable ironic in tone. This helps to highlight stand for the whole. durable impregnable one: one people the uniqueness of Ike's vision. Yet, there are among these charac­ one heart one land." Despite his idiosyncrasies, there is a ters those who in an oblique way In Faulkner's canon, however, Ike's common denominator that links his support Ike's position. One of them, vision has more authority. An unex­ view to that of the anonymous chroni­ I believe, is Lucas and his relation pected support comes from outside Go cler in Requiem for a Nun. Their com­ towards the land. Of course, he Down, Moses. Ike's argument is echoed mon ground is the denunciation of the does not go with Ike all the way and in the book where he is not even men­ wrong done and a vision of harmony most probably would not have tioned, Requiem for a Nun. For those in the organic unity of the world—the understood much of Ike's argument who are acquainted with Go Down, earth, the air, the water, the plant, had it been presented to him. But Moses cannot fail to notice the affinity of the beast, the man. Lucas's spiritual bond with the land Ike's views to the vision developed in Unlike Ike, though, Faulkner does is in accord with Ike's vision, at least chronicles opening and closing the sec­ not present any doctrine or propose in its refutation of ownership as pos­ tions of Requiem for a Nun. These chroni­ any kind of action that, according to session and the establishment of it on cles telling the story of the settlement of his view, might put an end to and the basis of emotional identification the Mississippi valley or the whole expiate the evil brought by ownership with and toil on the land. To make it South—or the entire United States— of land. He refrains from drawing clear, let me quote a passage from have no direct connection with the story political conclusions from the picture "The Fire and the Hearth" which of Temple and Nancy central to the of the world he unrolls. describes that relation: novel. They present this process as a He remains an artist and prophet. long history of devastation and dispos­ His statements are enigmatic, ambigu­ But it was his own field, though he session when "a heavy leather heel ous, contradictory, and mysterious neither owned it nor wanted to nor engaged not in the traffic of endurance like the world he created. No conve­ even needed to. (emphasis added) and hardihood and survival, but in nient phrases can be fished out of it He had been cultivating it for money" trod everything that preceded to be formed into neat packages and forty-five years, since before it "from the sight and memory of man." used as handy guidelines for the Carothers Edmonds was born Dispossession, they record, was carried future. At the utmost he demands even, plowing and planting and out in such a crude and ruthless way from us a recognition of the wrong working it how he saw fit (or that we find one of the early settlers, we have brought into the world or maybe not even doing that, maybe Ratcliffe, tempted to regard his restraint inherited. That is one of the reasons, I sitting through a whole morning from outright robbery as something think, why Faulkner's vision in his on his front gallery, looking at it both exceptional and puzzling. For last books is so gloomy. and thinking if that's what he felt years he kept wondering why when he Yet, Faulkner also shows that next to like doing), with Edmonds riding had charged sacks of candy to old the temporal and transitory, which is up on his mare maybe three times Mohataha's grandchildren he "had the condition of man's life, there exists a week to look at the field, and refrained from adding two zeroes to the eternity which comprises it and maybe once during the season ten and fifteen cents for ten years... allows—not makes, just allows—man stopping long enough to give him amazed at his own virtue or at least his to transcend the tragic limitations of advice but the very voice which strength of will (emphasis added)". the temporary. What we do with this gave it, as though the other had It is not through a character that this knowledge, Faulkner maintains, is not spoke even... indictment of the evil brought upon the entirely our business. □

28 MAY/JUNE 1993 The first Ferris wheel was on the midway of the World's Columbian Exposition.

—Courtesy o f the Chicago Historical Society, photo by C.D. Arnold

Grand Illusions: ear the end of the nineteenth cen­ tury, exactly one hundred years ago, C h ic a g o ’s N the United States had practically reached the limits of its Western frontier. The Industrial Revolution had brought tremen­ dous progress; yet the need for wider markets forced the United States to regard Europe World’s Fair with new eyes—as a competitor. The expan­ sionist spirit, the uneasy relationship with Europe, and the 400th anniversary of Colum­ bus's journey led to a collective reflection about just how far the nation had come. The conclusion—as evidenced by the World's o f 1 8 9 3 Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago— was loud and clear: the United States was now a world power. The mammoth exposi­ BY JANIS JOHNSON tion became a grandiose statement of the nation's coming of age.

HUMANITIES 29 In a major exhibition, "Grand Illu­ nineteenth century still linger on, Chicago competed successfully sions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893," still are part of our society. This against New York, Washington, and the Chicago Historical Society evokes exhibition helps people look at who St. Louis for the Columbian exposi­ the fair's marvelous spectacle and and what we are now." tion. The Midwest center of one mil­ focuses its lens on culture, business, and As an architectural historian, de lion held access to new markets as politics of late nineteenth-century Wit, curator of the society's Charles well as the reputation as a place to get America. The exhibition opens May 1, F. Murphy Architectural Study Cen­ rich quickly. Several social problems, the 100th anniversary of the opening of ter, was first attracted to the idea of brought on by immigration of rural the Chicago world's fair, and runs the exhibition because of the and foreign workers, coupled with through July 15,1994. It was made pos­ grandeur of the buildings. But he the devastating Great Chicago Fire of sible in part by grants from the National and others gradually recognized 1872, induced city leaders to work to Endowment for the Humanities, the that broader cultural and sociologi­ change the city's negative image as Illinois Humanities Council, and the cal themes lay below the surface. dirty and unsafe. Out of the swamp Illinois General Assembly, and addi­ The fair was meant to project a spe­ the fair grew to 200 buildings spread tional support from Sandoz Agro, Inc. cific vision of the world: Its power over 633 acres in Jackson Park. The The World's Columbian Exposition lay in the massive manipulation of fair achieved the aim of its creators: It was the celebration of progress that scale, publicity, and images. solidified Chicago's position as the brought such innovations as the "City The present-day exhibition, which Midwest's chief metropolis. Beautiful" planning of Daniel Burn­ features more than 500 objects, takes a The first part of the exhibition, "The ham, the world's first Ferris wheel, look at the meaning underlying the Fair as Spectacle," recaptures the Aunt Jemima's pancakes, a blue rib­ illusions. It also offers visitors a sense excitement experienced by visitors in bon for a beer called Pabst, Scott of optimism through the transforma­ 1893. An opening symbolic comment Joplin's ragtime, and a chocolate-mak­ tion of a swamp into a city of beauty is the reproduction of Daniel Chester ing machine for Milton Hershey. and fantasy. French's golden statue, "Statue of the Almost ten times the size of the fair­ President William McKinley Republic," which functioned as an grounds at the Paris world's fair of described world's fairs as "the time­ emblem for the entire fair. 1889, the Chicago site, symbolized by keepers of progress." In the second Matched against each other are large- the dazzling white Court of Honor, half of the nineteenth century, the scale reconstructions of the Court of preened with decorative references to institution blossomed as a forum for Honor, serving high culture, and the historically significant European cities. nations competing for new markets. Midway, promoting entertainment and But there was illusion to this specta­ The first world's fair was held in commerce. Consultant Alan Trachten­ cle. The dazzling panorama was London in 1851. berg of Yale University called the created from a 700-acre swamp. The monuments to 400 years of progress were designed to last just six months: The classical "marble" buildings were really plaster over steel and glass sheds. No one seemed to care. Out of the swamp the fa ir Spectators were swept up by Amer­ ica's visible economic and techno­ grew to two hundred logical superiority. Beyond the facades, however, the fair buildings spread over became a demonstration of social divi­ sions of race, gender, and ethnicity that 633 acres in Jackson afflicted the country then and still looms inescapably 100 years later. Park. The fa ir achieved African Americans were largely excluded, except as entertainers; the aim of its creators: women were relegated to their own building; and the "superiority" of Euro- It solidified Chicago’s Americans over native Americans was assumed time and again. position as the Midwest’s Consequently, for the modern viewer, the exhibition offers timeless chiefmetropolis. themes and a contemporary experi­ ence. "It was built in a particular shape, as a result of a number of cul­ tural and social factors of the late nineteenth century," says curator Wim de Wit. "But it had enormous influence on twentieth-century America's thinking about itself. West end of the Main Basin.

Problems very much alive in the late — Courtesy o f Chicago Historical Society

30 MAY/JUNE 1993 World's Columbian Exposition "one of ing of the building was used on a large resented—and not represented—in the most fully staged and manipulated scale for the first time. the exposition. A model of the fair, mass experiences of voyeurism at the In designing the exhibition, the his­ both of the "White City" and the time—visitors invited to be urban torical society captures the sheer midway, orient visitors to the place­ voyeurs without any of the distractions physical scale of the fair through an ment of images and activities coming of real street traffic." audiovisual program recreating the later. Key fair participants, including A replica of the Agriculture Building, Agriculture Building in the museum's principal architect Daniel Burnham designed by McKim, Mead and White North Atrium, where a thirty-two-foot and Frederick Douglass (a Colum­ of New York, represents the Court of ceiling and a sixty-foot length of wall bian commissioner), are presented in Honor. What most impressed visitors a lend themselves to powerful sugges­ the portrait gallery. century ago were the grand scale of the tion. New and old technologies com­ "Beyond the White City," the third buildings and the stylistic reference to bine to build the 1893 fair's "grand section, further explores the notion of European traditions. Having built on illusions" out of a one-time swamp, contested turf and shows how the fair this legacy, America was a cosmopoli­ culminating in such breathtaking vistas was used to demonstrate American tan nation ready to play a major eco­ as decorative perimeter colonnades of "achievements" since 1492. More than nomic and cultural role in the world, the Beaux-Arts architecture, the misty twenty-one million Americans experi­ the fair seemed to declare. The Agricul­ fountains, and floating gondolas in the enced merchandising as a form of enter­ ture Building, demonstrating Amer­ expansive canals. tainment for the first time at the 1893 ica's Greco-Roman legacy, visibly Out on a partially reconstituted mid­ exposition. Products of rival companies summed up such progress. way, artifacts illustrate a quite different were placed side by side to stimulate To make sure the message got across mood, recreations of the "exotic" (a comparison and promote competition, properly, the organizers took advan­ Javanese village), the "uncivilized" (a such as beer by Anheuser-Busch Brew­ tage of the "imaging revolution" of the Turkish village), "old-world folklore" ing Association and Pabst Brewing late nineteenth century. They (an Irish village), the commercial (glass Company. For the historical society's employed official photographers and objects from Libby Glass Company's exhibition, the Agriculture Building discouraged amateurs. They exploited building), and entertainment—a mural was selected for its architecture, appear­ new technologies to create and sell a of the twenty-six-story high Ferris ance, and content. Its Roman architec­ particular image, based upon paint­ wheel, the symbol for the entire ture and decoration on the outside were ings and prints by Charles Graham, dreamy experience. contrasted by a shed-like interior, Charles Curran, and Childe Hassam. In the second part, "People at the crowded with merchandise in artisti­ And to reinforce the intended image Fair," a cacophony of voices prepares cally designed pavilions to reinforce of cultural magnificence, flood light­ the visitor for the various groups rep­ notions of prosperity and ingenuity. Commemorating the 400th anniver­ sary of Columbus's voyage, the fair inevitably conveyed the message that the white Americans had developed the opportunities of the new conti­ nent while the native peoples did not. Here the historical society's curators ran smack into the conflicts which surfaced again 100 years later in plan­ ning for 1992 commemorations of Columbus's journey. (In fact, dis­ agreements over what approach to take were among the reasons that a planned Chicago world's fair of 1992 never came off.) "One hundred years ago the coun­ try felt it needed a starting point for development of this country," explained de Wit. "We put what we said about Columbus completely in the context of what happened 100 years ago. All kinds of ethnic groups in the city gave us evaluations of the exhibition. We brought in focus groups, the general public and scholars, a group of African Ameri­ cans and native Americans. They said, if you put it in that context and you explain it to us, then you should do what you want to do. We do not present Columbus as the Discoverer,

