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The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan

First results and work perspectives

Bruno Genito

Abstract: This paper summarises the work of the Joint Uzbek-Italian Archaeological Mission in Ko- jtepa in the district of Pastargom, Samarkand. The project is based on a collaboration between the Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Napoli (UNO) and the Institute of Archaeology Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Samarkand (IAASU). The project began in 2008–2009, and after several excavations is - tral tepe wateron-going. – is Preliminarycharacterised results by a form have of confirmed agricultural that settlement the site – thatwhich played consists a role of anin controllingalmost conical the nearcen northern surrounded area frequently by a visitedquadrangular by pastoral wall nomadsand beyond on the that Karatyube an outer channelpiedmont originally chain. For filled the withmo- ment, the time span covered stretches from the late Hellenistic era to the Kushan period and beyond!

Keywords: Central Asia, archaeology, Samarkand, territory.

Резюме: -

Данная статья кратко подводит итог работы Объединенной археологической узбек ско-итальянской миссии в Койтепа в районе Пастаргом (Самарканд). В основе проекта лежит соглашение об археологическом сотрудничестве между Университетом Неаполя “L’Orientale” и- Институтом археологии Академии наук Узбекистана (Самарканд). Проект был начат в 2008-- 2009 годах и продолжается до сегодняшнего дня, после семи полевых сезонов. Предваритель ные результаты подтвердили, что памятник, состоящий из центрального “тепе” почти кони ческой формы, окружающей его стены четырехугольной формы внешнего канала изначально заполненного водой, представляет собой поселение, жители которого занимались сельским хозяйством и которое играло свою роль в контроле над соседним северным регионом, где- нередко появлялись скотоводы-кочевники из предгорий Каратюбе. На данный момент речь идет, по крайней мере, о временном интервале от эллинистической эпохи до кушанского пе риода!Ключевые слова:

Центральная Азия, археология, Самарканд, территория. 132 Bruno Genito

The premises of the project by IAASU and UNO 1 Introduction - Since 2008, the joint Uzbek-Italian archaeological activities of the Institute of Archaeology of the Aca- are strictly related to the methodological and field- demy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Samarkand (IAA- ologicalwork difficulties horizons alwaysof the Late encountered Iron Age byand scholars of the SU), and the Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO) when attempting to define precisely any archae have been carried out in the Pastdargom district in ( 1988; 2005). In particular, the joint ac- the Samarkand area.1 - tivitiesAchaemenid continued Empire, working and in not an only area inwest Central of Samar Asia- tivities are to analyse the archaeological consistency kandFrancfort with the aim of singling out cultures related to The scientific aims of these ac the periods of the earliest occupation, and of repre- - senting their differing related stages ( 1996; during the 6th–4th century BCE of an area recorded 1998a; 1988b). oldfor thePersian first timeethnonym in the trilingualor toponym inscription “Sogd/Sugd” of Dar is Genito - explicitlyius the Great used, (522–486 BCE) phonetically and in Bisutun. most probably There, thele- ments with semi-huts clearly started to be replaced xically connected with the Greek-Roman term “Sog- In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, scanty settle diana”, an area much better known, in a detailed way, in early mediaeval times for its ethno-cultural Theby large studies “sites”, of these among sites them have Koktepe demonstrated (ca. 100 ha) that and ethno-linguistic eastern-Iranian Sogdian back- thealong process the Bulungur of erecting Canal, wallsand Afrasiab and, in (ca. 220 ha). some cas- es, public buildings and/or shrines, also included 2002; 2005).2 large-scale earth works. According to a reasonable ground (4th–7th century CE) (de la Vaissière hypothesis, the irrigation canals in Sogdiana, which UNO, andde lain Vaissière/Trombertpartnership with the Italian Ministry of ForeignThe joint Affairs, field3 providedactivities, the financially basis for supported an archaeo by- at about the same time as the sites, and, with some logical project which, starting from the topographic changes,stretch for they more survive than to 100 km, the present were day possibly ( built- 2003a; 2003b; 2004; Mater) (1999–2006), was basically aimed at inves- 2009; 2016).Mantel tigatingdata collected the archaeological by UsB (Università horizons di Bologna,of the period Alma liniA new stage in the culturalMantellini/Rondelli development in Sogdi- in the Samarkand area, and possibly of the Achae- Marconi et al. Mantellini (ed.) menid period as well. characteristics of the material culture, including ce- ana began in the 7th and the 6th centuries BCE. Some - Parthia, and, somewhat later, in Chorasmia as well,4 torical Sogdiana followed two years (2007–2008) of ramicdid not production, spread beyond in Bactriana, the territories Margiana, in north-east northern 1 These field activities located in a crucial part of the his intensive contacts with the Uzbek colleagues, with the Sogdiana ( 2013a; 2013b). former director of IAASU Timur Shirinov, Shakirdjan Cultural changes did not occur immediately after Lyonnet colleagues already working there, and in particular Mau- Pidaev, the present Amriddin Berdimuradov and Italian Chorasmia provinces were probably conquered by - Cyrusthe territories the Great of andthe future so became Bactriana, part Sogdiana,of the Achae and- stan.rizio Tosi, Director of the Italian Archaeological Mission menid Persian political-state formation in the sec- 2 ofSogdiana Università was diin Bologna,the Late Iron Alma Age Mater and (UsB) early inmediaeval Uzbeki period populated by peoples probably speaking and writing in an eastern Iranian language: Sogdian. Accord- ond half of the 6th century BCE. Greek forms in the ing to Greek and Roman authors, the region was located pottery, including “fish plates” and craters, appeared between the territories formed by two rivers, the Oxus rule, not right after Alexander the Great’s conquest only in the 3rd century BCE, during the Seleucid’s border running along the Zeravshan mountain range. It is(Amu not clear,Darya) however, and Iaxartes whether (Syr the Darya), Sogdians with populatedthe southern all andof Sogdiana the Greeks in 320 BCE.also may Differenthave returned nomadic to Sogdiana peoples the lands which Greek and Roman authors attribute to conquered Sogdiana at the end of the 3rd century the region. It is possible that the sources referred only to the nomads took over again. Ancient eastern ele- the early administrative boundaries of the Achaemenid mentsin the firstprevail half in of the the architecture 2nd century; of bythe mid-century, Greek peri- empire, without taking in consideration the real distribu- tion of the villages, towns, regional walls, etc., and the real population in the area. Sogdiana would indicate, thus, the which were built from large mud bricks of a type un- region, including the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya River knownod, a typical in the example Hellenistic being culture the city on wallswhich at the Afrāsīāb, names basins, whose archaeological remains are generally dat- of the makers are written in Greek letters.

Sogdians seem to emerge at the historical level. 3 edSince to 2015,no earlier UNO-IAASU than the activities 1st millennium BCE, in Uzbekistan when have there- ceived the support of the Attribuzione Riconoscimento Istituzionale per Missione Archeologica/Antropologica

