An Environmental Review of the Centennial Valley, Montana

Joseph M. Trudeau

December, 2007

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An Environmental Review of the Centennial Valley, Montana

A report prepared for the

International Center for Earth Concerns

Submitted by

Joseph M. Trudeau Preserve Land Works Hancock, New Hampshire

December 2007

Cover Photographs: Background: Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in xeric forest-grassland ecotone, Tepee Creek Inset: Looking north across the Centennial Valley over Lima Reservoir to the Snowcrest and Gravelly Mountains

This page: Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) takes flight, Odell Creek Next page: Wet meadow dominated by Carex species occupying a glacially formed pothole in the central Centennial Valley Following page: Eastern Centennial Mountains from Gravelly foothills

All photographs in this report were taken by the author in July of 2007 unless otherwise noted.

This report should be cited as follows: Trudeau, J.M. 2007. An environmental review of the Centennial Valley, Montana. Unpublished report prepared for the International Center for Earth Concerns.

ii Preamble

Southwest Montana’s Centennial Valley, as defined by the valley bottom and associated watershed uplands, is indeed one of the most unique places in the United States, and one of the most biologically important landscapes in the northern Rocky Mountains. The valley consistently yields impressive results from botanical inventories, wildlife studies, ecological investigations, and landscape analyses. Effective conservation of natural and cultural systems here is exceptionally important for the long-term viability of wildlife, vegetative communities, traditional ranching lifestyles, and ecological processes at local to continental scales.

The threats posed to the integrity of the Centennial Valley by anthropogenic and natural forces are considerable. These pressures merit an enormous investment of intellectual, financial, physical and philosophical labor. The level of involvement of environmental organizations, governmental agencies, citizens, and scientists and the cooperative stewardship undertakings they’ve shared with ranchers and residents is equally noteworthy. To maintain into the future this vast wealth of natural brilliance that is the Centennial Valley, our relationships must grow stronger, our endeavors expand respectfully broader, and our reverence of and inquiry into this remarkable natural legacy must be enhanced. This document is presented as a tool for building a greater understanding of this very significant landscape and society’s role as its stewards.

iii Purpose and Scope This report provides an extensive environmental review of the Centennial Valley. A remarkable volume of knowledge has grown from over a century of investigation and observation within the diverse environments encountered in and around the valley. To the full extent of the authors ability this collection of literature was gathered, examined, and included here, providing a summary of essential environmental information. Detailed and comprehensive analyses of the entire body of work were not done; this task would demand an enormous amount of time and additional field study worthy of a lifelong commitment. Instead, presented herein is a logical foundation to build an enhanced understanding of the Centennial ecosystem upon, presented in an attractive, readable, and fact-based format. Scientific investigations, popular literature, unpublished reports, and face-to-face conversation with experts and stakeholders combined with a time spent in the valley provided an abundance of fibers with which I’ve attempted to weave a fabric of natural history within the contemporary social and climate change context, intended to inform and educate the conservation community or curious reader. The primary intent of this report is to provide a basis for decision making and programmatic development for the Lakeview Environmental Education and Research Center, and stand as a reference point for future endeavors there. It is equally important that this product become available to the broadest audience possible. A long-time advocate for conservation of the Centennial Valley remarked that by sharing this product the holders of this report have the opportunity to cultivate a community who will stay connected to the place and involved in its issues. The information contained here was generated through the dedicated efforts of hundreds of people over decades and should serve as the basis for effective conservation work by the Lakeview Center and the larger conservation community.