HUMANITIES 31 which is such a painful word for Liberia, founded by American was competition among women some in our population." slaves with the support of the Ameri­ architects for the building design, and By contrast, authorities overseeing the can government, was presented as the winner was Sophia Hayden, one fair one hundred years ago emphasized the only westernized and indepen­ of the first women to graduate from Columbus's sainthood. Showing what dent country in Africa. The underly­ MIT. Artist Mary Cassatt painted an was said to be the anchor of the Santa ing message was that white enormous mural inside. Maria and other "relics" suggested that Americans could take some credit for "All the exhibition halls had interiors the "Great Discoverer" was chosen by Liberia's own cultural traditions. like railroad stations, but the Women's God to make his expedition. Elsewhere Women fared somewhat better. Init­ Building was very domestic, very resi­ on the fairgrounds, statues of Columbus ially excluded, they immediately began dential in character, a place where were sited prominently. to lobby for inclusion. Two groups women could meet by themselves Meanwhile, the native American emerged—the Women's Department, without being chaperoned by men," served as a baseline for American or Women's Auxiliary Executive Com­ notes de Wit. By sharp contrast, else­ progress since 1492. Even measurements mittee (a large apolitical group looking where on the fair grounds the objectifi­ of native Americans' heads and bodies for participation but not challenging cation of female beauty and eroticism were compared to those of Euro-Ameri­ women's traditional roles), and the was evident in such presentations as cans, with statues of white students from Queen Isabella Association, advocates allegorical sculptures, beauty pageants, America's best schools intended to repre­ of women's suffrage, who wanted an and belly dancers. sent the highest form of progress. In equal role with men. Less than forty years after the Civil addition, out on the midway, stereotypes The conflicts between these two War, the 1893 World's Columbian reinforced the idea of foreign "primitive" groups, who worked together in the Exposition sought to manufacture a cultures as inferior, including the Board of Lady Managers, generated national identity. Because they recog­ "weird" percussion instruments of the an intense debate over the "women nized that this fair would map the Javanese and the "uncivilized" street question" of the late nineteenth cen­ future, leaders of the African Amer­ scene of Cairo. tury. The Isabellas wanted women's ican community and leaders of the Cultural and racial prejudices were work exhibited alongside men's, women's movement sought to use the revealed by the near exclusion of while the rest of the Board of Lady fair as an instrument for charting alter­ African Americans. While Africans Managers obtained permission for a native routes that would afford performed on the midway, Ameri­ separate building. They did, how­ greater political and economic rights cans of African descent were virtu­ ever, succeed in gaining recognition for women and racial minorities, ally excluded. No African Americans for women's work in the main exhi­ according to consultant Robert W. were hired to work at the fair. The bition halls in cases where women Rydell of Montana State University. only food or restroom facilities avail­ were the actual producers—and Consequently, the fair became an able to them were in the Haiti Build­ were given credit for making the arena for have-nots to struggle to ing. In "The Reason Why The product. One woman, for example, overcome their "otherness." Colored American Is Not In The displayed refrigeration machinery. The final part of the exhibition World's Columbian Exposition," by Still, the Women's Building was examines the impact of the fair and Frederick Douglass and Ida B. Wells, filled with traditional women's work. its role as a historical force and insti­ the fair was described as a true But it also showcased newer achieve­ tutional idea. As a model for the "White City...in the building of ments—works by women artists, a future, the fair was later used as an which the Coloured American was library of women's writings, and soci­ important urban model. The City allowed no helping hand, and in its ological documentation of women's Beautiful movement has been long glorious success he has no share." conditions around the world. There understood as a direct offspring.

...architects began to redesign the American city with regard to both showcasing architecture

and space. ^

Women's Building with Ferris wheel in background; opposite, the interior of Machinery Hall.

32 MAY/JUNE 1993 As part of this early-twentieth-cen- "Plan for Chicago" of 1909 and plans anniversary of Columbus. Architects tury trend, civic-minded people and for other cities exemplify the inspira­ saw themselves as the new Daniel architects began to redesign the tion of the neoclassical architecture Burnhams and Stanford Whites, American city with regard to both and the unified city design. The fair, according to the historical society's showcasing architecture and space. writes William Wilson in The City curators. Even the Chicago business "Originally cities were built on a very Beautiful Movement, "suggested how a community was stirred with strict grid, but now they were cut benevolent reform might reshape prospects of the magnificent success through with big avenues, creating a cities based on existing possibilities of the 1893 venture. However, the hierarchy within urban space," rather than utopian formulas." effort died in a collision of contempo­ explains de Wit. "Important build­ The fair inspired other familiar rary forces, a battle that demon­ ings, like civic centers, were built dur­ American institutions, such as the strated the magnitude of changes in ing this time, up to the 1930s. Many amusement park, subsequent world's societal thinking that has occurred in cities, like Cleveland, Chicago, fairs in cities like Buffalo and St. 100 years. "The power of interest pol­ Pasadena, and Denver, were redone Louis, and the now-common trade itics and the lack of deference for tra­ as part of this movement." fairs and public relations campaigns ditional elites have made it even Architect/planner Daniel Burnham around virtually any theme. It also more difficult to mobilize an entire played an important role. After he led to the creation of the Field city behind one idea than it was a recognized the success of the fair Museum of Chicago and the Com­ century ago," the curators concluded. design, he applied the concept to the mercial Museum of Philadelphia. The money wasn't forthcoming, nor city. He found business people who In fact, the 1893 exposition inevit­ was the support across all political supported him, who liked the idea, for ably led to planning for a 1992 and social groups. example, of more glamour. Burnham's world's fair in Chicago for the 500th Notes de Wit, "The world has become much smaller in the sense we can travel anywhere and see whatever we want in one place. We also have huge exhibitions and convention halls in many cities. You see all the products there. Plus, foreign cultures are very familiar because of television." The Chicago Historical Society's panoramic journey into the past does not conclude in these exhibition halls either. The society invited three other Chicago museums to collaborate on related programs. And, in meetings in Chicago in 1993, five national and international organizations are exam­ ining the impact of the World's Columbian Exposition on American cities and seeking ways to revitalize urban centers. "We are looking back 100 years—and forward 100 years— to see what needs to be done with our cities,"de Wit observes. With more than fifty thousand convention visitors expected, in addition to the thousands of other viewers for the centennial exhibition, observes de Wit with a hint of irony, "This will be the year of the world's fair (of 1992) that didn't happen." □

Janis Johnson is a free-lance writer in Alexandria, Virginia.

To support this exhibition, the Chicago Historical Society received $250,000 out­ right and $75,000 in matching funds from Humanities Projects in Museums and Historical Organizations of the Divi­ sion of Public Programs.

HUMANITIES 33 NOTEWORTHY scholars to provide authentic sentence examples for the entries. Director of the Hopi Dictionary Proj­ ect, Kenneth Hill, says there are "two focal audiences for the dictionary—the Hopi community, and the scholarly community. We plan to make the dic­ tionary available on software, which will be helpful for research. But if we lose focus on the needs of the Hopis, much will be lost in the future for the language," says Hill. According to Hill, 85 percent of Sound Stage Medicine and the Humanities Hopi high school students in 1986 were unable to speak or understand While plays such as The Iceman Cometh In his inaugural lecture of 1879, Hopi—yet it is the official and legal and Long Day's Journey Into Night have Thomas Huxley, laying the blueprint language of the tribe. "The availability frequently made it to Broadway, for medical education in the future, of a dictionary and grammar of Hopi twentieth-century playwright Eugene stressed the equal importance of "the will be an important step in providing O'Neill's lesser known Lazarus two great sides of human activity"— resources for bilingual education and Laughed has never received a profes­ humane as well as scientific studies. teacher training," says Hill. sional production. A radio drama­ Through a series of projects and lec­ tization by Bay Area Radio Drama tures, the Johns Hopkins Medical —Amy Lifson (BARD) in Berkeley will therefore be Institutions Office of Cultural Affairs the premiere of the play about which has revived communication among O'Neill wrote, "Certainly it contains humanists, physicians, and the gen­ the highest writing I have done." eral public with a program entitled Eric Bauersfeld, BARD's executive Medicine and the Humanities: A Sym­ director and executive producer of the biotic Dialogue. The series has been play, described the challenges of pro­ extended through June to complete a ducing such an elaborate script. "It's film/discussion series on mortality very complicated, and probably has with a symposium, Changing Percep­ never been produced because it would tions of Aging and the Elderly. This inter­ be too expensive." disciplinary dialogue will give an Set in antiquity, the play portrays a overview of changing conceptions of messiah whose message to purge one­ the aging process and the place of the self of fear and detrimental illusions elderly and the issues that affect them. brings destruction. —Nadine Ekrek "It's a wonderful opportunity for acoustics mastery," Bauersfeld noted. Hopi on Paper "Lazarus laughs, and this laughter is a laughter of death, and it conjures up a yaapa n. 1. (yaa~t) mockingbird, very strange, acoustical image. The sdosokmuy hiituy tsirdotuy tutut- audience can also hear the compli­ skyaynangwu. The mockingbird mim­ Kudos cated chorus resounding in the back­ ics [the sounds of] all kinds of birds. 2. ground without it overshadowing (met.) (yaa~m) an imitator. Hopi yaw - Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and what is being said." niiqe oovi pas sdosokmuy hiituy South Asian Societies has received the BARD will also produce Hughie— lavayiyamuy naat tuuqaytani. It is R. R. Hawkins Award for the outstand­ another of O'Neill's last completed said of the Hopi that he is a "mocking­ ing professional, reference, or scholarly works—in which a small-time gambler bird" and therefore will yet speak the work of 1992, presented by the Associa­ desperately invokes the attention of an languages of all races. tion of American Publishers, Inc. indifferent night clerk. "With radio we This entry comes from the first This is the second book of a six- can hear the night clerk's thoughts with­ comprehensive dictionary of the Hopi volume series on The History of Carto­ out any disturbance. It's almost as if language being developed at the Uni­ graphy, which covers mapping from we were in his mind," said Bauersfeld. versity of Arizona, Tucson. Because prehistory to the present in Western BARD has also produced four of the dictionary is organized in a style and non-Westem cultures. The vol­ O'Neill's one-act sea plays, as well as similar to the Dictionary of Spoken Russ­ umes are edited by J. B. Harley and The Hairy Ape and The Emperor Jones. ian, where the emphasis is on how David Woodward. □ words are used in context, native­ —Nadine Ekrek speaking Hopis work with linguistic —Amy Lifson

34 MAY/JUNE 1993 Calendar MAY ♦ JUNE

Conferences and Exhibitions "Women and Literature in Ming-Qing China" is the topic of a conference at Yale University, June 23 through 26. Scholars will discuss "Russian Religious Thought" at a conference at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, June 4 through 6. ♦ "Shared Spaces, Separate Lives" opens June 25 in the Wickham House of the Valentine Museum in Richmond, Virginia. The exhibition uses video and audio installa­ tions to explore race relations in antebellum Richmond.

During the heyday of Teotihuacan in Mexico (B.C. 150-750 A.D.), the city was as populous as Athens and covered a larger area than its con­ "George Marshall and the American temporary Rome. "Teotihuacan: _ lr -yr x Century" airs on May 14 on PBS. This City of the Gods" will be shown — , ' ■ documentary examines Marshall and at the M. H. de Young Memorial his role in the shaping of American Museum in San Francisco, foreign policy. May 26 through October 31.

—National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City

"Elijah Pierce: Woodcarver" continues at the Columbus Mus­ eum of Art through May 16 and then travels to the Studio Museum in Harlem, June 13 through August 22. Pierce, a Dancing is an eight-part series that long-time resident of Columbus, begins this month on PBS. Two Ohio, was a woodcarver, episodes, "Dance at Court" (May 10), barber, and preacher, whose and "The Individual and Tradition" work as a folk artist began to (May 24), are funded by the National gain national recognition Endowment for the Humanities. in the 1970s.

— Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio

— Photo by Geoff Dunlop

HUMANITIES 35 Con't from page 19 % A command of fact, a capacity for ordering it, restraint in speculation, moral authority, and, it should be added, a What caused this book to have such an impact on West- ;■ clear and cogent prose style—these are gifts which the his­ ern opinion, where previous revelations had been dis- ; torian requires and which are abundantly present in Con­ counted? First, there is the mastery of the evidence it quest's work. They serve to explain the success of the book displays. An enormous amount of reading went into the and how facts, which to many seemed incredible, came to book, and this was deployed with clarity and logic. Con­ quest is never at a loss to illustrate a telling point with an compel belief. The task of explaining to a Western audience, apt quotation. He follows the records of iniquity with a which has no personal experience of totalitarianism, what it trained eye for contradiction or hesitation. Nor has he been is like to live under a regime whose guiding spirit "recog­ faulted on detail, despite prolonged attempts from some nized no limitations either moral or intellectual, in his quarters of academia to do so, particularly as concerns his methods of securing power" is enormously difficult. Con­ estimates of the number of those who perished in these quest, to the benefit of us all, succeeded in it. events. Indeed, Conquest's estimate of some thirty million . The Great Terror forms the centerpiece of a wider casualties has been raised by Russian researchers to forty -• panorama of communist rule in the Soviet Union. Conquest million. His testimony before the U.S. Senate's Committee ; has written some fifteen books on the same subject, the last on the Judiciary on The Human Cost of Communism (1971) of them a biography of Stalin, Stalin: Breaker of Nations adds a further 500,000 victims under Lenin. His display of (1991). It would be otiose to list them all here, but some factual knowledge was combined with a refusal to go titles should be mentioned. His first book, which forms a beyond the necessarily limited information available on the ; political evolution of the Soviet Union. As he pointed out in methodological introduction to his work, was an exposition his essay In Defense of Kremlinology (1962), "We can all pred- f and demonstration of the techniques of "Kremlinology": icate, more or less, the choices open to the Soviet govern­ Power and Policy in the Soviet Union: The Struggle for Stalin's ment in a given field, but we have little idea of what will v Succession 1945-1960 (1961). This is a detailed examination decide the final real action." ; of Soviet politics during the postwar era, whose conclusions Extensive knowledge of the subject and caution in inter­ are gathered from the minute indications provided by a preting it carry conviction. But another quality is to be political culture of concealment. Such detective work has found in The Great Terror: a moral concern which is all the been attacked by those who have accused Conquest of leav­ more powerful for being underplayed. The facts narrated ing out broad economic and social changes in the Soviet there can hardly be read without shuddering, but they are \ Union, but first, as he pointed out in a swingeing demoli­ largely left to speak for themselves. Conquest does not n tion of a British ex-ambassador to Moscow, he was writing incarnadine the blood stains, though his scorn for the brutes - specifically about Soviet politics and, secondly, using the and sycophants who made themselves the tools of tyranny :, only evidence available to anyone interested in how and by emerges at every word. So, too, does his compassion for the whom Russia was governed. Over the years there have people of the ex-Soviet Union—the intellectuals, peasants, ' been undoubted signs of power struggles and policy dis­ and workers who were subjected by their dictator to an agreements in the Kremlin (for example, the numerous experience so appalling as to have few historical prece­ eliminations of leading politicians). To ignore this is to sug­ dents. So it is not surprising that recent Russian reviews of . gest that political leadership is of no importance in the gov­ The Great Terror have noted the author's sympathy for the ' ernance of nations—a conclusion to which, unfortunately, "sufferings of the Russian people," the absence of schaden­ some economists and sociologists leap only too happily. freude over their humiliation by their terrible ruler. Others of his books deal with aspects of Stalin's reign which were left out from, or indicated in less detail in, The Great Terror. These include The Nation Killers (1970), an account of the deportation and decimation of such people as the Che­ chens, the Crimean Tartars, the Kalmyks and others; Kilyma: The Arctic Death Camps (1978); Inside Stalin's Secret Police: NKVD Politics 1936-1939 (1985); and Stalin and the Kirov Murder (1989). There is also a biographical study of Lenin and a collec­ tion of essays, Tyrants and Typewriters (1989), signifi­ cantly subtitled Communi­ ques in the Struggle for Truth. Another major historical

/ f ^'..Upupoe !!<>»■ fiu. work to be set beside The lu i.__Buuii.______tu Great Terror, and which too H*».___ B * p x .__ 4>cpa. yx» O r t o n . . ' has been published in Rus­

Stalin in a tsarist police register. — Hoover Institution sia, is The Harvest of Sorrow

36 MAY/JUNE 1993 (1986), which recounts the sufferings of the Soviet peasants perhaps in a different context and disguised under the label from famine and communist persecution during collec­ of "socialism" or by the opaque generalizations of Marxism, tivization and the "liquidation" of the kulaks. This is but promising the same consequences in the toll of death another story of man's inhumanity to man, which even and suffering. Already, in the sixteenth century, Giles well-qualified Western observers quite failed to notice at Fletcher, Elizabeth I's ambassador to the court of Ivan the the time. It is an epic of torment, and it is appropriate that it Terrible, illuminated what he saw by such a comparison: should take its title from the oldest Russian poem: "A har­ The manner of their government is much after the Turk­ vest of sorrow came over the land of Russia." ish fashion: which they seem to imitate as neare as the These books have the same qualities as The Great Terror. countrie, and reach of their capacities in pollitique In addition, there is Russia After Khrushchev (1965), which affayres, will give them leave to doo. discusses the future of the country and its communist Conquest's historical knowledge allowed him to escape rulers. In 1965 Conquest was a qualified optimist: "Rus­ the myths and messianic promises of Communism and to sia, that sleeping giant, is already straining half-con- refute special pleading in the name of the "revolution" or sciously at the bonds that "progress." It was more diffi­ hold her." The stagnation cult to correct the tendency of presided over by Brezhnev liberal intellectuals to find lasted some two decades— something to be said for longer perhaps than was every side of a debate. Like expected—but the break Honor Tracey's Irish priest, came with Gorbachev. Now who exhorted his congrega­ the grip of the party machine tion to walk the straight and has relaxed, and the Soviet narrow path between good Union itself has fallen apart. and evil, liberals tried to find The nationalities have had a compromise between their revenge on the nation opposing versions of the facts, killers, even if some of the not realizing that one of them latter still squeak and gibber was totally invented. Reports in the wings of history. of inhuman conditions in Conquest realized the atro­ labor camps were countered cious character of Soviet by Soviet sources with the communism; he saw the fatal claim that these were simply weaknesses of the system institutions for the reform of and predicted its doom, criminals or, as one British though not when that would Communist put it, "Soviet come about. Why was he able imprisonment stands out as to do this when so many an almost enjoyable experi­ were blind to the reality, ence." The liberal intellectual either bemused by propa­ is tempted to conclude that, ganda or obsessed by a myth disagreeable though the that appealed to their own camps may have been, they weaknesses? Part of the were not as bad as the prison­ explanation lies in his wide A 1951 parade in East Germany features ers—"anti-social" elements, knowledge of history and his Stalin's image. — National Archives, Washington, D.C. after all—had reported. His­ refusal to consider the Soviet tory, however, shows that the Union as a special case, set actions of tyrants are fre­ apart from the general flow quently as bad as they are of human events. In Russia After Khrushchev he writes: painted. Supported by the experience of history, it was but We cannot be too careful in emphasizing to ourselves at all .<■ realism for Conquest to believe the worst that the evidence times that the Soviet leadership in action is not simply . showed about Stalin's Russia. something deviating from, but still not essentially distant The role of telling truth about power is not a popular one. from, the norms of our own politics. If one wishes to avoid Conquest's merciless stripping of illusions about the Soviet this almost unconscious aberration, to which we are all nat­ ' Union made him enemies. Along with others, he was urally subject, one needs the broad perspective of political denounced as a "cold warrior," a "professional anti-Com- possibilities and attitudes that a regular reading of the his­ munist," a "provocateur" and a "warmonger." Long after the torians of other epochs—Tacitus and Abulfeda, Gibbon nature of Soviet communism was all too apparent, he was and Clarendon, Finlay and De Sismondi—affords. I make subject to academic niggling from those who, enclosed in no apology for quoting such writers; if any, theirs is the their impenetrable specialities, resented his appeal to com- true "comparative politics" for the Soviet era. wi mon sense and the general lessons of history. After the col­ In the same book points are illustrated by comparisons li lapse of the Soviet Union and the availability of Russian drawn from Byzantine history, Chateaubriand's verdict on archives, the attacks dwindled and the critics fell silent. the later Roman empire, and James Farley's account of Many ingenious theories were heard no more. What price American ward politics. 'i. convergence now? Meanwhile there were some exchanges The possession of a wide historical culture enables a v that showed Conquest as a skillful controversialist. Con- writer to recognize the symptoms of tyranny, occurring noisseurs of polemic should read his review of the anthol- ogy Stories from Modern Russia, edited by C. P. Snow and ' * Body and mind's a fracture it can heal Pamela Hansford Johnson, which ends with the sentence, In such a rush of luck and liberation "On any barricade I can think of, there is many a commu­ « As grips a gambler when the dice are hot. nist I should prefer to have on my side than Snow." The image, so unexpected and so apt, imparts to the reader This protest was made in defense of Russian writers, and that sense of a sudden mental avalanche, which anyone it brings us to another side of Conquest's achievement. For § who has composed a poem will instantly recognize. To he himself is a talented poet and literary critic, who has make a beginning on any creation of the imagination is, in a published many volumes of verse, an anthology New Lines ; sense, a gamble, where assured achievement comes in a (1956), which introduced a new generation of British * precipitous rush. There is both accuracy and humility in poets, and a collection of translated East European poetry, % this description of the poetic process, whose ambig­ Back to Life (1958). Linking the two sides of his writing are uity parallels the instinctive pleasures of the body. Courage of Genius: The Pasternak Affair (1961) and his verse So what conclusions are we to draw from the achievement translation of Solzhenitsyn's Prussian Nights (1977). A •" of a man who has grappled with the inhumanities and idio­ friend of Philip Larkin and Kingsley Amis, he shared their cies of the twentieth century, who has fought when others mistrust of mere "English Lit" and has fought against were unwilling to fight and seen success in the end? First, "deconstruction" and the other vain polysyllables that there is the point that has already been made above. A infest contemporary criticism, and whose originators often broad culture helps to improve the judgment, if it is accom­ appear determined to revenge their sterile selves on the panied by skepticism and a sense of proportion (that is, a creative artist. ■r sense of humor). A creative mind makes it easier to keep Conquest's own poetry strikes a note of nobility, tem­ one's eye on the individual and his freedom—the values pered by an underlying irony. His subjects are the big represented by Thomas Jefferson. In defense of these Con­ ones—love, landscape, man in history. His poetry is quest has never wavered, drawing his ammunition from romantic in its feeling of transience, but there is no self-pity the whole spectrum of history, quick to detect oppression here, only a stoical determination to make the best of a and the cant that would conceal it. What he has done has passing moment, a sunset, or the suddenly perceived curve been conditioned by his wide cultural interests and an of a woman's body. Irony is the defense against a poten­ unwearying intellectual curiosity. tially harsh reality, whose existence can be sensed beneath Secondly, there is courage, the condition, so it has been the bright imagery, the flares of sensuality, and the care­ said, of every virtue at its testing point. The exposure of the fully classical forms. There is a vein of melancholy that reality of the Soviet Union and the fallacies of communist runs through these poems, however it may be disguised by dogma was not an easy achievement. When Conquest a shifting subject matter. Conquest deals with rumors of began to write, he met with opposition, not only from polit­ wars, rumors of love, rumors of human vulnerability. A ically motivated adversaries, but also from the lukewarm, commitment to humanism denies shabby orthodoxies and whom Dante placed in limbo. Among these can be num­ Pecksniffian moralizing. There is something enjoyably bered large sections of Western governments, politicians, pagan about Conquest as a poet. It is entirely typical of and officials, who considered the Soviet regime as merely a him that he should recall a line from Aeschylus on a fellow government and found too total a condemnation of it guided missile range, but typical too that he should recall inconvenient or unfitting. Even where there was no sympa­ Lamartine's presence at Philippopolis and feel pity for thy with Communism, there was fear of its power. To revert him, ignorant of the future, "the tyrant's pension and the to the image used above, unlike C. P. Snow, Conquest has poem's defeat." been staunch in his defense of freedom's barricades. Passion is there as well as irony, specifically a passion And now? It was a wonderful moment when the Soviet for poetry: Union collapsed and the Communist Party was dissolved. Now there remains a new, but also old, Russia where liberty is provisional and perhaps struggling. Conquest's name is honored there, and his writings continue to have their liberating effect. The Great Terror is a memorable work of history, and it is hard to think of a historian who has resurrected the past and also been involved in the contemporary pol­ itical process in quite the way he has been. To adapt a phrase of Karl Marx, he has understood the world and helped to change it as well. There remains no more fitting tribute to his career than this feather, plucked from the enemy's panoply. □

Anthony Hartley was the editor of Britain's Encounter magazine and is now contributing editor/Europe of The National Interest.