Internazionale, which here are deeply thanked by the au- 4 For example, it is the case for cylinder-cone-shaped wheel- thor.of the Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione made pottery and large, rectangular, unbaked bricks. The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 133

a

b Fig. 1: Kojtepa. a. General view as seen as from the south-east (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Na- poli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito). b. General map (drawing by Enzo Cocca 2014). 134 Bruno Genito

ity, are similar to a well-known urban settlement 2 The Kojtepa project pattern for sites and cities in the ancient Samarkand and Ustrushana areas, present also in the Karatyube (1999–2006) topographic activities in the Pastdar- range areas, in the historical and Hellenistic period.7 The former joint Uzbek-Italian (IAASU and UsB)- Kojtepa is located in the zone between agricul- gion had drawn attention to different sites, prelim- tural lands and the steppe (Fig. 1). Today, the local gominarily (Lower dated Dargom) to the period district from in thethe Samarkand Late Iron Age re population refer to the territory around Kojtepa to the early mediaeval period, and possibly to the as far as Chandyr village as dasht (steppe), though Achaemenid period as well. the whole area is cultivated, covered with orchards, The site jointly chosen in 2008 by IAASU and - UNO5 was Kojtepa,6 a known and important set- tion in the written sources is scattered and fragmen- tlement, constituted by a central truncated cone- tary.fields The of cotton most importantand wheat, sources and so abouton. The the informa period shaped tepe 9 m high encircled by an earthen wall in the pre-Arab era are the Chinese authors who vis- and moat. According to the topographic results, the ited the area in connection with the establishment of more or less regular contacts with their western partially cut through by modern agricultural activ- areas. city walls, though still not clearly identified, and - - comeFrom more the detailed, 5th century CE, and start reports to provide on the more territo and 5 possibleDeepest thanksthanks to are the dueavailability to the of Director the former of IAASU,Rector moreries of geographical the Amu Darya names and –Syr an Darya abundance interfluve of top be- A. Berdymuradov. The realisation of the work has been- chio and her staff, in particular Marina Guidetti, Nicolet- of UNO, Lida Viganoni, the present Rector Elda Morlic- Arabiconyms andfrom Persian the Syr sources. Darya, Zeravshan,8 Kashkadarya UNO,ta De throughDominicis the and Centro Ester Interdipartimentale Mezzone of the Internation di Servizi and Amu Darya basins which are later confirmed in peral Affairs l’Archeologia Department. (CISA), Financial and heartfelt support thanks was givenare due by 7 The decision to examine the site was suggested by the for this to their former President, Rodolfo Fattovich, the Italian Archaeological Mission (IAM) of the Università present President Fabrizio Pesando, to Luigi Tartaglia,

2009:degli Studi 126-128; di Bologna, Alma Mater (UNIBO), 2014). which had Antonella Sannino, Andrea D’Andrea of the Directive and 8 identifiedArchaeological other research sites of into the the period piedmont (Genito/Gricina areas in Saza- Technical-Scientific Committee, Rosario Valentini of the- gan, Agalyk andGenito/Abdullaev Mirankul’, i.e. in territories (ed.) bordering Drafting Committee, and Irene Bragantini (former Vice President), and Roberto Bocchino (former Drafting Com of groups of burial mounds, which testify to the fact that mittee). Local support was possible thanks to the UsB thisthe Dargompart of the Steppe, steppe have was brought also used to aslight pasture the existence land. In and, in particular, special thanks are due to the Director, particular, the question of interaction between nomadic M. Tosi, the Deputy Director, D. Giorgetti, and to Simone and settled cultures was one of the research topics on andMantellini for any and other Rita organizational Dimartino. A typeparticular of support. thank For is also the which Suharev worked (1935–1936). In connection with due to Dmitry Khosthuskhin for his help as translator- the historical topography, a short but extremely informa- rector 2008–2009), to Rahimov Kamil both excellent tive essay by (1902), written on the basis of an scientific work thanks are due to Alexej Gricina (Co-di extremely thorough analysis of sources in waqf (chari- (co-director 2011–2012), Mukhtar Pardaev (co-director table endowmentVjatkin under Islamic law) documents, is in- 2013–2015)and precious and helper Sherzod in the Pardaev, field work, who wasKazim present Abdullaev in all valuable. Comparison of his data with old maps made by engineers and topographers before the 1917 Revolution gratitude is also due to: Fabiana Raiano (2008–2014), may, at times, provide extremely fruitful results. Anoth- whoour activities devoted astime scientific to the pottery collaborator. analyses Last and but drawings, not least, er important landmark in the study of nomadic sites in Francesco Spinelli (2009), Giulia Ciucci (2009), Fran- this contact zone was the excavation work carried out by cesco Franzese (2011–2012), Michele Maria Lamberti of Sazagan to the south of Samarkand, which he dated (2014), Andrea Montella (2015) of UNO, Maria Francesca toObel’čenko the post-classical in the 1950s. era. In He the studied piedmont the burial-moundszone adjoining (2013), Edoardo Cefariello (2014–2015), Lucia Cerullo- of Samarkand, a group of Mirankul’ burial mounds was (2013–2015)Pullia (2014–2015), (UNO), Natalia Li Yusheng Valenzano (2011–2013) (2014) of the(Peking Uni studied.the Dargom The Canal,earliest at of a these distance burial of 18mounds km south-west were dat- University),versità of Pisa, Luciano Davide Rendina,Lunelli (2012–2014), archaeologist, Enzo topogra Cocca- pher and draftsman of Lecce University (2008–2009), the workmen, the driver Rahmatullo Rasulov and Mr (ed by Obel’čenko 1966: to 66–81;the 2nd century CE 1969: 80–90). and The the earliest others - burialwere assigned mounds towere later discovered dates in the along Early the Medieval Agalyksai period Riv- fering circumstances. Obel’čenko - 6 DavronbekKojtepa (Sheep Jurakulov Tepa), foror Kendykthe precious Tepa (Umbelicushelp given inTepa) dif 1972) on the basis of an analysis of graveer; some goods. flat gravesAttention were should dated also to the be drawn4th and to 3rd centu the work the difference in the level from the top to the bottom be- ofries BCE (Obel’čenko (1959: 154–174), who investigated the area (Pasing 9.94 588), m. is It an is area 697.30 175 m m above long × 150 sea level, m wide and (2.62 the geoha),- where the Ankhor Canal was being built in the 1960s. ThanksKabanov to the work carried out to compile a comprehen- 4386573.90 m N (UTM); the geo-referencing system is sive list of archaeological sites by teams from the Insti- WGS84graphic 42N.coordinates of the site are 42N 300099.77 m E,

tute of Archaeology affiliated to the Academy of Sciences The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 135