iv Acknowledgements

Completion of this project was made possible with funding from the Wildlife Land Trust, the Friends of the Centennial Valley, and the International Center for Earth Concerns. Ethan Aumack and Jan Shaffer from the Grand Canyon Trust provided helpful intellectual and logistical support. Jay Frederick and Kevin Suzuki from the U.S. Forest Service, Madison Ranger District offered their time for important conversation. Pat Fosse and Ali Piwowar from the Dillon Field Office of the Bureau of Land Management offered time and material support. Greg Lewis, Quinn Jacobsen and Corey Moffet from the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station in Dubois, Idaho generously offered insightful conversation and unpublished information. Sharon Hooley from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Creston Fish & Wildlife Center in Kalispell, Montana provided document location and delivery services. Mike Parker, Jeff Warren, Jackie Vann, Suzanne Beauchaine, and Jeff Everett from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provided documents, conversation, insights, and important discussion. Chuck Maddox and Dan Dobler from Montana’s Department of Natural Resources and Conservation provided insights into the state perspective. Tony Povilitis from American Wildlands, Marcy Mahr from the Flathead Land Trust, Greg Kudray from Montana’s Natural Heritage Program, Tana Kappel from The Nature Conservancy, Charles Kay from Utah State University, Jay Rotella from Montana State University, Kelly Pohl from the Gallatin Valley Land Trust, Jack Eddie from the Beaverhead County Weed District Office, Maria Newcomb from the University of Wisconsin, Kyle Cutting from Montana State University, and swamp lover John Pierce all gave of their time and energy to discuss the Centennial Valley and provide literature or other information. Numerous organizations provided out-of-print or hard to find literature including the Wildlands Project, Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, and Greater Yellowstone Coalition. Jerry Scheid and Bonnie and Bill Huntsman spoke at length and that time was taken from their very busy schedules; for that I am deeply grateful. Jerry Taft, Peter Bender, Bill Nickelson, David Cowan, several Nature Conservancy Interns, Red Rock Lakes volunteers, Elk Lake Lodge, four wayfaring Continental Divide hikers, and the “Rally in the Valley” crew made for a comfortable and casual working environment. Heartfelt thanks go to Nathan Korb, Centennial Valley Land Steward (TNC), and his wife Jamie, for opening their home to me and providing camaraderie, conversation, document delivery, unique perspectives, and delicious meals. John and Melody Taft provided gracious hospitality, conversation, Centennial Valley lore, and charismatic residence during my stay in the Centennial Valley. Clark Wheeler at Northern Arizona University facilitated a complicated rush to gather a tremendous amount of electronic literature. Amy Markus at the Hancock Town Library facilitated Interlibrary Loan transactions. Finally, I must thank my partner in life, Amber Renee Fields for her patience and support during this long and difficult project, and I extend a huge amount of gratitude for the community of conservationists who have rallied to preserve the integrity of the Centennial Valley through hard work, deep thought, and sincere emotion.

-Joe Trudeau Hancock, New Hampshire

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A portion of the Montana Natural Heritage Program Lima and Hebgen Lake Quadrangle Public Ownership Maps. These maps and the data used to create them are free and easily accessible at http://nris.mt.gov/gis/. The two maps were cropped and merged in Microsoft thus explaining the graphic misalignment in the center of the image vi

Table of Contents

Preamble iii Purpose and Scope iv Acknowledgements v Centennial Valley Land Ownership & Management Map vi Table of Contents 1 Introduction 2

Part I. Summary of Environmental Information 4

The Centennial “Hot Spot” 5 Introduction 5 Landscape Diversity 5 Wetlands 7 Centennial Valley Land Cover Map 9 Biological Diversity 10 Carnivore Corridors 10 Conservation Concerns 14 Conservation in Action 21 Conclusion 22 Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Map 24 Wetlands and Riparian Areas 25 The Grasslands/Sagebrush Matrix 44 Mid Elevation Conifer Forests 56 Aspen 61 High Elevation Forests 65 High Elevation Shrublands, Grasslands, & Fields 72 Fire Ecology & Management 77 Research Needs 88

Part II. Centennial Valley Documents Library 90

The Centennial Valley Documents Library 91 Included in the Library 91 Not Included in the Library 91 How to Use the Library 92 Master Bibliography 94 Annotated Bibliography 112 Top-Ten Must Reads 135 Un-retrieved Literature 136

Appendix A: Conservation Rank Descriptions 137 Appendix B: Sources of GIS Data 138