38. MAY’/JUNE 1993 ■ Graphic Arts Association, Necograph- ics Gold Medal, 1992 Reina, Ruben E. and Kenneth M. Kensinger. The Gift of Birds: Featherwork Award Winners of Native South American Peoples. Phila­ ■ American Association for State and delphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1991. Local History, Certificate of Commenda­ ■ Ingersoll Prize for Literature in the tion, 1991, for an outstanding work on Humanities, 1992 for many years of liter­ state or local history EX ary works Watson, Jeanne Hamilton. To the Land Lukacs, John. Budapest 1900: A Histori­ of Gold and Wickedness: The 1848-59 cal Portrait of a City and Its Culture. New Diary of Lorena L. Hayes. St. Louis: The York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. Patrice Press, 1988. ■ International Congress on Women in ■ American Council for Polish Culture, Music, for second place in the Pauline 1991, for the best book in English on Pol­ Alderman Prize competition for new schol­ ish culture LIBRIS arship on women in music in 1989 or 1990. Carpenter, Bogdana, trans. Monumenta Vander, Judith. Songprints: The Musical Polonica: The First Four Centuries of Pol­ Experience of Five Shoshone Women. ish Poetry, A Bilingual Anthology. Ann University of Illinois Press, 1988. Arbor: Michigan Slavic Publications, 1989. ■ John Hope Franklin Publication Prize ■ American Historical Association, John Committee, John Hope Franklin King Fairbank Prize, 1992 for an out­ Prize, 1992 standing book on East Asian history NEH Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came Bernhardt, Kathryn. Rents. Taxes, and the Corn Mother Went Away: Marriage, Peasant Resistance: The Lower Yangzi Sexuality, and Power in Mew Mexico, Region, 1840-1950. Stanford: Stanford 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University University Press, 1992. BOOKS Press, 1991. ■ American Historical Association, PUBLISHED ■ Latin American Studies Association, Premio del Rey Prize, for a distinguished Herbert Eugene Bolton Memorial book written in English in the field of early RECENTLY Prize, 1992 Spanish history WITH NEH Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came Freedman, Paul H. The Origins of Peas­ the Corn Mother Went Away: Marriage. ant Servitude in Medieval Catalonia. Cam­ SUPPORT Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University ■ American Historical Association, Bird- Press, 1991. sail Prize for 1992, for a major work on ■ Latin American Studies Association, European military and strategic history LASA Bryce Wood Book Award Honor­ since 1870 able Mention, 1992 Showalter, Dennis E. Tannenberg: Clash Spottswood, Richard K. Ethnic Music on Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came of Empires. Hamden, CT: Archon/The Records: A Discography of Ethnic Record­ the Corn Mother Went Away: Marriage, Shoe String Press, 1991. ings Produced in the United States, 1893 Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, ■ American Historical Association, Albert to 1942. Vol. 1, Western Europe', Vol. 2, 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University J. Beveridge Award in American His­ Slavic: Vol. 3, Eastern Europe-, Vol. 4, Press, 1991. tory, 1991 Spanish, Portuguese. Philippine, Basque; ■ Library Journal, Best Books of 1991 Price, Richard. Alabi's World. Baltimore: Vol. 5, Mid-East, Far East. Scandinavian, Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. The Oxford Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. English Language, American Indian, Inter­ Dictionary of Byzantium. New York: Oxford ■ American Historical Association, Paci­ national', Vol. 6, Artist Index, Title Index; University Press, 1991 fic Coast Branch Book Award, 1991 Vol. 7, Record Number Index, Matrix Num­ ■ Modern Language Association, R. Mar- Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came ber Index. Urbana: University of Illinois raro Prize, for an outstanding scholarly the Corn Mother Went Away: Marriage. Press, 1990. study on Italian literature or comparative lit­ Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, ■ Association of American Publishers, R. erature involving Italian 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University R. Hawkins Award, 1991, for the out­ Re, Lucia. Calvino and the Age of Neore­ Press, 1991. standing professional, reference, or schol­ alism: Fables of Estrangement. Stanford: ■ American Library Association, Notable arly work of 1990 Stanford University Press, 1992. Books Award Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. The Oxford ■ Modern Language Association, Mina P. Campbell, Edward D.C., Jr. and Kym Dictionary of Byzantium. New York: Oxford Shaughnessy Prize, 1992 for an out­ Rice Before Freedom Came: African- University Press, 1991. standing research publication on teaching American Life in the Antebellum South. ■ Association of American Publishers, English language and literature Richmond: Museum of the Confederacy First Place Award in Arts, Literature, Miller, Susan. Textual Carnivals: The Poli­ and University Press of Virginia, 1991. and Language,1991 tics of Composition. Carbondale: Southern ■ American Society of Composers, Johns, Elizabeth. American Genre Illinois University Press, 1991. Authors, and Performers (ASCAP), Painting: The Politics of Everyday Life. ■ Modern Language Association, Honor­ Deems Taylor Award, 1989 New Haven and London: Yale University able Mention, the James Russell Lowell Vander, Judith. Songprints: The Musical Press, 1991. Prize, 1989, for an outstanding literary or Experience of Five Shoshone Women. linguistic study, a critical edition of an ■ Choice List of Outstanding Books and University of Illinois Press, 1988. important work, or a critical biography Nonprint Materials, 1992 ■ Arts Libraries Society of America, Paulson, Ronald. Breaking and Remak­ George Wittenborn Memorial Book Bonnefoy, Yves, comp. Mythologies. Vol­ ing: Aesthetic Practice in England, 1700- Award, 1992 umes 1 and 2. Translated by Gerald Honi- 1820. New Brunswick: Rutgers University geblum. Chicago: University of Chicago Ho, Wai-Kam. The Century of Tung Ch’i- Press, 1989. Press, 1991. ch’ang (1555-1636), Volumes I and II. ■ National Book Foundation, 1992 Kansas City: Nelson-Atkins Museum of ■ College Art Association, Alfred H. Barr, National Book Awards. One of the five Art, 1992. Jr., Award finalists nominated is: ■ Association for Recorded Sound Col­ Stephanie Barron. Degenerate Art: The Ayers, Edward L., The Promise of the lections, Best Research in Recorded Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany. New South. New York: Oxford University Country, Folk, or Ethnic Music Award Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991. Press, 1992.

HUMANITIES 39 ■ National Cowboy Hall of Fame, Out­ Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came Region in the Colonial Revival, 1860-1930. standing Nonfiction Book, 1992 West­ the Com Mother Went Away: Marriage, York, ME: Old York Historical Society, 1992. ern Heritage Awards competition Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, Gittenger, Mattiebelle and H. Leedom 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University White, Richard. It's Your Misfortune and Lefferts, Jr. Textiles and the Tai Experience Press, 1991. None of My Own. Norman: University of in Southeast Asia. Washington, DC: Textile Oklahoma Press, 1991. ■ Theatre Library Association, George Museum, 1992. Freedley Memorial Award ■ National Jewish Book Awards, Jewish Ho, Wai-Kam. The Century of Tung Ch'i- Allen, Robert C. Horrible Prettiness: Bur­ History Award, 1992 ch'ang (1555-1636), Volumes I and II. Kan­ lesque and American Culture. Chapel Hill: Carlebach, Elisheva. Pursuit of Heresy: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. sas City: Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 1992. Rabbi Moses Hagiz and the Sabbation Ho, Wai-Ching. Proceedings of Tung Ch’i- Controversies. New York: Columbia Uni­ ■ University of California Press, A Cen­ ch'ang International Sypmosium. Kansas versity Press, 1992. tennial Book, 1990-1995. One of one hundred books to mark the centennial of City: Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 1991. ■ National Jewish Book Awards, for the press Sephardic Studies, 1991 Hyer, Sally. One House, One Voice, One Neruda, Pablo. Canto General. Translated Heart: Native American Education at the Brann, Ross. The Compunctious Poet. by Jack Schmitt. Berkeley: University of Santa Fe Indian School. Santa Fe: Santa Fe Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University California Press, 1991. Indian School, 1990. Press, 1991. ■ Organization of American Historians, Janzen, John M., and Reinhild James A. Rawley Prize, 1992, for a Kauenhoven. Mennonite Furniture: A book dealing with race relations in the Migrant Tradition (1766-1910). Intercourse, United States NEH-Funded PA: Good Books, 1991. Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came Kenseth, Joy, ed. Age of the Marvelous. the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Museum Catalogues Hanover: Hood Museum of Art, 1991. Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, Kikumura, Akemi Issei Pioneers: Hawaii and 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University Alderson, William T. Mermaids, Mummies, and Mastodons: The Emergence of the the Mainland, 1885 to 1924. Japanese Ameri­ Press, 1991. American Museum. Washington, D.C.: Balti­ can National Museum, 1992. ■ Organization of American Historians, more City Life Museums, 1992. Kozloff, Arielle P. and Betsy M. Bryan. Frederick Jackson Turner Award, 1992, Aldona, Jonaitis, Ed. Chiefly Feasts: The Egypt's Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep the III and for a book on American history Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch. Seattle and Lon­ His World. Bloomington: Indiana University Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came don: American Museum of Natural History Press, 1992. the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, and University of Washington Press, 1991. Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, Larkin, Jack, Elizabeth Mankin Ames, Kenneth L., Barbara Franco, and L. 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University Kornhauser, and David Jaffee. Meet Your Thomas Frye, eds. Ideas and Images. Neighbors: New England Portraits, Painters, Press, 1991. Nashville: American Association of State and and Society, 1790-1850. Amherst: University ■ Phi Beta Kappa, Christian Gauss Local History, 1992. of Massachusetts Press, 1992. Award, 1992, for history Barquist, David. American Tables and Look­ Patterson, Lee Chaucer and the Subject ing Glasses in the Mabel Brady Garvan and Lopez-Baralt, Mercedes. Guaman Poma de of History. Madison: University of Wiscon­ Other Collections at Yale University. New Ayala: The Colonial Art of an Andean Author. sin Press, 1991. Haven: Yale University, 1992. New York: Americas Society, 1992. ■ Pacific Coast Council on Latin Bolger, Doreen, Marc Simpson, and John Mann, Vivian B., Thomas F. Glick, American Studies, Hubert Herring Wilmerding, eds. William M. Harnett: Still- Jerrilynn D.Dodds Convinencia: Jews, Mus­ Award, 1991 Life Paintings (1848-1892). Fort Worth: Amon lims, and Christians in Medieval Spain. New Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came Carter Museum, 1992. York: George Braziller, Inc., 1992. the Corn Mother Went Away: Marriage, Botelho, Joyce M. Right and Might: The Dorr Neils, Jennifer. Goddess and Polis: The Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, Rebellion and the Struggle for Equal Rights. Panathenaic Festival in Ancient Athens. 1500-1846. Stanford: Stanford University Providence: Rhode Island Historical Soci­ Princeton University Press, 1992. Press, 1991. ety, 1992. Penney, David W. Art of the American Indian Brown, Claudia and Ju-hsi Chou. Trans­ ■ PEN, Pen/Spielvogel-Diamonstein Frontier: The Chandler Pohrt Collection. Seat­ Award, 1992, for a distinguished book of cending Turmoil: Painting at the Close of tle: University of Washington Press, 1992. essays published in 1991 China's Empire, 1796-1911. Phoenix Art Museum, 1992. Phillips, Herbert P. Integrative Art of Modern Morris, David B. The Culture of Pain. Thailand. Berkeley: Lowine Museum of Berkeley: University of California Campbell, Edward D.C., Jr., and Kym Rice. Press, 1991. Before Freedom Came: African American Life Anthropology, 1992. in the Antebellum South. Richmond: Museum Reina, Ruben E. and Kenneth M. ■ PEN, Gregory Kolovakos Award, of the Confederacy and University Press of 1992, for an American translator of His­ Kensinger. The Gift of Birds: Featherwork of Virginia, 1991. panic literature Native South American Peoples. 1991. Cornog, Evan W. Come All You Gallant Schwantes, Carlos A. Bisbee: Urban Out­ Peden, Margaret Sayers. Professor Heroes: The World of the Revolutionary post on the Frontier. Tucson and London: Peden is a translations program grantee Soldier. New York: Fraunces Tavern Mus­ and has been a panelist. eum, 1991. University of Arizona Press, 1992. ■ Reference Reviews, a British journal, for Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. Al-Andalus: The Art Stebbins, Theodore E., Jr. The Lure of the best specialist reference work of 1991 of Islamic Spain. New York: Metropolitan Italy: American Artists and the Italian Experi­ Kashdan, Alexander P. and Talbot, Museum of Art, 1992. ence, 1760-1914. New York: Harry N. Alice-Mary, gen. eds. The Oxford Dictio­ Duffy, Jo. Teenage Tokyo: The Story of Four Abrams, 1992. nary of Byzantium. Oxford University Junior High School Students. Boston: The Townsend, Richard F. The Ancient Ameri­ Press, 1991. Children's Museum, The Japan Forum, 1992. cas. Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1992. ■ Society of Historians of the Early Amer­ Duis, Perry and Scott LaFrance. We’ve Got Verre, Philip, ed. The Old Croton Aqueduct. ican Republic, Book Award, 1992 a Job to Do. Chicago: Chicago Historical Yonkers: Hudson River Museum of Westch­ Guarneri, Carl J. The Utopian Alternative: Society, 1992. ester, 1992. Fourierism in Nineteenth-Century America. Fisher, Sean M., Carolyn Hughes. The Last Wright, Robin K., Ed. A Time of Gathering: Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Tenement: Confronting Community and Native Heritage in Washington State. Seattle: Press, 1991. Urban Renewal in Boston’s West End. University of Washington Press, 1991. ■ Spanish Ministry of Culture, “Spain and Boston: Bostonian Society, 1992. America in the Quincentennial of the Giffen, Sarah and Kevin Murphy. “A Noble Zimmerman, Philip D. Seeing Things Differ­ Discovery,” 1992 and Dignified Stream": The Piscataqua ently. Winterthur, Del.: Winterthur Books, 1992.