An important contribution to the study of the an- to the left of the corner, a dark section can be seen - which shows that there is a break in the northern wall at this point. It is possible that there was once madecient cultureby the ofFrench-Uzbek Sogdiana, and expedition specifically that its began capi an entrance there, or a space in front of a gate. This archaeologicaltal, Marakanda investigations(the Greek name on the for AfrasiabAfrāsīāb), site was at gap links with the pit of the moat, however, which the end of the 1980s. At the beginning, it was con- suggests that the drawbridge of the wall had been set up at that spot. and then by F. Grenet ( 1990; 1992). Finally, there are several more details in the aeri- ductedA further by P. contributionBernard (1996) to the and study M.K. ofIsamiddinov, sites in Sa- al photograph which indicate the special features of markand-Sogdiana, andBernard in particular et al. of the Pastdar- gom district, has been made by the joint Uzbek-Italian citadel and the north-east corner. The aerial photo- graphthe site’s made layout. it possible The first to is “reconstruct” the pale line inlinking part the have been published in various papers ( lay-out of the wall, at least until the time of its sub- Expedition of 2004; UsB led by M. Tosi, the 2006; results of which sequent major destruction. A similar site designated 2003; . 2007; Rondelli/ 2002). A as No. 322 on the same aerial photograph (in the comprehensiveMantellini surveyRondelli/Tosi of these processesShirinov/ of urban- lower right-hand corner), very close to other sites Tosiisation withinTosi the et territory al of ancientTosi et Sogdiana al. has (323 and 324), is square in plan and has a citadel at been carried out by (2002). its centre. Along its western wall, there is a pale line The walls of Kojtepa have survived only in its (a wall or rampart), which could have been part of south, east and westM.K. sections, Isamiddinov the northern side hav- an irrigation system, such as a feeder canal: it then ing been destroyed. According to information pro- continues in a north-south direction, the beginning vided by local inhabitants, the destruction took place of this canal being linked to another winding irriga- in the 1980s. It is possible that the levelled areas at tion canal (known locally as an aryk or sai). earth from the destroyed wall; it is probable that the - moatthis location and the resulted destroyed from wall the were in-fill levelled of the moat by a bullwith- pa Infor the a radius topographical of 6 km, surveysabout 150 conducted sites have by beenUsB, dozer. Another cause of major damage is the trench and in the field by Simone Mantellini, around Kojte dug by a bulldozer along the eastern wall. The earth of preservation, give clear evidence of the extent to from the destroyed wall was shifted into the moat whichidentified, the areawhich, immediately apart from norththeir good of Karatyube or poor state was and used to form a barrier across the moat, serving at settled and inhabited; amongst those sites, there are the same time as a boundary marker. As we succeed- many different sized tepe.9 ed in establishing, the base of the moat is currently On the archaeological map provided by - marked out for individual plots where wheat, vines (2010), sites with a lay-out of this kind are and other crops are grown. O.N. Ine For a period, the moat was also used as a reser- layersvatkina at their base. As excavations at Kojtepa have - shown,classified the as upper “early levels medieval” of the andsite have– to judge Hellenistic from rounding the site. Silt deposits accumulated at the - basevoir intoof the which “moat”, water which flowed is now from used the for fields cultivat sur- ing crops: these are most likely to have come with Apartthe archaeological from Kojtepa, finds other – walleddate from settlements the Late locatClas- sical period, i.e. to the 3rd or early 4th century CE. thick layer of reddish-yellow sand, which can be founded in the Hellenistic period. On a 1905 map, tracedthe water from flowing outside off the the encircling surrounding walls, fields. shows Yet that the theed on sites the nearest Dargom to steppe Kojtepa are were also designatedclassified as as sites the - colour and structure of the sand from the bed of the vived to the present day, though they have suffered this silt must have been deposited by mudflows. The majorAbduvaitepa destruction. “Bugry” (or hillocks); they have sur streams coming off the mountains seems to support Archaeological excavations at the site have shown thatRiver argument. Chilburdzhsai It can into therefore which waterbe assumed flows fromthat one the that the ancient population at Kojtepa was heavily engaged in agriculture. There are many signs of agri- in antiquity was by using the water brought down cultural activity, the most numerous being different of the ways in which the moat might have been filled It can clearly be seen in aerial photographs that the settlement – two rows of defences, a moat, and allby mudflows.the walls encircling the site of Kojtepa were ankinds encircling of millstones. wall – the Despite economy the powerfulplayed an wallsimport of- built as a single unit without any gaps, apart from ant part in the life of the inhabitants. It was noted the northern wall and, in particular, its north-east above that the whole territory adjoining the site was corner; there, if one moves a short distance away, a border region between the steppes of the nomads and areas having a farming culture. The elevated of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the 1970s, it proved pos- sible to piece together a general picture of the cultural 9 Sites Pas nos. 540, 538, 530, 083 (Karaul), 082, 176 (Kara development of the region over a long period. Tepa), 177 (Azliartepa), 511, 512, 519, 514, 513. 136 Bruno Genito

Fig. 2a: Sections 1 and 2 after the excavation; on the left are the cultural layers, and on the right, the remain of different clay blocks (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo and drawing by Luciano Rendina 2009).

Fig. 2b: Sections 1 and 2, from west to east – North Face; after field activity in July 2009 (drawing by Luciano Rendina and Davide Lunelli). position of Kojtepa, and the fairly even relief of the 2004).10 The location of the area around it, lent it a major strategic importance. site made it possible to survey from a high vantage From its vantage point, not only neighbouring set- ceschini/Raimkulov tlements were clearly visible, but also distant plac- feature of Kojtepa, one can assume that settlements es to the south, settlements situated in the main on ofpoint this the kind whole could Dargom have Valley.been used Bearing as observationin mind this mountain slopes. It should be remembered that in posts from which warnings of an enemy’s approach - could be sent out, but also as a means of delimiting nistic period and located next to Sazagan, a Seleucus the settlement of Boisarytepa, founded in the Helle I tetradrachm was found during excavations by the 10 - 1982; 2004; For other important 2010. coin finds in the area, see Zejmal’/ Uzbek-Italian Expedition of UsB (Abdullaev/Fran Vafaev Abdullaev/Erkulov Abdullaev/ Berdimuradov The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 137

4 Work on the eastern part of fields for intense agricultural activity. Small towers the encircling wall (in 2008 (have also been identified 2003), evenduring though the survey, on a smalleraround and 2009) scale.the encircling wall, similar to those of Kafir Kala Rondelli et al. In sections Nos. 1 and 2 (Fig. 2) were found walls of notable thickness, in bricks and blocks, that had 3 Archaeological work in 2008, probably belonged either to the original system of 2009, and 2011–2015 the wall compound or to the re-utilisation of a later period. On the western side of section No. 1, the re- All these activities have provided the basis for a bet- covery of a notable quantity of ceramics, fragments ter understanding of the site and its related histori- of millstones, and the remains in situ of a large con- cal and archaeological problems. The archaeological tainer for commodities (widest diameter in excess of large bricks placed stratigraphic sequence, and then to collect as much of cut. has allowed us to hypothesise that this area datingapproach material taken wasculture to first as possible single out in aorder preliminary to pro- beyond30 cm) verythe limits close ofto the sectionssouth of was also settled. pose a typological and chronological span time in The opening of trenches, starting in the area bet- different parts of the site: alongside the encircling ween the tepe and the encircling wall, has shown a wall of the tepe (to the east): on sections 1 and 2 (in complex stratigraphic situation, the effect of a reuse 2008) in its eastern (Trenches 1–4) (in 2009) and of the area which, partially having lost its original - function, came to have rooms or spaces meant for 11 different activities. 2011–2012);southern areas on (Trench 6,the top of andthe thetepe related exten In the central part of the excavated section, traces 2011,sions), 2012, Trench 8 2013), (inTrenches 2011–2012), 11–24) Trench 10(2013–2015); (in of walls are clearly visible, made of raw bricks held tepe and the: eastern Trench 5 wall: (in by clay blocks. On the inner side, toward the tepe, 12 and the area between the main the presence of an almost complete jar embedded in tepein the flat area between the a clay bench allows us to hypothesise that structures differentTrench 7 successive(in 2011) extensions) (in 2011–2015).13 were built close to the wall. and the north-eastern corner, Trench 9, with The four trenches opened in 2009 to the north 11 of sections 1 and 2 – Nos. 1–4 – are progressively order to see if other parts of the area, possibly within narrower according to the orientation of the line of theThis encircling Trench was earthen opened wall, ca. were 12 m still west standing of Trench 6 or were in the soil already present in those sections, and were aimed at regularising them. The excavation has al- re-settled later. The Trench was 63 m long (north to lowed us to identify 33 different stratigraphic layers depth,south) × 2 m wall SU38 wide was (east found. to west). The first cut removed in order to link the materials collected and to read 12 SUS (Stratigraphic Unit Surface) and SU1. At 15 cm in- and interpret the different alignments of the archi- tween the central tepe and its eastern wall, was opened tectural remains and walls. In those levels, different inTrench 7, order to 3 m gain wide × 4 m a better understand long, located of theon thearchaeological surface be consistence of this part of the site. There was no trace of any man-made phenomenon. In order to reach the basal holeskinds forof finds,domestic and activities,in particularly were twofound. rooms, I and soil of the area between the central tepe and the encir- II, with clear, soft and clean floors with different

the northern wall, which was named Sector A. The north- erncling side wall, of anSector area A of is 50 cm made upwide of fourwas excavatedlayers, their close depth to 5 Work on the southern part - ed texture in which grit is well-distributed, close to the of the encircling wall (in westernas follows: side, surface the SU0,thickness 6–12 cm; of the SU1 eastern a stony, half compact being 2011, 2012, and 2013)

over the southern en- (virgin)18–23 cm; revealed SU2, 14–39 cm; a soft soil basal with sandywell-distributed clay (virgin), grit. dark At yellow with a fine and pure texture. The excavation of SU circling earthen wall yielded a large number of pot- depth. It was decided to enlarge sector A, whose width sherds,Trench 6 stones, (4 m long × 4 m bones, ceramic wide) waste, and millstones. the end of the excavation, Sector A was 104–114 cm in The surprising character of this discovery is related layers already existing, SU (virgin) was divided approx- imatelywas increased into two from parts, 50 to because 70 cm. Onof the the disappearancebasis of the three of 2016. For the production of ceramics, see - 2011; depth reached in 2009 at a point between section No. 1 on the excavation was published in 2014:Genito/Raia andfragments. section SectorNo. 2 was A is QP now 692,15 118–123 cm and the basal in depth. clay Thesoil no Raiano 2014. 2012; For 2013;the most 2014. important A first monography Italian re- Abdullaev/ 13 For the Kojtepa reports, see 2010– Genito (ed.) 2011;here in 2011; Trench 7 2012; is QT 691.54. 2014; 2009; cent MA and PhD 2007; dissertations written 2009; on the Sogdiana 2010;Abdullaev/ Dženito 2015; archaeology2011; from 2011; Bologna 2014. and Naples candidates, see Genito Genito/Gricina Franceschini Mantellini Di Martino Genito/Gricina et al. Genito/Pardaev Raiano 138 Bruno Genito