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Introduction

This report is the outcome of field and literature research into the environment of the Centennial Valley and into opportunities and challenges facing the Lakeview Center for Environmental Research and Education (Lakeview Center) at Lakeview, Montana. It is written from the perspective of an outsider who has no preexisting ties, interests, or knowledge about the Centennial Valley and its social and natural assets. This report accurately reflects environmental conditions, concerns, and trends through a synthesis of literature, expert interviews, and personal observation and interpretation, though it does not and can not describe every aspect of the Centennial Valley ecosystem. The report is broken into two sections. The first section presents a review of ecological information gleaned from the collected literature and conversations with area experts. The Centennial “Hot Spot” provides an overview of the environmental significance of the Centennial Valley and focuses on major topics including biological and landscape diversity, carnivore corridors, a brief overview of wetlands, conservation concerns and threats including possible climate change effects, and restorative actions taken in recent years to improve ecological systems. The topic of climate change and the projected, modeled, or assumed effects on the environment is integrated throughout the report since it is a major threat to the integrity of the Centennial Valley and the entire Northern Rockies region. I present these results from the perspective of one who feels that climate change is real, is occurring rapidly, and has been tremendously exacerbated by human actions over the last century. The information presented here regarding climate change represents the published findings of over 30 peer-reviewed research articles that are relevant to the Centennial Valley region. The modeling processes used by those scientists are not described here due to the technical complexity and diversity of mechanisms used, and the debate over the cause or relevance of climate change is also not discussed. If the reader seeks to understand in greater depth the modeling processes see the primary sources which provide detailed accounts of model building and analyses. The following chapters each focus on broad ecosystem types: wetlands and riparian areas, sagebrush and grasslands, mid elevation conifer forests, aspen, high elevation forests, and high elevation shrublands and grasslands. Each of these chapters summarizes ecological significance, species of concern, landscape and vegetative patterns, conservation concerns,

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ecosystem health, natural processes, and possible effects of climate change on species, communities, and ecosystems. Photographs throughout illustrate these topics where applicable and captions tie the photo to key points in the text. Little data is presented and the report is not organized in the format of a scientific report. Specific information and data can be found in the primary sources. Methods of applied research and modeling are not discussed here; if the reader is interested in these aspects they should consult the primary source. Species are referred to by their common names throughout the text with a few exceptions. At the end of each chapter a list of species provideing scientific names, form, and global and state conservation ranks. A thorough description of the conservation status ranking system is found in Appendix A and was taken directly from appendix A of Lesica (2003). Following the ecosystem descriptions, a chapter on fire history, ecology, and climate change effects is provided. This information was organized in a separate chapter because fire moves through a landscape with little regard for ecosystem boundaries. Finally, a brief review of outstanding research needs is presented. The second section describes the Centennial Valley Documents Library. A major feat of this project has been the collection and digitization of almost the entire body of work consulted during research. Over 200 documents totaling nearly 17,000 pages are included in the library. This section describes the organization of the library, how to use it, and suggests future steps for making the information more broadly available. Also included are a master bibliography, annotated bibliography, suggested reading list, and items that could not be located but should be sought out in the future. This is indeed the most comprehensive gathering of Centennial Valley specific information yet compiled but it is not complete nor will it ever be. A library of GIS data was collected but by no means in a comprehensive manner. It became apparent during field work that an analysis of stakeholder opinions regarding the Lakeview Center was more important than collecting GIS information and my efforts went there instead. Much GIS data is freely available (see Appendix B) and future efforts at compiling a GIS library will be fruitful. However, the Lakeview Center is in no position to capitalize on those data and given the rapid progress in the spatial technology field the best option is to gather or generate data when it is needed and can be used rather than letting it become outdated in storage. The outcomes of the stakeholder solicitation are described in a separate document.

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Part I. Summary of Environmental Information

•The Centennial “Hot Spot” 5

•Wetlands and Riparian Areas 25

•The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix 44

•Mid Elevation Conifer Forests 56

•Aspen 61

•High Elevation Forests 65

•High Elevation Shrublands, 72 Grasslands, & Fields

•Fire Ecology & Management 77

•Research Needs 88

4 The Centennial “Hot Spot”

The Centennial “Hot Spot”