40 MAY/JUNE 1993 Tedlock, Barbara. The Beautiful and the Reappraisal and Catalogue Raisonne. Col­ Dangerous: Encounters with the Zuni Indians. umbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992. New York: Viking Penguin, 1992. Eckert, Kathryn Bishop. Buildings of Michi­ Thompson, Thomas L. Early History of the gan from Buildings of the United States. New Archaeology & Anthropology Israelite People: From the Written and Archa­ York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Algaze, Guillermo. Town and Country in eological Sources. New York: E. J. Brill, 1992. Harbison, Craig. J an Van Eyck: The Play of Southeastern Anatolia. Vol.2: The Strati- Uhle, Max. Pachacamac: A Reprint of the Realism. London and Seattle: University of graphic Sequence at Kurban Hoyuk. Chi­ 1903 Edition by Max Uhle and Pachacamac Washington Press, 1991. cago: The Oriental Institute of the University Archaeology: An Introduction by Izumi Shi- Jenkins, John. The Lyra Viol Consorts. of Chicago, 1990. mada. Philadelphia: University Museum of Madison: A-R Editions, Inc., 1992. Ascher, Abraham. The Revolution of 1905: Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Lavin, Marilyn Aronberg. The Place of Nar­ Authority Restored. Stanford: Stanford Uni­ Pennsylvania, 1991. rative: Mural Decoration in Italian Churches, versity Press, 1985. Wilkinson, T. J. Town and Country in South­ 431-1600. Chicago: The University of Chi­ eastern Anatolia. Vol. 1: Settlement and Land Berger, Iris. Threads of Solidarity: Women in cago Press, 1990. Use at Kurban Hoyuk and Other Sites in the South African Industry, 1900-1980. Blooming­ Leighten, Patricia. Re-Ordering the Uni­ Lower Karababa Basin. Chicago: The Oriental ton: Indiana University Press, 1992. verse: Picasso and Anarchism, 1897-1914. Institute of the University of Chicago, 1990. Bierhorst, John. Codex Chimalpopoca: The Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989. Text in Nahuatl with a Glossary and Gram­ Marlais, Michael. Conservative Echoes in matical Notes. Tucson: University of Arizona Fin-De-Siecle Parisian Art Criticism. Phila­ Press, 1992. delphia: Pennsylvania State University Bierhorst, John. The Mythology of Mexico Press, 1992. and Central America. New York: Quill, Arts—History & Criticism Meister, Michael W., and M. A. Dhaky, eds. William Morrow, 1990. Belton, John. Widescreen Cinema. Cam­ Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture: Foundations of North Indian Style. Princeton: Bierhorst, John, trans. History and Mythol­ bridge: Harvard University Press, 1992. Princeton University Press, 1992. ogy of the Aztecs: The Codex Chimalpopoca. Bishir, Catherine W. North Carolina Archi­ Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992. tecture. Chapel Hill: The University of North Meister, Michael W., and M. A. Dhaky, eds. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture: Bodde, Derk. Chinese Thought, Society and Carolina Press, 1990. North India, Period of Early Maturity, c. A.D. Science. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Brody, J. J. Anasazi and Pueblo Painting. 700-900. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991. Boucher, Philip P. Cannibal Encounters: Press, 1991. Muller, Ulrich, and Peter Wapnewski, eds. Europeans and Island Caribs, 1492-1763. Buckland, Gail. The Golden Summer: The John Deathridge, trans. ed. Wagner Hand­ Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Edwardian Photographs of Horace W. book. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992. Nicholls. London: Pavilion Books, Ltd., 1989. Press, 1992. Brown, Michael F. and Eduardo Fernandes. Buckley, Joan N. and Einar Haugen, eds. Murphy, Brenda. Tennessee Williams War of Shadows: The Struggle for Utopia in Han Ola og han Per: A Norwegian-American and Eliza Kazan: A Collaboration in the the Peruvian Amazon. Berkeley: University of Comic Strip. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1984. Theater. Cambridge: Cambridge University California Press, 1991. Chance, Jane, ed. The Mythographic Art: Press, 1992. Bonnefoy, Yves. Greek and Egyptian Classical Fable and the Rise of the Vernacu­ Olexy, Ronald T. An Aquitanian Antiphoner: Mythologies. Wendy Doniger, trans. Chicago lar in Early France and England. Gainesville: Toledo, Biblioteca Capitular, 44.2. Ottawa, and London: The University of Chicago University of Florida Press, 1990. Canada: The Institute of Mediaeval Press, 1992. Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate, trans. Letters of Music, 1992. Dauenhauer, Nora Marks and Richard Gustave Courbet. Chicago: University of Chi­ Ortolani, Benito, ed. International Bibliogra­ Dauenhauer. Haa Tuwunaagu Yis, for Heal­ cago Press, 1992 phy of Theatre: 1986. New York: Brooklyn ing Our Spirit. Seattle: University of Washing­ Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn. College Theatre Research Data Center, ton Press, 1990. Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages: The CUNY, 1991. Gunner, Liz, and Mafika Gwala, translators. Bestiary and Its Legacy. Philadelphia: Univer­ Ortolani, Benito, ed. International Bibliogra­ Mushol Zulu Popular Praises. African Histor- sity of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. phy of Theatre: 1987. New York: Brooklyn cal Sources, No. 3. East Lansing: Michigan Cohen, H. Robert, ed. Repertoire Interna­ College Theatre Research Data Center, State University Press, 1991. tional de la Presse Musicale: L Italia Musi- CUNY, 1992. Harrison, R. M. Excavations at Saraghane in cale. Volumes 1 -5 Prepared by Marcello Parakilas, James. Ballads Without Words: Istanbul. Vol. 1, 1986. Princeton: Princeton Conati. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms Inter­ Chopin and the Tradition of the Instrumental University Press, 1986. national, 1992. Ballade. Portland: Amadeus Press, 1992. Harrison, R. M. Excavations at Saraghane in Cohen, H. Robert, ed. Repertoire Interna­ Patten, Robert L. George Cruikshank's Life, Istanbul. Vol. 2,1992. Princeton: Princeton tional de la Presse Musicale: Allgemeine Times, and Art. Volume 1: 1792-1835. New University Press, 1992. musikalische Zeitung, mit besonderer Ruck- Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992. Immerwahr, Sara A. Aegean Painting in the sicht auf den osterreichischen Kaiserstaat. Paulson, Ronald. Hogarth: Vol. 2, High Art Bronze Age. University Park: The Pennsylva­ Vol. 1-2: 1817-1824. Ann Arbor: University and Low, 1732-1750. New Brunswick: Rut­ nia State University Press, 1990. Microfilms International, 1992. gers University Press, 1992. Mattingly, D. J., and N. Ben Lazreg. Lepti- Cohen, H. Robert. Repertoire International Phillips, Sandra W. Helen Levitt. San Fran­ minus (Lamta): a Roman Port City in Tunisia, de la Presse Musicale: I Teatri. Vol. 1 -2: cisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Report no. 1. Ann Arbor: University of Michi­ 1827-1831. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms Art, 1991. International, 1992. gan Press, 1992. Randall, Lilian M. C. Medieval and Renais­ Myers, J. Wilson, Eleanor Emlen Myers, Cohen, H. Robert. Repertoire International sance Manuscripts in the Walters Art Gallery. and Gerald Cadogan. The Aerial Atlas of de la Presse Musicale: Musik-Welt. 1880- Vol. 2: France, 875-1420. Baltimore: Johns Ancient Crete. Berkeley: University of Califor­ 1882. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms Inter­ Hopkins University Press, 1989. national, 1992. nia Press, 1992. Schenker, Heinrich. Beethoven’s Ninth Corse, Sandra. Opera and Uses of Lan­ Parks, Douglas R. Traditional Narratives of Symphony: A Portrayal of Its Musical Con­ guage: Mozart, Verdi and Britten. Rutherford: the Arikara Indians, Vol. 1, Stories of Alfred tent, With Running Commentary on Perfor­ Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1987. Morsette: Interlinear Linguistic Texts', Vol. 2, mance and Literature As Well. John Rothgeb, Stories of Other Narrators: Interlinear Linguis­ Cromley, Elizabeth. The Elements of Style: ed. and trans. New Haven: Yale University tic Texts ', Vol. 3, Stories of Alfred Morsette: An Encyclopedia of Domestic Architectural Press, 1992. English Translations ', Vol. 4, Stories of Other Details. London: Mitchell Beazley, Interna­ Verdi, Giuseppe. Luisa Miller: Melodramma Narrators: English Translations. Studies in tional, Ltd. 1991. Tragico in Three Acts. By Salvadore Camma- the Anthropology of North American Indians. Draper, James David. Bertoldo di Giovanni, rano. Edited by Jeffrey Kallberg. The Works Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. Sculptor of the Medici Household: Critical of Giuseppe Verdi, Series I: Operas, Vol.15.