Fig. 3: Trench 6 2011: jar in situ SU74 (Object inv. no. 0020) (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito).

Fig. 4: Trench 6, EH, the enlargement to remove the jar Pythos SU84 in SU85 (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2012). to the nature and historical development of the encir- terracotta, small bricks and a simple terracotta frag- cling earthen wall. It is evident, in fact, that the pres- 14 ence of such large amounts of pottery typologically I the area full of sand (SU52) in its northern part, and technologically similar to that found alongside mented figurine also came to light. sections 1 and 2 would mean that the area of the wall from the southern side of the trench, small objects here, and there as well, was occupied by other later madeabout 140 cmof mud awayclay, including from the westernloom weights, side and a sketchy135 cm structural elements (pits, working activities areas, Fig. 3). etc.). On the northern side, a large amount of clay plas- madefigurine, of aand pure a largeyellow/brownish inverted jar soil.were found ( VeryAt rare the materials same time, were founda new on area the floor, was which opened, was continuously been collected; in the southern part, by contrast,ter, over-fired there was concretions, a high concentration and ceramic of wastepotsherds has - widespread within a dark and greyish, softer soil: Trench 6 Extension South, at the south of the fragments of gypsum plaster, goblets, a terracotta fe- trench (6.13 m long × 2 m wide), whose south ernmost14 points were located ca. 96 m from the- the other folded. Two fragments of framed sculpted Stylistically, 2014: the item 359–382, recalls for the a long so-called chronological Venus/Ana and male figurine with one arm longitudinal to the body, typologicalhita type. For discussion. this item Forand the the general following issue figurines, of the tersee- Abdullaev 1965; 1977; 1998; 2002; 2013. racotta figurine production, see Meškeris Abdullaev/Badanova Abdullaev The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 139

Fig. 5: Trench 10, inner contents of the large fragmented jar found along the southern border, SU164 (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito).

Station 1, the basic topographic point on the top tion of this sandy floor was reached and revealed of the tepe the square cut made for the removal of jar SU74. from the northern side of the trench, large frag- Reaching the floor is still an operation intended to ments of the. On upper the north-western parts of two jarsside in at situca. 70 cm came clear the excavated area. To the south and north, - there are three small holes, in one of which (No. diameter.to light: the In first,the western to the west, jar SU47, was 70 cma small in piece diame of fragmented (two parts) mud-clay projectile. Oth- bronzeter, the (asecond, rattle with10 cm two to hole)the south-west, was found. 45 cm in 1), the smallest (10 cm wide), is an ellipsoidal and

- iser SU81,holes, more located or lessto the very north close of to SU81, the border are 15 cm left sionAnother North. small Just trench,below, 2 mthe longsoil (east-west) × 13 mappears hard and un-excavated,and 20 cm in size. and The more eastern westward. limit of Floor this activity SU73, wide (north-south), was opened, Trench 6 Exten- which is being continuously uncovered to the west, looks very sandy. overcompact the wholeand of area. a light greyish colour. It is definite In the meantime, three other small holes ap- ly identified with the earthen encircling wall SU38 An interesting fragment of a black-painted and en- The eastern half of Trench 6 was also excavated. likepeared, the No.ones 4 (13 cmwhich havewide), already No. 5 (15 cmappeared, wide), are and lo- was collected. The soil in the southern side is grey- catedNo. 6 in(8 cm this wide),very thin very layer close of clay,to No. which 1; these covers holes, the ish,graved with rim gypsum of a jar, remains possible inside under and Kušan around influence, the jar. same layer of sandy pebbles. To the north, a base of an inverted, middle-sized jar was discovered, and, immediately to the east, the edge of a new jar (SU84). It is clear that it is an un-necked terrain;Trench 10 to the (4 × 4 m) north it was is harder. opened To in 2013the west, not veryand pythos which goes very deep; basically, the broken deeper,far from there Trench 6. is a burnt To the reddish south there area isapproximately a mostly soft rim extends far beyond the eastern border of the - trench, and to the west (SU85; Fig. 4). Inside SU86, tery fragments and grey-brownish terrain; no align- there was a large amount of material, including the ment20–30 cm and nowide. other In thestructural middle, elements there were are large visible pot at stem of a goblet, a wall, the base of a vessel and some the moment. In the same level, SU120, the head of a terracotta loom weights. Two matching fragments of - blackish-painted pottery, considered possibly 4th- or nistic style, have appeared. 2nd-century Hellenistic, came from SU85 and SU86. figurineOn the and southern a terracotta border, tile the with fragments a figurine of inthe Helle low- In order to clarify a possible relationship be- er part of a large jar were found, the rest of which is tween the bottom of jar SU74 and jar SU79, found still in the soil. The vessel is designated SU134, the internal part SU164 (Fig. 5). Around the vessel, a reach the floor of SU73 in the western half. A sec- area is almost recognisable, SU165, where pottery in the eastern half of Trench 6, we again tried to flat 140 Bruno Genito

Fig. 6: Trench 11, SU101, 95 (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2014). fragments are located in situ. The area is clear and earliest periods in the most elevated archaeolog- the distribution of the pottery fragments is more or less regular, even if at different heights. In the north- site. - differentical deposit in chronology, (ca. 9 m higher SU35, than running the plain) north-east of the dicate a level (the bottom of SU120). The plane is to south-west,In Trench 5, and the perpendicular alignment to of possibly walls probably another SU167.ern section, All the the pottery reddish fragments, line identified stones, seems and tosome in animal bones are grouped into 24 numbered items. Venus pudicawall, SU41,) was have found been ( identified. To2014 the: south,359–364, a female 377, terracotta figurine (in the style of the so-called trenchA further was opened enlargement in order 3 mto understand long (south-north) the align- to the west of the twoAbdullaev walls and between them to mentsand 1.38 m of mud wide blocks along oriented the eastern north-east border to south- of the theFig. 1). north. Different mud remains and floors appeared west, which from one side could be interpreted as Continuing the excavation, a row of two large belonging to the encircling wall of the tepe, from the mud bricks was located on a fragment of the original other side as a small wall built in connection with corner of a wall, which probably goes in the direc- the location of the vessel indicated as SU134. One tion of wall SU35. The eastern and northern faces of goes down for more centimetres and most proba- wall SU58 have been uncovered. Along the eastern bly the line of wall SU170 seems to go down as well, border, SU115 is constituted on the top by two big- even a little bit at the north-eastern corner, where mud blocks delimitating a kind of structure. the line seems to disappear. A small rectangular area Whilst excavating SU116 and removing part of SU106, we discovered pottery fragments that be- border of the trench in front of vessel SU134 in or- long to the same handled vessels still in situ, par- der60 × 35 cm to remove was its extended fragments on completely. the external southern tially decorated by incised wavy lines and partially The outline of an oval pit (SU172) appeared painted with parallel narrow red lines; these frag- and was excavated, to the detriment of the scarce ments can be pieced together. In the north-east amount of material, and the bottom was reached quadrant, SU106 is being cleaned and recorded. - However, lumps of mud clay and sporadic pottery - fragments aligned vertically have been found. The at 35/40 cm from the top. The border and the bot sections in the north-west quadrant clearly identi- tom are difficult to clearly identify. Another exten fy SU63, SU113, SU41, and SU118. A single pottery sion was made to the west, 50 cm wide (west to fragment (the painted disc-shaped base of a goblet) east) × 5 m long (north to south). 15 has been found in situ on the 6 Work on top of the tepe in (Tall-i Barzu type) 2011, 2012, 2013 top of the floor. 15 This base type has been considered, and is still, a fossil On the top of the central tepe, several trenches have guide for the chronology of the pottery production in been opened in order to investigate possibly the Sogdiana, see 1940; 1946.