Introduction The Centennial Valley has been posited as a hot spot for natural diversity because of its unique species-rich mosaic of wetland systems, its role as a key ecological linkage between major wilderness complexes, and the abundance of diverse, high quality habitat for a broad range of wildlife found there (Mahr, 1996; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). Renowned conservation biologist Edward O. Wilson (1999: p.262) described hot spots as “habitats with many species found nowhere else and in greatest danger of extinction from human activity.” From a global perspective, the Centennial Valley might not be considered a hot spot when compared to tropical and Mediterranean ecosystems where some have been described by earlier biologists (see Myers, 1988, 1990), but it should meet the criteria without question from a regional and North American perspective. From the local scale of southwestern Montana to the continental scale of the northern Rocky Mountains, the Centennial Valley landscape is host to botanical, faunal, ecological, and cultural elements of immense importance, and the threats to these are numerous (Jewett, 1999). Agencies, individuals, and non-governmental organizations have responded to some threats and issues of concern successfully through cooperative conservation measures, but the unknown consequences of global climate change may pose the most significant threats to the valley that society has faced. This chapter reviews, in a comprehensive manner not reported since Povilitis & Mahr (1998), the biological significance of the Centennial Valley, issues of concern therein, and restorative conservation actions taken there.

Landscape Diversity The Centennial Valley is a broad, flat-bottomed intermontane basin situated immediately east of the Continental Divide. Bounded by the rolling foothills of the Gravelly and Snowcrest ranges to the north and the dramatic escarpment of the Centennial Mountains to the south, the valley is unique in that it runs against the geological grain of the Rocky Mountains; it trends east-west. From the eastern end at Red Rock Pass to the western end at the outlet of Lima Reservoir the ~370,000 acre valley is over 45 miles long. At its widest point, from the headwaters of Long Creek in the Gravelly foothills to the crest of the Continental Divide it is around 15 miles wide. The valley’s western limit is technically a Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) boundary, separating the Lima Reservoir 5th level HUC from the Red Rock River 5th level

Joseph Trudeau 5 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

From the summit of Sheep Mountain peering into the heart of the Centennial Valley, one can observe nearly the full suite of habitats and ecosystems encountered there, from aquatic to alpine. Juxtaposed against this vast biological gradient is the minute town of Lakeview, the most concentrated incidence of human activity and impact in the valley, and a vital component of the dynamic Centennial Valley ecosystem as we know it.

HUC (see Seaber et al., 1987 for a description of the HUC system). This border is an arbitrary delineation that should not suggest that areas west of the Centennial Valley lack conservation values or that ecological processes stop there. Interactions with surrounding landscapes beyond

the Centennial watershed significantly affect environmental values within the watershed. The east-west orientation of the Centennial Valley is distinctive in that no other significant basin and range system in Montana trends that way (Lesica, 2003) and only a few ranges in the entire Rocky Mountains deviate from a roughly north-south axis. The abundant north facing slopes on the relatively small Centennial range span a tremendous environmental gradient of over 3,000 feet, from unexplored aquatic beds at Upper Red Rock Lake (John Pierce, pers. comm., 5 October 2007) to exemplary alpine communities on the Continental Divide. The community diversity encountered along this gradient is among the greatest in Montana and there is no comparable gradient of any kind under such high levels of protection (Cooper & Heidel, 1999; Lesica, 2003). Furthermore, many inventoried communities are in good condition making parts of the range superlative examples of southwestern Montana’s environment (Lesica, 2003).

Joseph Trudeau 6 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

Much of the Centennial range rises 3,000 feet above the valley bottom, but the gradient is most pronounced at the eastern end where a dramatic escarpment caused by the Centennial fault has produced the physical setting for remarkable biological diversity. Here, Taylor and Sheep Mountains, while not tallest in the range, provide a striking view from the Centennial Valley’s vast bottom lands at ~6,600 feet above sea level.

The opposite side of the valley is comprised of thousands of acres of rolling sagebrush steppe and native grasslands punctuated by islands of conifer and aspen forests, verdant riparian areas, and rare sand hills that rise toward the massive uplands of the Gravelly Mountains and more than 350,000 acres of inventoried roadless area (USDA Forest Service, 1999).