HUMANITIES 41 Philip Gossett, gen. ed. Chicago: University and 3. New Haven and London: Yale Univer­ Kaplan, Steven. The Beta Israel (Falasha) in of Chicago Press, 1991. sity Press, 1992. Ethiopia: From Earliest Times to the Twenti­ Vinograd, Richard. Boundaries of the Self: Carrard, Philippe. Poetics of the New His­ eth Century. New York: New York University Chinese Portraits, 1600-1900. Cambridge: tory: French Discourse From Braudel to Press, 1992. University of Cambridge Press, 1992. Chartier. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Kronick, David A. Scientific and Technical Wade, Rachel, gen. ed.. Paul G. Wiley II, and Press, 1992. Periodicals of the Seventeenth and Eigh­ Claudia Widgery, eds. Carl Philipp Emanuel Carruthers, Mary J. The Book of Memory: teenth Centuries: A Guide. Metuchen: The Bach Edition. Series II, Vol. 23: Sonatinas No. A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture. Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1991. 4 and 5. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Levin, Eve. Sex and Society in the World of Press, 1992. Press, 1990. the Orthodox Slavs, 900-1700. Ithaca: Cornell Wearing, J. P. The London Stage. 1940-1949. Cohn, Jr., Samuel K. The Cult of Remem­ University Press, 1989. Vol. 1: A Calendar of Plays and Players. brance and the Black Death: Six Renaissance Levine, Robert M. Vale of Tears: Revisiting Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1991. Cities in Central Italy. Baltimore and London: the Canudos Massacre in Northeastern Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Brazil, 1893-1897. Berkeley: University of Connor, Walter D. The Accidental Prole­ California Press, 1992. tariat: Workers, Politics, and Crisis in Gor­ Link, Perry. Evening Chats in Beijing: Prob­ bachev's Russia. Princeton: Princeton ing China's Predicament. New York: W. W. Classics University Press, 1991. Norton and Company, 1992. Lockhart, James. The Nahuas: After the Edwards, Mark W. The Iliad: A Commentary. Darwin, Charles. The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. Vol. 7: 1838-1839, Supple­ Conquest, A Social and Cultural History of Volume V: Books 17-20. Cambridge: Cam­ the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth bridge University Press, 1992. ment to the Correspondence, 1821-1857. Edited by Frederick Burkhardt and Sydney Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford: Ernst, Juliette. L'Annee Philologique. Tome Smith. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge Univer­ Stanford University Press, 1992. 61. Paris: Societe d'edition: “Les Belles Let- sity Press, 1991. MacFarquhar, Roderick, and John K. tres,” 1992. Deans-Smith, Susan. Bureaucrats, Planters, Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of Hamilton, Richard. Choes and Anthesteria: and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part Athenian Iconography and Ritual. Ann Arbor: Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico. Austin: Univer­ 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, University of Michigan Press, 1992. sity of Texas Press, 1992. 1906-1982. Denis Twitchett and John K. Herzfeld, Michael. A Place in History: Social Fairbank, gen. eds. Cambridge, Eng.: Cam­ Fehrenbach, R. J., and E. S. Leedham- and Monumental Time in a Cretan Town. bridge University Press, 1991. Green, eds. Private Libraries in Renaissance Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. England: A Collection and Catalogue of McCusker, J. J., and C. Gravesteijn. The Ostwald, Martin. The Cambridge Ancient Tudor and Early Stuart Book-Lists, Vol. 1. Beginnings of Commercial and Financial Jour­ History: Vol. 5 The Fifth Century B.C. Cam­ Binghamton, New York: Medieval & Renais­ nalism. Amsterdam: Nederlandsch Econo- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. sance Texts & Studies; Marlborough, Eng.: misch-Historisch Archief (NEHA), 1979, 1991. Rahe, Paul A. Republics: Ancient and Mod­ Adam Matthew Publications, 1992. McReynolds, Louise. The News Under Rus­ ern. Chapel Hill: The University of North Car­ Fishbein, Michael, trans. The History of al- sia's Old Regime: The Development of a olina Press, 1992. Tabari: Volume XXXI, The War between Mass-Circulation Press. Princeton: Princeton Richardson, L., Jr. A New Topographical Brothers. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. Albany: University Press, 1991. Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore and State University of New York Press, 1992. Moaddel, Mansoor. Class, Politics, and London: The Johns Hopkins University Friedmann, Yohanan, trans. The History of Ideology in the Iranian Revolution. New York: Press, 1992. al-Tabari, Volume XII: The Battle of al- Columbia University Press, 1993. Richlin, Amy. Pornography and Representa­ Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Nader, Helen. Liberty in Absolutist Spain: The tion in Greece and Rome. Oxford and New Palestine. Albany: SUNY Press, 1992. Habsburg Sale of Towns, 1516-1700. Balti­ York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Fuchs, Rachel G. Poor and Pregnant in more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. Saxonhouse, Arlene W. Fear of Diversity: Paris: Strategies for Survival in the Nine­ O’Connor, Timothy Edwards. The Engineer The Birth of Political Science in Ancient teenth Century. New Brunswick: Rutgers Uni­ of Revolution: L.B. Krasin and the Bolsheviks, Greek Thought. Chicago: University of versity Press, 1992. 1870-1926. Boulder: Westview Press, 1992. Chicago Press, 1992. Gillingham, John. Coal, Steel, and the Owen, Thomas C. The Corporation Under Slater, Niall W. Plautus in Performance: The Rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955. Cambridge Russian Law, 1800-1917: A Study in Tsarist Theatre of the Mind. Princeton: Princeton and New York: Cambridge University Economic Policy. Cambridge, Eng.: Cam­ University Press, 1985. Press, 1991. bridge University Press, 1991. Segal, Charles. Lucretius on Death and Anxi­ Grimsted, Patricia Kennedy. Archives in Perry, Mary Elizabeth, and Anne J. Cruz. ety: Poetry and Philosophy in “De Rerum Russia, 1992: A Brief Directory. Part 1: Cultural Encounters: The Impact of the Inqui­ Natura.” Princeton: Princeton University Moscow and St. Petersburg. Princeton: Inter­ sition in Spain and the New World. Berkeley: Press, 1990. national Research & Exchanges Board, 1992. University of California Press, 1991. Grimsted, Patricia Kennedy. Intellectual Popkin, Jeremy D. Revolutionary News: The Access and Descriptive Standards for Post- Press in France, 1789-1799. Durham: Duke Soviet Archives: What Is To Be Done? IREX University Press, 1990. Scholar Services. Preliminary preprint ver­ Reisinger, William M. Energy and the Soviet History—Non U.S. sion, March 1992. Princeton: International Bloc: Alliance Politics after Stalin. Ithaca, Amant, Abbas. Resurrection and Renewal: Research & Exchanges Board, 1992. N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran, Hanson, John, and David Robinson. After Schwoerer, Lois G. The Revolution of 1688- 1844-1850. Ithaca: Cornell University the Jihad: The Reign of Ahmad Al-Kabir in 1689: Changing Perspectives. Cambridge, Press, 1989. the Western Sudan. African Historical Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Ascher, Abraham. The Revolution of 1905: Sources, No.2. East Lansing: Michigan State Shammas, Carole. The Pre-Industrial Con­ Authority Restored. Stanford: Stanford Uni­ University Press, 1991. sumer in England and America. Oxford, Eng.: versity Press, 1992. Holmes, Larry E. The Kremlin and the Oxford University Press, 1990. Bender, Thomas, ed. The University and the Schoolhouse: Reforming Education in Soviet Snow, Vernon F., and Anne Steele Young, City: From Medieval Origins to the Present. Russia, 1917-1931. Bloomington: Indiana eds. The Private Journals of the Long Par­ New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. University Press, 1991. liament: 2 June to 17 September 1642. New Bernhardt, Kathryn. Rents, Taxes, and Humphreys, R. Stephen. Islamic History: A Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Peasant Resistance: The Lower Yangzi Framework for Inquiry. Princeton: Princeton Thornton, John. Africa and Africans in the Region, 1840-1950. Stanford: Stanford Uni­ University Press, 1991. Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1680. New versity Press, 1992. Jones, J.R., ed. Liberty Secured? Britain York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Bidwell, William B., and Maija Jansson, Before and After 1688. Stanford: Stanford Tracy, James D., ed. The Political Economy eds. Proceedings in Parliament 1626. Vols. 2 University Press, 1992. of Merchant Empires: State Power and World

42 MAY/JUNE 1993 Trade, 1350-1750. Cambridge, Eng.: Cam­ Foster, Stephen. The Long Argument: Eng­ Olson, Lester C. Emblems of American bridge University Press, 1991. lish Puritanism and the Shaping of New Eng­ Community in the Revolutionary Era: A Study Tracy, James D., ed. The Rise of Merchant land Culture, 1570-1700. Chapel Hill: The in Rhetorical Iconology. Washington, D.C.: Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Smithsonian Instiitution Press, 1991. Modern World, 1350-1750. Cambridge, Eng.: Frankel, Noralee, and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Long- Cambridge University Press, 1990. Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the house: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in Tucker, Robert G. Stalin in Power: The Progressive Era. Lexington: The University the Era of European Colonization. Chapel Revolution From Above, 1928-1941. New Press of Kentucky, 1991. Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. Friedman, Lawrence J. Menninger: The Ripley, C. Peter, ed. The Black Abolitionist Underdown, David. Fire From Heaven. New Family and the Clinic. New York: Alfred A. Papers. Vol. 5: The United States, 1859- Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Knopf, 1990. 1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Car­ olina Press, 1992. Wilken, Robert L. The Land Called Holy: Glenn, Susan A. Daughters of the Shtetl: Palestine in Christian History and Thought. Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation. Rosenzweig, Roy, and Elizabeth New Haven and London: Yale University Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. Blackmar. The Park and the People: A Press, 1992. Gompers, Samuel. The Samuel Gompers History of Central Park. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992. Woodward, Ralph L., Jr. Central America: Papers. Vol. 4: A National Labor Movement Historical Perspectives on the Contemporary Takes Shape. 1895-98. Edited by Stuart B. Schaub, Thomas H. American Fiction in the Crises. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988. Kaufman, Peter J. Albert, and Grace Palladino. Cold War. Madison: University of Wisconsin Urbana: University of Chicago Press, 1991. Press, 1991. Greene, Nathanael. The Papers of Nathan­ Schuyler, David, and Jane Turner Censer, ael Greene. Vol. 6: June 1780-25 December eds. The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted. 1780. Richard K. Showman, gen. ed. Chapel Vol. 6: The Years of Olmsted, Vaux & Com­ Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. pany, 1865-1874. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins History—U.S. Holland, Patricia G. and Ann D. Gordon, University Press, 1992. Avrich, Paul. Sacco and Vanzetti: The eds. The Papers of Elizabeth Cody Stanton Spalek, John M., and Sandra H. Anarchist Background. Princeton: Princeton and Susan B. Anthony: Guide and Index to Hawrylchak. Guide to the Archival Materials University Press, 1991. the Microfilm Edition. Wilmington: Scholarly of the German-speaking Emigration to the Babcock, Barbara A. Indiana Law Journal: Resources, Inc., 1992. United States after 1933, Volume 2. Bern: Franke, 1992. Clara Shortridge Foltz: Constitution-Maker. Kessell, John L., and Rick Hendricks, eds. Bloomington: Indiana University School of By Force of Arms: The Journals of Don Diego Stein, Stephen J. The Shaker Experience in Law, 1991. de Vargas, 1691-1693. Albuquerque: Univer­ America: A History of the United Society. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Berlin, Ira, Barbara J. Fields, Steven F. sity of New Mexico Press, 1992. Miller, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Urban, Wayne F. Black Scholar: Horace Rowland. Free at Last: A Documentary His­ Meredith D. Dodge, eds. Letters From the Mann Bond, 1904-1972. Athens: University of tory of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War. New World: Selected Correspondence of Don Georgia Press, 1992. New York: The New Press, 1992. Diego de Vargas to His Family, 1675-1706. Wacker, Grant. Augustus G. Strong and the Berlin, Ira, Barbara J. Fields, Steven F. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Dilemma of Historical Consciousness. Miller, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Press, 1992. Macon: Mercer University Press, 1985. Rowland. Slaves No More: Three Essays on Krause, Paul. The Battle for Homestead, Warren, Joyce, W. Fanny Fern: An Indepen­ Emancipation and the Civil War. Cambridge, 1880-1892: Politics, Culture and Steel. Pitts­ dent Woman. New Brunswick: Rutgers Uni­ Eng. and New York: Cambridge University burgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992. versity Press, 1992. Press, 1992. Kulikoff, Allan. The Agrarian Origins of Washington, George. The Papers of George Clayton, Lawrence A. The Hispanic Experi­ American Capitalism. Charlottesville and Lon­ Washington, Confederation Series, 1: Janu­ ence in North America: Sources for Study in don: University Press of Virginia, 1992. ary- July 1784 and 2: July 1784-May 1785. the United States. Columbus: Ohio State Uni­ Leffler, Melvyn P. A Preponderance of Edited by W. W. Abbot. The Papers of versity Press, 1992. Power: National Security, the Truman Admin­ George Washington; W. W. Abbot and Crummell, Alexander. Destiny and Race: istration, and the Cold War. Stanford: Stan­ Dorothy Twohig, eds. Charlottesville: Univer­ sity of Virginia, 1992. Selected Writings, 1840-1898. Wilson ford University Press, 1992. Jeremiah Moses, ed. Amherst: University of Lewis, Meriwether, and William Clark. The Weatherford, Jack M. Native Roots: How Massachusetts Press, 1992. Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition. Vol. the Indians Enriched America. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1991. Davis, Jefferson. The Papers of Jefferson 7: March 23-June 9, 1806. Edited by Gary E. Davis. Vol. 7:1861. Edited by Lynda Lasswell Moulton. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in Crist and Mary Seaton Dix. Baton Rouge: Press, 1991. North America. New Haven: Yale University Louisiana State University Press, 1992. McDonough, Peter. Men Astutely Trained: A Press, 1992. Degler, Carl N. In Search of Human Nature: History of the Jesuits in the American Cen­ White, Richard. “It's Your Misfortune and The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in tury. New York: The Free Press, MacMillan, None of My Own”: A New History of the American Social Thought. Oxford and New Inc., 1992. American West. Norman: University of Okla­ York: Oxford University Press, 1991. McKee, Christopher. A Gentlemanly and homa Press, 1991. Drago, Edmund L. Initiative. Paternalism, and Honorable Profession: The Creation of the Race Relations: Charleston's Avery Normal U.S. Naval Officer Corps. 1794-1815. Institute. Athens: University of Georgia Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991. Press, 1990. Menard, Russell, Lois G. Carr, and Lorena Dubrovsky, Gertrude Wishnick. The Land S. Walsh. Robert Cole's World: Argiculture Interdisdplinary Was Theirs: Jewish Farmers in the Garden and Society in Early Maryland. Chapel Hill: The Book of the Fairs: Materials about State. Judaic Studies Series. Tuscaloosa: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. World's Fairs, 1834-1916, in the Smithsonian University of Alabama Press, 1992. McMillen, Neil R. Dark Journey: Black Mis- Institution Libraries. Robert Rydell, introduc­ Edison, Thomas A. The Papers of Thomas sissippians in the Age of Jim Crow. Urbana: tory essay. Chicago and London: American A. Edison. Vol. 2: From Workshop to Labora­ University of Illinois Press, 1990. Library Association, 1992. tory, June 1873-March 1876. Edited by Moseley, James G. John Winthrop’s World: Bosworth, C. E., E. Van Donzel, W. P. Reese V. Jenkins. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins History as a Story: The Story as History. Heinrichs, and Ch. Pellat, eds. The Ency­ University Press, 1991. Madison: The University of Wisconsin clopaedia of Islam: New Edition, Index of Fitzgerald, Michael W. The Union League Press, 1992. Subjects to Volumes 1-6 and to the Supple­ Movement in the Deep South: Politics and Musser, Charles. Before the Nickelodeon: ment, Fascicules 1-6. Compiled by P.J. Bear- Agricultural Change During Reconstruction. Edwin S. Porter and the Edison Manufactur­ man. Leiden, New York, Koln: E.J. Brill, 1993. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University ing Company. Berkeley: University of Califor­ Bosworth, C. E.; E. van Donzel; W. P. Press, 1989. nia Press, 1991. Heinrichs; and Ch. Pellat, eds. The Ency­