Grigor’ev The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 141

Fig. 7: Head of a terracotta figurine, gender unclear (Inv_Ob- Fig. 8: Trench 11, SU119, post-holes (MAI, IMG_5306) (Mis- ject no 61, Trench 11, SU95 (after Abdullaev/Genito (ed.) sione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli 2014; photo by Kazom Abdullaev). “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2014).

The thin layer of clay in the northern part of SU110 and SU156 in the north present the same StructuralIn 2013, remainsTrench 11 running(5 m north north-south to south, all5 m along east mixed terrain, brownish, quite soft, grey, and harder, theto west) trench was in openedits mid-eastern just to the sector east were of Trench 5. desig- more compact. nated SU94; they occupy all the western half of with large, medium and small irregular mud blocks to the eastern limit of the trench; it should be an whichThere seem is ato continuation be located ofover SU106 a plane. in Trench 5,The big emptyTrench SU93 area (Fig. 6 and run). from the eastern limit of SU94 stone, surrounded by potsherds, in the north-west- ern corner of former SU168 is still embedded in the discovered (Fig. 7).16 In the process, SU104 was cleanedIn SU95, again, the with head some of asofter terracotta terrain figurine still present was between the clay agglomerates. We continue to re- thatground. was Thereached final in operation the southern is to area remove of SU SU162 is possi in- blythe the south-west extension corner towards of the Trench 11. west of SU111; The bottom in the pot fragments, on the same SU112, fragments of northern area, the reddish terrain remains. Anyway, horsemove SU102teeth and and painted finally reached pottery SU104.were found Under togeth three- the nature of this particular SU and its relations with er; in the same context, there was also a biconical requiring further examinations and the complete squared pottery piece with a hole in the middle and removalthe surrounding of SU. area are still difficult to interpret, possiblyspindle-whorl incised in marks black onpottery. one face Another (seal). find17 was a in 2014 to remove SU106, located on the north-western side of the 16 Work continued in Trench 11 Hellenistic features (mainly the mouth and vicinity to the At a first glance, it seems quite peculiar: it displays both nose) and Central Asian ones (such as the elongated eyes trench. This SU was first recognised in Trench 5 and the strange hat, which looks like both the “Scythian cultural level composed of irregular mud elements when Trench 11 was not yet opened. This SU is a beret” as seen in the Achaemenid representation, and a helmet. lematic due to the square shape (most probably used as 17 - amulet).

It could be a spindle-whorl, but the identification is prob 142 Bruno Genito

Fig. 9: Trench 13, SU176: mud blocks of a greyish clay (MAI, IMG_6314) (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2014). of dimensions ranging from small to quite a few - centimetres, located on the north-eastern side of tral part of SU119. ca. 5 to 1 cm in diameter; they appeared in the cen mud “blocks”; within them, there is a softer, dark, - grey-brownishTrench 5. It is also soil. characterised by a series of hard One hole is in the corner between Trench 11 and “post-holes”,Trench 5. There and areSU119 two is more cut by holes all onthe theSU southrepre- pottery disc, one small stone, and one mud-clay sentedern side by of the Trench 5. holes. All All these of them holes are are interpreted circular and as Removing SU178 (filling SU177), we found one have different dimensions (Fig. 8). thelump. three SU178 corners, had anthere irregular were different shape, 55 × 17 cm elements the top of the tepe to gain a better understanding of maximum dimensions, 21 × 7 cm minimum. In a possiblyA new area,massive Trench 12, piece of wasarchitecture opened inon 2014 the ele on- the cleaning operation, this particular soil contin- vated part of the site, following the jump of altitude. uedthat below came SU119; from the the excavation layer is designated of SU177. SU184. During18 SU119 is not completely removed because, after a deep cleaning operation, some small holes were CloseThis trench to the extendswestern for side 5 m of north the trench, to south, adjacent and 3 m to found, widespread over the plain and ranging from SU94,east to big west, fragments starting fromof large the jarsmiddle and of some Trench 11. lime-

discovered. 18 - stoneThere in mediumare some dimensions fragments (aboutof ceramics 20 cm) located were pret has been found: it is made by terracotta, prismatic in shapeIn the withsouth-eastern a narrower border, top, and an itsobject dimensions difficult are:to inter max. vertically, a pottery disc, and, possibly in connection with it, a very large granite millstone and a small grinding-stone. objectlength has25 cm, a fracture height line7 cm, in max.the middle. width 14 cm, minimum 7 cm. In the top there is a small concave depression. The The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 143

In SU176 during the cutting of a layer in the southern half, near to the eastern wall of SU94, one incised signs, have been found. terracotta tile with the representation in relief of a Tall-i Barzu type), and one stone spindle whorl with to the south, a very large number of pottery frag- both hands a probable musical instrument was mentsIn Trench 17, were discovered, which is contiguous including withpottery Trench 16 discs. found.fragmented figure (male or woman) touching with On the northern border, denominated SU307, one On the north-western side of SU270, one stem pottery disc was found, the southernmost SU315. fragments, and a few animal bones have been found. the trench, a new layer, denominated SU325, came on a flat base (goblet), one pottery disc, charcoal toDuring light. the removal of SU290 in the eastern part of In the area common to the three former trench- ofTrench 12 pottery wasslag, extendedand some forpottery another fragments 2.5 m to were the es (14, 15, 16 to the south), on a sloping edge, the collected.south (Trench 12.1). In SU181, some One spindle-whorl,mud blocks, one one aligned piece soil is very hard and compact, suggesting it may on an east-west orientation, were found. be the dissolution of structural remains. Along the - eastern border, there is subsidence just where there is a change of altitude. All the area around SU265 Trench 13 was opened in 2014 along the east (furnace/kiln?) is very hard and compact along the theern westernside of Trench 12; wall, mud itblocks is 5 m of long greyish and 2 mclay wide.were found,During constitutingthis excavation, a new on layer the northern (SU317), sideseparated along and 16, there is no evidence of the continuation of by six channels (north-south: SU318–323) (Fig. 9). SU94;western the border. soil is Betweenwhitish; south the former of SU265, Trenches it is still 14 reddish. of the tepe, and continuing to the southern side of When the soil was being removed, three main Trench 14, located on the south-eastern side areas were found: SU94 (old), SU291, and SU265. east to west. A large number of potsherds, three pot- SU94 was localised clearly in the north and east; it Trench 11, is 5 m long north to south, and 3 m wide presents mud-clay blocks. In the northern section, the southern section, a large area reddish in colour these blocks are rather regular, but to the south –tery SU265, discs, a andkiln a– hasceramic been filter found, were with discovered. two or three In the situation is quite different because the blocks compacted bricks. SU265 (from north to south: are mostly eroded. There are burnt clay elements (bricks, potsherds) and pottery still in situ, all close SU342, located in the north-western corner of the to SU265, in the centre of the trench. It is a very structure,1.28 m north are being to south, revealed. 0.75 m east to west) and compact and well-burnt area, with some mud bricks with a reddish colour. The situation is similar in the western section of the trench. northTrench 15, to south. whichAt this point, is located the excavation to the southof SU268 of The excavation of trench 15/17 on SU290 re- Trench 14, is 3 m wide east to west and 5 m long- vealed the hardness and consistency of the soil, even dish colour appears in particular at the southern limitshas suggested of SU290. that On thisthe north-westernis a fireplace/kiln. side, The there red is some areas of a different, reddish and grey colour, some baked clay, arranged in a linear fashion, while haveif some been areas found. are soft. During the removal of SU290, on the western side there is another clay block, grey- ish coloured, that is on an upper level with respect to the southern limit. Maybe this area was original- Trench 18 is located to the south of Trench 13 ly bigger than now and the southern limit was lost potsherdsand measures were 5 × 3 m. found. The Work soil continuesis brownish on in SU317,colour, during the former excavation. Clay elements locat- darker, and has roots. During the excavation, a few ed in SU330 and SU268 are of different sizes and the end section of the trench are badly preserved. shapes, but two of them, in the lower face, are wavy. whichWe extendsstarted withto the the southern general end cleaning of Trench 18, of the twoand sectors 13 and 18. The SU which connects to the east such as bones or charcoal, were discovered. On the has been denominated SU288, a sort of washout lay- south-easternThe larger is around border 16 × 23 × 13 cm. between SU326 No and other SU268, finds, er, covered by SU156 and connected to SU317. It is one piece of clay slag was found. a not very compact yellowish-brown coloured clay matrix. On the inner side, there are no inclusions, SU306. Oriented west-east are a series of alignments but sporadic pottery fragments and some uniform whichFrom probably Trench 16, constitute one pottery SU314, disc under came which up in mud-block clay. there seems to be compact clay soil of a greenish On the top of the tepe, a new area of excavation, colour. A few baked clay, and very few pottery, fragments came out; one animal bone and one pottery disc Trench 19,SU400 was was removed, opened in where 2015, we east discovered of Trench 12; Tall-i it with a hole were found in SU332. The outline of wall measures 7 × 3 m. SU314 is becoming clearer. A third cut was made in sort of decoration with grooves (Inv. Object 0250). the same SU329 and two pottery bases (one of the SU402Barzu type is the bases, continuous and another section probable of SU317, rim and with con an- 144 Bruno Genito

Fig. 10: Trench 24 SU452, Dep. Neg. IMG_3920 (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Univer- sità di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2015).

- ing of potsherds was designated SU417. It should ofsist baked of mud soil. bricks Situated measuring on the 40 × 30 cm. western side Its ofentire the In the southern part of Trench 19, a layer consist trench,width isand 1.2 m consisting and on of thegrey western mud bricks, side SU403 consists is SU402 and 409, there is a pit, SU428–429 (cut and possibly a wall. be noted that on the eastern side of Trench 19, near- Jar fragments were also removed. In order to remove the pottery fragments, it was decided to filling). The latter, SU429, consists of a loose clay ma trix soil of greyish colour and is 20 cm in diameter. are a small bronze pin (Inv. Object 0245), two Tall-i A small pottery disc was found there. Trench 21 was- go down 20 cm. Of note among the finds in SU401 opened near the north-western side of Trench 20, (Inv. Object 0233, 0234), and one pottery disc. southernon the eastern section side of ofSU436, Trench 20, a painted and neckon the of northa ves- Barzu-typeThe western bases side of vessel, of structure of which SU402 one isconsists complete of selern was side found. of Trench 13, measuring 5 × 2 m. In the baked plaster – in a poor state of preservation – and At the western limit, a small hole was found large pottery fragments set in the northern side of - SU401. In the middle section of SU402, an elongated ing, a new layer was discovered, SU436. Inside, stone, as well as four other stones, are arranged in some(SU431), pottery with fragmentsa diameter and of ca.one 10 cm. white After stone clean pen- a horizontal line, probably inserted beneath SU401 pottery fragments placed vertically. Moreover, its some fragments of a big dolium (SU438) were - discovered,dant were found. as well In theas easterna pottery section disc inof Trench 21,SU438. As moved to reveal only the lower part of the wall. In SU436 was removed, a small oval-shaped stone with theeastern north-eastern side (Trenches 13–18, corner of SU451, SU308–317) there is was a hole re a hole in its middle (Inv. Object 0247) was discov- in the wall, probably a drainage pipe that passes ered. In the south-east section of SU450, there was through the wall in order to reach the outside. The a black stone object on which different sized circles were incised.19 mud bricks in SU445. potsherds (two possible covers) and another pot- mud bricks measure 38 × 38 × 12 cm, just like the tery disc came toDuring the light the incleaning north-east operation, side of twothe trench. Trench 20, which is open on the northern side of- ingTrench 19, part seems measures to be SU401. 3 × 3 m. We SU402 started seems to remove to end to west), strongly sloping to the west and contigu- itabout so as 1 m to reachfrom thethe southernpottery fragments side, and inthe SU401 remain of New Trench 22, 5 m (north to south) × 2 m (east

19ous toIn oneTrench 19/20, of the tombs at was Filippovka open (Orenburgon the eastern district, side. Rus- a complete set of implements for Trench 19. pottery fragments, including another Tall-i tattooing was found, and among the objects there was During the excavation of Trench 19/20, SU401 alsosia), afor stone the firstpalette time to mix colours, very similar to the discovered. object discovered here. Barzu-type or pottery disc (Inv. Object 0235), were The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 145

Fig. 11: The area of Trench 9 before the excavation, the gentle slopes to north and south, with an almost circular perimeter (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2015).

The space between SU419 (wall) and wall SU402 - was excavated. These fragments of soil, the results der to reveal more of the continuous section of the of a few cuts, do not have any real consistency. Trench 24 was opened near Trench 23 in or - In this layer, the fragments of the base of a vessel low the external area of wall SU402, which in its werestructure found, found as well in as Trench 23 two stone and objects. named Along SU452. the limitsThe and sloping faces edge is not of veryTrench 22 clear, allowseven if oneit is to more fol eastern and the southern sections, a group of small - of compact hard clay and not from brick and/or pa- face of the layer belonging to a previous structure thankhsa. 1 m Along wide. SU402, The northernit becomes face a ofhard the and wall compact is made differentmud bricks from was SU452. located As ca. SU494 20–30 cm was excavated, from the surand grey around SU455, and this probably contributes after a detailed cleaning with trowels, 15 new mud to our understanding of the wall (one polisher and Fig. 10). was cleaned, starting along wall SU402. A new lay- bricks oriented south-west to north-east and 38 cm erone along pottery the disceastern were side found). of SU402, In Trench 22, named SU455,SU443 wide × 38 cm long were found ( was noted. It consists of a compact clay matrix soil 7 Trench 9 as SU463, in the space between SU419 and SU402. Whenwith some starting light-grey to remove potsherds. SU463, It hastwo been stones, defined two opened in 2011 in the inner space between the wall pottery fragments, and two pottery discs were andTrench 9 the central close tepe to thetowards encircling the north-east wall was corner first found. of the site. This area provided evidence of the only slightly elevated mound (Fig. 11). It could be in- terpreted either as a structure, a late deposit of the identifyTrench 23 a deposit was because set up ca. some 20 m ruined to the structures west of wall’s collapse, or as a barrier (made by the collapse onTrench 21. the tepe Inwere terms discovered. of stratigraphy, In fact, it one is possible can notice to of the encircling wall) against the moat. The hillock some brownish mud bricks. SU444 was excavated slopes gently to the north and south and has an al- north-west corner, a turtle’s shell of medium size excavation, fragments of mud brick have been found, wasdown found, for about while 20 cm in the along south-east the whole corner, trench. part In of the a meetingmost circular at right perimeter angles, oneof ca. oriented 20 m. After north-west a careful to circular pseudo-structure constituted by grey mud consists of a compact clay matrix soil with remains south-east and 70 cm wide, the other oriented west-- ofbricks mud was bricks. identified SU454 (SU452).is covered A by new SU444 layer, and SU454, cov- ferenteast and alignments ca. about of90 cm mud wide bricks (bricks: have been40 × 40 cm, found, ers SU452. whichand 20 × 20 cm). have given Inevidence the extensions of complex of Trench 9,structural dif re- 146 Bruno Genito