HUMANITIES 43 clopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7, Fascicules 123- Healey, Antonette diPaolo, et al. Dictionary Bibliographies of Writings by American and 124. Leiden, Holland: E.J. Brill, 1992. of Old English: Ae. 5 pp. 3 fiche. Toronto: British Women to 1990, Vol.3. London: Bosworth, C. E., E. Van Donzel, W. P. Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1992. Mansell, 1992. Heinrichs, and C. H. Pellat, eds. The Ency- Kilipid, Matti. Dictionary of Old English: Djebar, Assia. Women of Algiers in Their dopaeida of Islam. Vol. 7, Fascicules 125- Beon. 1 fiche. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Apartment. Charlottesville and London: Uni­ 126. Leiden, Holland: E.J. Brill, 1992. Mediaeval Studies, 1992. versity Press of Virginia, 1992. Bosworth, C.E., E. Van Donzel, W.P. Hein­ Lewis, Robert E., ed. Middle English Dictio­ Donaldson, Scott and R. H. Minnick. Archi­ richs, and Ch. Pellat, eds. The Encyclopae­ nary, Part S. 17. Ann Arbor: The University of bald MacLeish: An American Life. Boston: dia of Islam: New Edition. Vol. 7, Fascicules Michigan Press, 1992. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992. 127-128. Leiden, Holland: E.J. Brill, 1992. Lewis, Robert E., ed. Middle English Dictio­ Emmerson, Richard K. and Ronald B. Butterworth, Charles E., ed. The Political nary. Part S. 18. Ann Arbor: University of Herzman. The Apolcalypic Imagination in Aspects of Islamic Philosophy. Cambridge: Michigan Press, 1992. Medieval Literature. Philadelphia: University Harvard University Press, 1992. Miller, Susan. Textual Carnivals: The Politics of Pennsylvania Press, 1992. Martinich, A. P. The Two Gods of Leviathan: of Composition. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Farr, Judith. The Passion of Emily Dickinson. Thomas Hobbes on Religion and Politics. University Press, 1991. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Minear, Richard H., ed. and trans. Hiroshima: Fischer, Victor, and Michael B. Frank, eds. Press, 1992. Three Witnesses. Princeton: Princeton Univer­ Mark Twain's Letters, Vol. 3:1869. Berkeley: Morris, David B. The Culture of Pain. Berke­ sity Press, 1990. University of California Press, 1992. ley: University of California Press, 1991. Pederson, Lee, ed. Linguistic Atlas of the George, David, ed. Records of Early English Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iran- Gulf States. Vols. 5 and 6. Athens: The Uni­ Drama: Lancashire. Toronto: University of ica. Vol. 5, Fascicle 5 and 6. Costa Mesa, versity of Georgia Press, 1991. Toronto Press, 1991. Calif.: Mazda Publishers, 1991. Rajam, V.S. A Reference Grammar of Clas­ Gillian, Anne. Francois Truffaut Le Secret Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iran- sical Tamil Poetry. 150 B.C.-pre-fifth/sixth perdu. Paris: Hatier, 1991. ica. Vol. 5, Fascicle 7. Costa Mesa, Calif.: century A.D. Philadelphia: The American Goff, Janet. Noh Drama and “The Tale of Mazda Publishers, 1992. Philosophical Society, 1992. Genji”: The Art of Allusion in Fifteen Classical Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iran- Taylor, Talbot J. Mutual Misunderstanding, Plays. Princeton: Princeton University ica. Vol. 5: Carpets—Coffee. Cosa Mesa, Scepticism and the Theorizing of Language Press, 1991. Calif.: Mazda Publishers, 1992. and Interpretation. Durham: Duke University Gravdal, Kathryn. Ravishing Maidens: Writ­ Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iran- Press, 1992. ing Rape in Medieval French Literature and ica. Vol. 5, Fascicle 8. Cosa Mesa, Calif.: Thompson, Pauline A. Dictionary of Old Law. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Mazda Publishers, 1992. English: Abbreviations for Latin Sources and Press, 1991. Bibliography of Editions. 50 pp. Toronto: Pon­ Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iran- Griswold, Jerry. Audacious Kids: Coming of tifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1992. ica. Vol. 6, Fascicle 1: Coffeehouse— Com­ Age in America's Classic Children’s Books. munism IV. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda Turner, Mark. Reading Minds: The Study of New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Publishers, 1992. English in the Age of Cognitive Science. Guanzhong, Luo. Three Kingdoms. Moss Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. Roberts, trans. Berkeley: University of Califor­ Visson, Lynn. From Russian into English: An nia Press, 1991. Introduction to Simultaneous Interpretation. Harth, Erica. Cartesian Women: Versions Ann Arbor: Ardis Publishers, 1991. and Subversions of Rational Discouse in the Jurisprudence Wolfgang, Leonora D. Continuations: Old Regime. Ithaca: Cornell University Essays on Medieval French Literature and Press, 1992. Green, Thomas A., ed. The Mansfield Manu­ Language. Birmingham: Summa Publica­ Harris, Trudier. Fiction and Folklore: The scripts and the Growth of English Law in the tions, Inc., 1989. Novels of Toni Morrison. Knoxville: University Eighteenth Century. Chapel Hill: University of of Tennessee Press, 1991. North Carolina Press, 1992. Howland, Margaret E. Descriptive Catalog of the Archibald MacLeish Collection at Green­ field Community College, Vol. V.MacLeish’s Literature Library. Greenfield, Mass.: Greenfield Com­ munity College, 1991. Atlas, James. Biography: Saul Bellow Language & Linguistics Memoirs of a Bootlegger's Son. New York: James, Henry. Italian Hours. Edited by John Aulesha, Gorka, comp. English-Basque Dic- Granta, 1992. Auchard. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992. ionary. Reno and Las Vegas: University of Bailey, Clinton. Bedouin Poetry from Sinai Nevada Press, 1989. and the Negev: Mirror of a Culture. Oxford, Kelly, Douglas. The Art of Medieval French Romance. Madison: University of Wisconsin Beer, Jeanette. Early Prose in France: Con­ Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1991. Press, 1992. texts of Bilingualism and Authority. Kalama­ Bell, Robert H. Jocoserious Joyce: The Fate zoo: Board of Medieval Institute, 1992. of Folly in Ulysses. Ithaca: Cornell University Kelley, Philip, and Scott Lewis, eds. The Brownings' Correspondence. Vol. 10. Bethin, Christina. Polish Syllables: The Role Press, 1991. Kansas: Wedgestone Press, 1992. of Prosody in Phonology and Morphology. Chretien, de Troyes. The Complete Columbus: Slavica Publishers, 1992. Romances of Chretien de Troyes. Translated Krasicki, Ignacy. The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom. Thomas H. Hoisington, Broselow, Ellen. Current Issues in Linguistic by David Staines. Bloomington: Indiana Uni­ trans. Evanston: Northwestern University Theory: Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics versity Press, 1990. Press, 1992. IV. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Christensen, Jerome. Lord Byron’s Publishing Company, 1992. Strength: Romantic Writing and Commercial Machlis, Paul. Union Catalog of Letters to Clemens. Berkeley: University of California Clements, Clancy, Tereja J. Martees, Society. Baltimore and London: Johns Hop­ Press, 1992. and Tereja J. Dasojha. Nau Ling Su Istar kins University Press, 1993. (Istaur Korlee Su Ling Su Det). Bombay: Clayton, Thomas. The Hamlet First Pub­ Masse, Michelle A. In the Name of Love: Clancy Clements, 1993. lished, (Q 1, 1603): Origins, Form, Inter- Women, Masochism, and the Gothic. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992. Fitzmyer, Joseph A., and Stephen A. textualities. Newark: University of Delaware Kaufman. An Aramaic Bibliography, Part I: Press, 1992. Mayer, Elsie F. My Window on the World: Old, Official, and Biblical Aramaic. Baltimore: Conde, Maryse. I, Tituba. Black Witch of The Works of Anne Morrow Lindbergh. Ham­ Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Salem. Richard Philcox, translator. Char­ den: Archon Books, 1988. Harris, Alice C. The Indigenous Languages lottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992. McGowan, John. Postmodernism and Its Cri­ of the Caucasus. Volume 1: The Kartvelian Davis, Gwenn, and Beverly A. Joyce, tics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. Languages. John A.C. Greppin, gen. ed. Del- comps. Drama by Women to 1990: A Bib­ Meisami, Julie Scott, trans. The Sea of Pre­ mar, N.Y.: Caravan Books, 1991. liography of American and British Writers. cious Virtues (Bahr al-Fava’id): A Medieval