Fig. 12: Trench 9, new alignments in the new trench as seen from the north-west (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); photo by Bruno Genito 2011). mains (SU75):20 south to west extension (in 2012), slope; they have more or less the same orientation west extensions 2 and 3 (in 2012), west extension as the ones on the top. To establish the bricks’ layout 4 and 5 (in 2013), extension 6 (in 2014), and east in the eastern part, several cuts were made. extension The work focuses on distinguishing mud bricks completely analyse and interpret.21 (in 2015). These finds are still difficult to result, about six lines of bricks were recognised. Althoughfrom the otherthere is part still in a Trench 9gap between Extension bricks 5;on asthe a After many attempts, it was finally possible to top and the later ones, their orientation could have found,confirm especially that the mud-brickin the eastern platform part. SU75The southern extends been the same. Like those on the top, bricks along borderto Trench 9 was (east-west),full of collapsed while mudonly abricks few tracks of broken were the slope also have different sizes, and can basical- irregular shape and order. ly be divided into two kinds: most are more or less Mud bricks arranged vertically have been iden- square, while there are others are rectangular, both - ture, there are also two types: one is off-white, com- same:tified, theirapproximately width 8–13 cm, 20 mud the bricks gap between in a vertical them pactof them and approximately sandy, and the 40 cm other wide.is greenish In terms and of more tex arrangement,ca. 2–5 cm. To theirthe north, length the a situationlittle shorter. is much Along the fragile. More details, such as their distribution up the line of the vertical bricks, two new bricks were and down the slope, should be noted, also their join-

The decision to excavate SU75 was based on the hard block to the east of the vertical bricks already found, their width ca. 23–25 cm. - recognised,ing the bricks and in some Trench 9 collapsed Extension bricks 3–4. with There compact is a ern and northern sections; and to follow its spread texture distributed between the two areas of verti- alongfollowing the slopeaims: into thefind western the edge section, in both the the position south on the slope already noted, eight mud bricks were - found,cal bricks. six ofIn them Trench 9 forming Extension the same 5, along horizontal the bricks line. tenceof which of vertical is Trench 9 bricks Extension showed some 5, and analogies to the with east Not all of the bricks have the same size; the biggest, theTrench 9 southern Extension part, the6. To border the north, is still though unclear. the exisTwo Fig. 12). mud bricks were recognised distributed along the According to the distribution of newly found ones, it islocated quite clearat a lower that there level, are is ca.also 47 × 39 cm bricks in the ( south- 20 SU75: a hard and compact platform made of mud bricks and its following extensions. Several cuts have been made in an attempt to 21 The structure found consists of square mud bricks most- ern part of Trench 9 Extension 5.

find new bricks at the end of the slope, in the area ly measuring 37 × 35–37 cm and 40 × 40 cm. It should be- a result, the situation of this area could probably be ticularnoted thatcase, the they bricks could measuring have come 40 × 40 cmfrom earlier are levels typical and dividedclose to intothe flattwo ground, parts. In in the Trench 9 southern Extension area, the 5. tex As- havefor the been Early reused. Hellenistic period and possibly, in this par ture has always been very hard and compact since The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 147 the beginning of the excavation; the colour is off- loose texture, excavation in this area should be con- white, and there are fewer insect holes in it. In the tinued in the future. northern part, which is of a brownish colour, the tex- ture is less compact and there are more insect holes; - most of the potsherds were found in this area. In the sion,In which the meantime, was opened a newalong cut, the namedsouthern Trench 9 side of upper part along the slope, two cuts were made in Extension 6, was begun. The size of the new exten formed a more or less rectangular shape, were dis- Extension 5, is about 2 × 5 m, and 1.5 m away from order to find more bricks, but only two lines, which athe result, western approximately line of Extension eight rows 5. The of bricks same workwere - was continued in 2014 in Trench 9 Extension 6. As sioncovered. 5 still Its needs relationship careful consideration. with the area of Trench 9 the slope; only the area on three sides (west, east, Extension 1–2 and the newly found bricks of Exten south)found, spreadwas not over cleared. almost Considering all of Extension the situation 6 along in orientation and size from the ones located to the north,Several which bricks were were formed identified, in lines. quite Although different de in- collapsed bricks, the area around the east and west Extension 5, which has proved to be full of irregular- arrangement could not be explained as a common tension 6. Close to the west side, the same kind of accumulationtails of the bricks of collapsed still need bricks,to be confirmed,especially theircon- texture,sides especially which is may soft, be brownish, in the same full condition of insect asholes, Ex sidering the position of this area, between the two areas where bricks have been found. The different white texture. In terms of size, there seems to be a size and orientation may indicate some reuse during specialwas extended, kind of butbrick, finally the big stopped rectangular by a hard, one, off-not the later period, and the breaks between different bricks also support this. Work still focuses on the A very thin cut was made close to the eastern and only in Extension 6, but also in Extension 5. especially the area close to bricks put in order. After see if there are any bricks. As a result, about three twodetails cuts, of thetwo area more not bricks clear inwere Trench 9 recognised; Extension 5, their alignmentssouthern sides of bricks, of Trench 9 arranged Extension in eight 6 rows,in order were to size too is different from that of the regular ones. In found. Four of the rows have an orientation that other parts along the regular line, no obvious traces - of bricks were found, while in the upper part along cause of this the southern line of bricks partly dis- the slope, several bricks different in size and orien- matched that of the rows in Extension 5, though be - which means the bricks extend to the south along theappeared slope. inIn theterms southern of size, side one of is the most Extension 6, irregular, amongtation were the irregularfound, some bricks of themis brownish difficult andto recog very soft,nise, and with it onlywas here one that side most being of confirmed. the potsherds The were soil another kind, which has already been mentioned, found. Some of the bricks in the southern part were namelyanother threeone ca. large 41–44 cm rectangular square. ones. But After there several is still covered in a thin, very hard and off-white layer full of compact sand. of them inside. On the lower part of the slope, af- - terattempts, the off-white, it was stillcompact hard tosoil find was if removed, there is a trac line- sion 3–4, which was full of irregular bricks, even in The situation is also not clear in Trench 9 Exten second layer of bricks under the surface one. On from the top to the bottom. es of bricks were identified, trench which was should opened be theon the lower part. There are at least five layers of bricks the top part in order to clarify the extension and are still fragments of bricks in this area. As men- the vertical eastern structural side a 6 × 5 m continuity of wall/platform Close to the flat inside surface of Kojtepa, there- SU75.22