44 MAY/JUNE 1993 Islamic Mirror for Princes. Salt Lake City: Uni­ Carlisle, Janice. John Stuart Mill and the Cartusiensis, Dionysius. Opera Selecta. versity of Utah Press, 1991. Writing of Character. Athens: University of Edited by Kent Emery, Jr. Turnholti (Turn- Miller, Nancy K. Getting Personal: Feminist Georgia Press, 1991. hout), Belgium: Brepols, 1991. Occasions and Other Autobiographical Acts. Dooley, William E., S.J., and Arthur Desmangles, Leslie G. The Faces of the New York: Routledge, 1991. Madigan, S.J., trans. Alexander of Aphro- Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Olivares, Julian, ed. Tomas Rivera: The disias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 2 and 3. Haiti. Chapel Hill: The University of North Complete Works. Houston: Arte Publico Richard Sorabji, gen. ed. London: Gerald Carolina Press, 1992. Press, 1991. Duckworth and Co., Ltd., 1992. Doran, Robert, translator. The Lives of Peck, H. Daniel. Thoreau's Morning Work: Flavo, Joseph D. The Economy of Human Simeon Stylites. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Cis­ Memory and Perception in a Week on the Relations: Castiglione's Libro Del Cortegiano. tercian Publications, 1992. Concord and Merrimack Rivers, the Journal, New York: Peter Lang, 1992. Evans, C. Stephen. Passionate Reason: and the Walden. New Haven: Yale University Fortenbaugh, William W. et al., eds. Theo­ Making Sense of Kierkegaard's Philosophical Press, 1990. phrastus of Eresus: Sources for his Life, Writ­ Fragments. Bloomington: Indiana University Petrarch, Francis. Letters of Old Age. ings, Thought and Influence. Part One and Press, 1992. Rerum Senilium Libri l-XVIII. Aldo S. Ber- Part Two. Leiden, Holland: E.J. Brill, 1992. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, ed. The Muslims nado, Saul Levin, and Reta A. Bernado, Henry of Ghent. Quodlibet VII. Edited by of America. New York: Oxford University trans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University G.A. Wilson. Henrici de Gandavo Opera Press, 1991. Press, 1992. Omnia, XI. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven Univer­ Hallo, William W., K. Lawson Younger, Jr., Proust, Marcel. Selected Letters: Volume III, sity Press, 1991. and Bernard F. Batto, eds. The Biblical 1910-1917. Translated by Terence Kilmartin. James, William. Writings: 1878-1899. Fred­ Canon in Comparative Perspective: Scripture Edited by Philip Kolb. London: Harper Collins erick H. Burkhardt, and Gerald E. Myers, eds. in Context IV. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Publishers Ltd., 1992. New York: The Library of America, 1992. Press, 1991. Proust, Marcel. Correspondance de Marcel Kant, Immanuel. Lectures on Logic. Michael Kraemer, Ross S. Her Share of the Bless­ Proust, Tome XX: 1921. Edited by Philip J. Young, ed. and trans. Cambridge; New ings: Women's Religions Among Pagans, Kolb. Paris: Plon, 1992. York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Jews, and Christians in the Greco-Roman World. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univer­ Reichert, John. Milton's Wisdom: Nature Kierkegaard, Soren. Concluding Unscientific sity Press, 1992. and Scripture in Paradise Lost. Ann Arbor: Postscript to Philosophical Fragments. Vol­ University of Michigan Press, 1992. umes 1 and 2. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Lochrie, Karma. Margery Kempe and Trans­ lations of the Flesh. Philadelphia: University Reisen, Avraham. "The Heart-Stirring Ser­ Hong, eds. Princeton: Princeton University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. mon” and Other Stories. Edited and trans­ Press, 1992. lated by Curt Leviant. Woodstock, N.Y.: The Kvanvig, Jonathan L. The Intellectual Vir­ Murata, Sachiko. The Tao of Islam: A Overlook Press, 1992. tues and the Life of the Mind: On the Place Source Book on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought. New York: State University Sattelmeyer, Robert, ed. The Writings of of the Virtues in Contemporary Epistemol- of New York Press, 1992. Henry David Thoreau: Journal. Vol. 4: 1851- ogy. Savage, Maryland: Rowman and Little­ 1852. Princeton: Princeton University field, 1992. Naquin, Susan, and Chiin-fang Yu, eds. Press, 1992. Lang, Helen S. Aristotle's Physics and Its Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Sealts, Merton M., Jr. Emerson on the Medieval Varieties. New York: State Univer­ Scholar. Columbia: University of Missouri sity of New York Press, 1992. Neusner, Jacob. The Transformation of Press, 1992. Lehrer, Keith, and Ernest Sosa, ed. The Judaism: From Philosophy to Religion. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992. Smith, Mark T. Blake and His Bibles. Corn­ Opened Curtain: A U.S.-Soviet Philosophy wall: Locust Hill Press, 1990. Summit. Boulder: Westview Press, 1991. O’Donnell, James. Augustine Confessions: Scheffler, Samuel. Human Morality. New Volumes I, II, and III. Books 1-13. Oxford: Tarchetti, I.U. Fantastic Tales. Lawrence Clarendon Press, 1992. Venuti, editor and translator. San Francisco: York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Building Gods House in Mercury House, 1992. Sharpies, R.W., trans. Alexander of Aphro- White, L. Michael. the Roman World. Architectural Adaptation disias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15. Richard Thackeray, William Makepeace. Flore et Among Pagans, Jews, and Christians. Sorabji, gen. ed. London: Gerald Duckworth Balti­ Zephyr; The Yellowplush Correspondence; more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. The Tremendous Adventures of Major Gaha- and Co. Ltd., 1992. gan. Edited by Peter L. Shillingsburg. New Simplicius. Corollaries on Place and Time. York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1991. Translated by J.O.Urmson. Richard Sorabji, Truax, Elizabeth. Metamorphosis in Shake­ gen. ed. London: Gerald Duckworth and Co. speare's Plays: A Pageant of Heroes, Gods, Ltd., 1992. Maids and Monsters. Lewistown: Edwin Sosna, Ernest. Knowledge in Perspective: Mellen Press, 1992. Selected Essays in Epistemology. Cam­ Social Science bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Wimsatt, James I. Chaucer and His French Bak, Janos M., trans. Liberty and Socialism: Contemporaries: Natural Music in the Four­ Tillman, Hoyt C. Confuscian Discourse and Writings of Libertarian Socialists in Hungary, teenth Century. Toronto: University of Chu Hsi’s Ascendancy. Honolulu: University 1884-1919. States and Societies in East Cen­ Toronto Press, 1991. of Hawaii Press, 1992. tral Europe: Contributors to Modern Political Wordsworth, William. Shorter Poems, White, Stephen A. Sovereign Virtue: Aristotle Thought. Vol.2. Savage, Md.: Rowman and 1807-1820. Carl H. Ketcham, ed. Ithaca: Cor­ on the Relation Between Happiness and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1991. nell University Press, 1989. Prosperity. Stanford: Standord University Harley, J.B. and David Woodward, eds. Wordsworth, William. The Thirteen-Book Press, 1992. The History of Cartography, Vol. 2, Book one. “Prelude” Vols. 1 and 2. Mark L. Reed, ed. Wolin, Richard. The Terms of Cultural Criti­ Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Stephen Parrish, gen. ed. The Cornell Words­ cism: The Frankfurt School, Existentialism, Kann, Mark E. On the Man Question: Gen­ worth. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. Poststructuralism. New York: Columbia Uni­ der and Civic Virtue in America. Philadelphia: versity Press, 1992. Temple University Press, 1991. Smith, Joan and Immanuel Wallerstein. Creating and Transforming Households: The Constraints of the World-Economy. Cam­ bridge, Eng; New York; Paris: Cambridge Philosophy University Press, 1992. Religion Wolgast, Elizabeth. Ethics of an Artificial Burian, Richard M. and Marjorie Grene. Person: Lost Responsibility in Professions Synthese: An International Journal for Epis- Carmichael, Calum M. The Origins of Bibli­ and Organizations. Stanford: Stanford Univer­ temology, Methodology and Philosophy of cal Law: The Decalogues and the Book of sity Press, 1992. Science. (Volume 91). Dordrecht: Kluwer the Covenant. Ithaca: Cornell University Academic Publisher, 1992. Press, 1992.

HUMANITIES 45 DEADLINES DEADLINES DEADLINES

DIVISION OF EDUCATION PROGRAMS James C. Herbert. Director • 606-8373 Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline Projects beginning

Higher Education in the Humanities • Lyn Maxwell White 606-8380 ...... October 1, 1993 April 1994

Institutes for College and University Faculty • Barbara A. Ashbrook 606-8380 ...... October 1, 1993 Summer 1994

Science and Humanities Education • Susan Greenstein/Deb Coon 606-8380 ...... March 15, 1994 October 1,1994 Core Curriculum Projects • Fred Winter 606-8380 ...... October 1, 1993 April 1994

Two-Year Colleges • Judith Jeffrey Howard 606-8380 ...... October 1, 1993 April 1994

Challenge Grants • Thomas Adams 606-8380 ...... May 1, 1993 December 1, 1993 Elementary and Secondary Education in the Humanities • F. Bruce Robinson 606-8377 ...... December 15,1993 August 1994

Teacher-Scholar Program • Annette Palmer 606-8377 ...... May 1, 1993 September 1994

Special Opportunity in Foreign Language Education...... March 15, 1994 October 1994 Higher Education • Elizabeth Welles 606-8380 Elementary and Secondary Education • F. Bruce Robinson 606-8377

DIVISION OF FELLOWSHIPS AND SEMINARS Marjorie A. Berlincourt, Director • 606-8458

Deadline Projects beginning

Fellowships for University Teachers • Maben D. Herring 606-8466...... M ay 1, 1993 January 1, 1994 Fellowships for College Teachers and Independent Scholars • Joseph B. Neville 606-8466 ...... M ay 1, 1993 January 1, 1994

Summer Stipends • Thomas O'Brien 606-8466 ...... October 1, 1993 May 1, 1994

Faculty Graduate Study Program for Historically Black Colleges and Universities ...... March 15, 1993 September 1,1994 Maben D. Herring 606-8466

Younger Scholars • Leon Bramson 606-8463...... November 1, 1993 May 1, 1994 Study Grants for College and University Teachers • Clayton Lewis 606-8463 ...... August 16, 1993 May 1, 1994

Summer Seminars for College Teachers • Joel Schwartz 606-8463

Participants ...... March 1, 1993 Summer 1993 Directors ...... March 1, 1993 Summer 1994 Summer Seminars for School Teachers • Michael Hall 606-8463

Participants ...... March 1, 1993 Summer 1993 Directors ...... April 1, 1993 Summer 1994

DIVISION OF PRESERVATION AND ACCESS George F. Farr Jr.. Director • 606-8570

Deadline Projects beginning

Library and Archival Preservation Projects • Vanessa Piala 606-8570 ...... June 1, 1993 January 1994 Library and Archival Preservation/Access Projects • Barbara Paulson/Charles Kolb 606-8570 ...June 1, 1993 January 1994 National Heritage Preservation Program • Richard Rose/Laura Word 606-8570 ...... November 1, 1993 July 1994

U. S. Newspaper Program • Jeffrey Field 606-8570 ...... June 1, 1993 January 1994

To receive guidelines for any NEH program, contact the Office of Publications and Public Affairs at 202/606-8438. Guidelines are available at least two months in advance of application deadlines.

Telecommunications device for the deaf: 202/606-8282.

46 MAY/JUNE 1993 DEADLINES DEADLINES DEADLINES

DIVISION OF PUBLIC PROGRAMS Donald Gibson. Director • 606-8267

Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline Projects beginning

Humanities Projects in Media • James Dougherty 606-8278 ...... September 10, 1993 April 1, 1994 Humanities Projects in Museums and Historical Organizations • Marsha Semmel 606-8284 ...... June 4, 1993 January 1, 1994

Public Humanities Projects • Wilsonia Cherry 606-8271 ...... September 17, 1993 April 1, 1994 Humanities Projects in Libraries • Thomas Phelps 606-8271 Planning ...... M ay 7, 1993 October 1, 1993 Implementation ...... September 10, 1993 April 1, 1994

Challenge Grants • Abbie Cutter 606-8361 ...... M ay 1, 1993 December 1, 1992

DIVISION OF RESEARCH PROGRAMS G u ^ e Griest Acting Director • 606-8200

Deadline Projects beginning

Scholarly Publications • Margot Backas 606-8207

Editions • Douglas Arnold 606-8207...... June 1, 1993 April 1, 1994 Translations • Richard Lynn 606-8207...... June 1, 1993 April 1, 1994 Subventions • 606-8207...... March 15, 1994 October 1, 1994 Reference Materials • Kenneth Kolson 606-8358

Tools • Helen Aguera 606-8358 ...... September 1, 1993 July 1, 1994 Guides • Michael Poliakoff 606-8358 ...... September 1, 1993 July 1, 1994 Challenge Grants • Bonnie Gould 606-8358 ...... May 1, 1993 December 1, 1992 Interpretive Research • George Lucas 606-8210

Collaborative Projects • David Wise 606-8210 ...... October 15, 1993 July 1, 1994 Archaeology Projects • Murray McClellan 606-8210 ...... October 15, 1993 April 1, 1994

Humanities, Science, and Technology • Daniel Jones 606-8210...... October 15, 1993 July 1, 1994 Conferences* David Coder 606-8210 ...... July 15, 1993 April 1,1994

Centers for Advanced Study • Christine Kalke 606-8210 ...... October 1, 1993 July 1, 1994 International Research • Christine Kalke 606-8210 ...... April 1, 1994 January 1, 1995

DIVISION OF STATE PROGRAMS caroie Watson. Director • 606-8254

Each state humanities council establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines. Addresses and telephone numbers of these state programs may be obtained from the division.

OFFICE OF CHALLENGE GRANTS Edythe Manza. Acting Director • 606-8361

______Deadline______Projects beginning

Applications are submitted through the Division of Education, Research, and Public Prog rams... May 1, 1993 December 1, 1993

HUMANITIES 47 NATIONAL ENDOWMENT POSTAGE & FEES AND FOR THE HUMANITIES NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW PUB. NO. 187526 Washington, D.C. 20506 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300.00 ISSN 0018-7526