Oftioned, all theat least objects five layers(potsherds, of bricks stones, can now sinter) be iden un- and also Excavation some smaller confirmed and rectangular the presence mud of bricks lines earthedtified, and in thethis surface area, a of fragment the bottom of pottery layer was is particfound.- of 40 × 40 cm mud bricks north and south of this cut, ularly important. In the meantime, another new cut To the north, a new unit, SU407, was found in 2015;(10 × 50 × 50 cm). looking like a small pit, it contained some burnt potsherds, including a fragmented painted was also carried out in the lower part of Trench 9 high-necked jar (Inv. Object 0248, no. 2), and two Extension 5. The thickness of the five layers of bricks other fragmentary vessels one above the other. The is about 48 cm; the deepest part of Trench 9 is along- reason for such a concentration of pottery fragments the northern side of Extension 3–4, ca. 50 cm, while is still not clear, a situation unique in the whole of theIn shallowest order to understand part is along the the distribution western side of bricksof Ex alongtension the 3–5, slope, ca. 10 cm.another excavation was carried out - wasTrench 9 found and in allthe its east, extensions. not far from the segmented ments of a big jar and bricks, as well as pieces of After SU406 was cleaned, a terracotta figurine plaster,in the lower were partfound. of Trench 9Considering Extension the slope 4–5. and Frag its 22 SU75: hard and compact wall or platform made of mud

bricks in Trench 9 and its following extensions. 148 Bruno Genito

- 8 Trench 9.6 tion of a Venus pudica (Inv. Object 0236). In SU420, aprofile pottery of disc the was mud-brick found (Inv. structure, Object a0243), representa and it The concentration of very hard and compact soil re- could easily be related to a kiln that it will be inter- gularly cut as bricks constitutes SU75, while SU8 re- esting to relate to SU75. This “kiln” has been exca- presents the collapse and erosion of those structural vated. On the inner side of SU426 is a quadrangular This part of SU75, previously covered by SU8, reddish due to the thermic alteration. When SU427 remains. The depth of SU8 varies from 3 and 6 cm. wasstructure removed, measuring a structural ca. 80 × 70 cm. element with Its wallsa diame are- measures ca. 2.50 × 1.50 m, with bricks of different and named SU433. At the base of SU433, a cooking size ranging from 60 × 40 cm, and from 15 × 30 cm. ter of 13 cm was discovered, interpreted as a pillar In Trench 9.6, cuts were extended in two different- found. The central part of the trench has been con- izontallydirection. from The northfirst was to south;to the thesouth soil and is of measured a brown surface formed by terracotta ca. 2 cm thick was also colour,1.50 × 3.60 m. friable, Thisand withcut, SU0, some removed roots and ca. potsherds. 5 cm hor - The situation of mud bricks in this area is not yet logicalfirmed tospace be a( sorthram of and/or platform dakhma or the), remains a tomb, of or a clear because there has probably been some partial largeeven a structure, functional possibly space, identifiableintended to withreinforce an ideo the erosion. A second cut was opened in the eastern encircling wall of the tepe to the east.23

23 - openedarea of the to trench,the east, measuring focusing 3.90 × 1.50 m.on digging SU411, to In 2015 a new extension in Trench 9, 1 × 5 m, was thirdThe first possibility two hypotheses is concerned, at the it ispresent important state to of point excava out - sometion are of thenot following based on points sufficient related evidence. to that particularAs far as therit- ual installations. A dakhma is generally a circular, raised south of which SU412 was identifiedThe and east-west excavat structure used by Zoroastrians for the exposure of the lineed; wallsof mud 441 brick and (continuing442 were identified. the lines ofSU412 SU75) was is dead, particularly to scavenging birds, for the purposes continuouslyextended a little evidenced (50 cm) andto the the west. line facing south of excarnation. The common dakhma or dokhma (from - Middle Persian dakhmag) originally denoted any place for the dead. Zoroastrian tradition considers a dead body keeps on going deeper (10 cm); digging SU423, an – in addition to cut hair and nail parings – to be nasu, to assimilate Iranian gods with their Hindu counterparts.

demon was believed to rush into the body and conta- lived in trading colonies or urban centres along the Silk minateunclean, everything i.e. potential it camepollutants. into contact Specifically, with, thehence corpse the Roads.During theirSogdian heyday, immigrants many Sogdians brought moved Zoroastrianism to China and to China. Principal cities, such as Chang’an (today’s Xian), as possible. Scholars generally accept that prior to using religiousVendidad buildings, has rules Zoroastriansfor disposing usually of the deadperformed as “safely” ritu- als on open-air platforms, which are usually located on usuallythe Tang in Empire’s or around capital, markets. and In Luoyang Central had Asia, Zoroastrian the funer- high places ( 1992). Such platforms, made of mud altemples: practice at was least to five expose in Chang’an the dead and to vultures four in Luoyang,or dogs. bricks, have recently been discovered by an Uzbek-French - team at Koktepe,Boyce near to and north of Samarkand, and at ticulated bones were collected and stored in a special - ceramicAfter the ossuary. flesh of Many the corpsesof these was ossuaries removed, are decorated the disar ley. The recent Uzbek-German mission at Kindyk-tepe, in with stamped images of Zoroastrian iconographies, such Sangirtepe near Shahr-i Sabz in the Surkhan Darya Val- - ed a religious structure, so far the earliest and best can- er scenes. An ossuary from Shahr-i Sabz, for example, the Bandikhan region of the Surkhan Darya Valley, yield showsas temple, the scene fire altar, of the deities, soul’s priests, judgment funerary at the and Chinvat oth

Afghanistandidate for a Zoroastrian fire temple in Central, Asia. The dakhma were used by Zoroastrian communities in Iran excavation of the Délégation Archéologique Française en Bridge and its admission into Paradise. Two types of (DAFA) at Chashma Shafā 20 km south of or mud-brick tower-like structure having a platform on Balkh, in northern Afghanistan, yielded a limestone altar theand topother for places:exposing the the first corpses, is a round, with a man-made central well stone that gods,which as is shownone of bythe the earliest images fire of altars Greek found deities in on Central their reaches to the ground, used to contain bleached bones; coins,Asia. Although many of Greco-Bactrianthe local population kings mayworshipped have followed Greek the second is a natural mountain ridge or rocky spur encircled by mud brick walls. The dakhma discovered as Afrasiab in Uzbekistan and especially Panjikent in north-westernZoroaster’s teachings. Tajikistan, Excavations yielded buildingsat Sogdian religious sites, such in type. The most famous dakhma is at Chil’pyk in Choras- character, and sumptuous houses of wealthy merchants, inmia Durmen-tepe in northernnear Uzbekistan, Samarkand used is aperhaps variant duringof the firstthe richly decorated with elaborate wall paintings, wooden sculptures and ornamental carvings, many of which con- tain Zoroastrian-themed imagery. In fact, the Sogdians corpses4th to 8th centuries CE. could be easily transported This spectacular from farsite away. is a natural Rising created the richest set of religious images ever produced highrocky above mount the near surrounding the Amu Darya plain, River, the site along can which be seen the from a long way off. The dakhma contains a monumental images of deities are often represented in a Greek fash- staircase, high mud-brick walls and compartments for ion,in a Zoroastrianthe divine images context. produced In contrast in Sogdiana with Bactria, do not where be- depositing corpses (pāvis). Associated with it was also sāgris). – Hram comes from Arabic and closely the Indian models and show a strong tendency means sacred, but also forbidden. tray strong Greek influences. Rather, they seem to follow a fire chamber ( The Uzbek-Italian Excavations at Kojtepa (Samarkand Area) Uzbekistan 149

Fig. 13: Trench 9: the condition of the trench at the end of the 2015 season (after Missione Archeologica Italiana (MAI), Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” (UNO); by Bruno Genito 2015). other part of the mud-brick line facing north was re- the piedmont slopes of the Kara Tyube chain, make vealed; this face is composed of a very irregular line. it one of the most important sites in the region in - terms of the relationship between nomadic and ag- ed SU442 (west of SU412), perpendicular to SU441 ricultural ways of life. andA new oriented line of mudeast-west bricks andwas identified,on the same denominat level as The architectural remains so far unearthed have SU75. North of SU423, there is another mud-brick wall (SU440) oriented east-west (Fig. 13). top of the tepe, and a clear re-use of the northern andrevealed eastern traces encircling of important walls dating fortification back to the walls early on and late Hellenistic periods. Future excavations will 9 Conclusions focus on a still enigmatic mud-brick structure locat- ed in the north-eastern corner between the encir- cling wall and the tepe. The material culture collect- clearly established the importance of the site in the ed indicates that there were several distinct phases historyThe first and seasons topography of excavation of the area. at Its Kojtepa position, have be- tween the agricultural area to the north created by of occupation, stretching from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and beyond. the extension of the Dargom Canal, and to the south

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