Wetlands The biological heart of the valley is the sprawling wetland and aquatic mosaic that stretches almost its entire length and covers over 45,000 acres (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). The Centennial Valley watershed has been identified as one of the highest quality examples of an intact aquatic system in the upper Missouri River basin (Oechsli & Frissell, 2002). The expansive system of shallow lakes, fens, carrs, serpentine river channels, potholes, marshes, cold mountain streams, riparian shrublands, wet grasslands and springs that covers much of the valley floor is among Montana’s most important wetlands complexes (Noss et al., 2001). The Centennial Valley’s wetlands are regionally unique within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) for being the largest such system in both the GYE and the state of Montana (Warren & O'Reilly, 2005), for their high biological diversity, and that they are fed

Joseph Trudeau 7 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

by warm springs that may be linked to the hydrothermal systems of Yellowstone National Park (Marston & Anderson, 1991). The 45,000 acre Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge (N.W.R), created in 1935 primarily to conserve trumpeter swan habitat, protects ~25,000 acres of this complex. Within the refuge, an extensive willow complex and an old-growth spruce/horsetail forest associated with Upper Red Rock Lake are among the highest ranked wetlands in the Missouri River headwaters on the basis of their ecological significance, diversity, integrity, and that they support high quality examples of native plant communities, intact hydrologic regimes, and have minimal invasive weed problems (Jones, 2004). The Centennial Valley’s wetlands have been at The Nature Conservancy’s center of attention since the early 1990’s (Mahr, 1996) and their level of protection in the Centennial Valley has increased substantially as our understanding of the importance of wetland systems has grown and our collective means of tending the land has evolved. Though wetlands were long left

An intact willow-dominated wetland exists out of the planning process in the southeast of Upper Red Rock Lake in the upper Centennial Valley. This complex Yellowstone area (Noss et al., 2001), occurs on a broad alluvial fan that developed those in the Centennial Valley are now a through millennia of erosion in Tom Creek. conservation and restoration priority shared by Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (2005), The Nature Conservancy (Korb et al., 2005), the Greater Yellowstone Coalition (Noss et al., 2001), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Gomez et al., 2001; Mahr, 1996; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007). At least 47% of all animal species of concern in Montana are dependent on streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands for their survival (Montana Natural Heritage Program and Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks, 2006) and 75% of wildlife in the Centennial Valley use wetlands at some point in their annual life cycle (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a) thus reinforcing the relevance of wetlands conservation in the larger sphere of conservation biology.

Joseph Trudeau 8 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

Joseph Trudeau 9 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

Biological Diversity The diversity of environments known to exist in the greater setting of southwestern Montana has prompted the most extensive and intensive botanical investigations in the state (Cooper et al., 1999) resulting in documentation of a large number of species and communities. A comprehensive vegetation inventory and classification for the Beaverhead Ecoregional Section, which includes the Centennial Landscape and environs, identified 273 plant associations representing 57% of the 480 recognized in Montana, on less than 10% of the states land area. Eighty percent of the states plants were documented in this section, totaling over 2,200 species. Eighteen endemic species were documented which is the highest level of endemism in Montana, and 130 species of state or global concern were documented including 28 globally rare species on lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Furthermore, this section has been subdivided into 11 subsections; more than any other section in the state. The reasons for this high diversity lie in the incredible landscape diversity of the region: there is greater geologic diversity and elevational relief than the rest of Montana, the region is influenced by Pacific and Gulf weather patterns, and there is overlapping floristic influence of the Great Basin, Plains, and Rocky Mountain floras (Cooper et al., 1999). This amalgamation of habitats across several gradients of elevation, precipitation, aspect, slope, and disturbance history in the Centennial Valley supports over 700 plant species and at least 20 major vegetation community types (Hendricks & Roedel, 2001; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998) marking this landscape as one of exceptional ecological significance (Cooper et al., 1999). The Centennial Valley and Mountains host some of the highest concentrations of special status plants on areas managed by the Dillon Field Office of the Bureau of Land Management (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Dorn (1968) documented 487 plant species in the Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. and adjacent flanks of the Centennial Mountains and Lowry (1979) documented 362 plant species on Bureau of Land Management Lands in the Centennial Valley. At least 260 birds have been recorded in the Centennial Valley (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000) and 11 mammal, 13 bird, and two fish of special concern occur there (Povilitis & Mahr, 1998).

Carnivore Corridors The long-term survival of wide-ranging carnivores such as grizzly bear, wolverine, wolf, puma, and lynx in the northern Rockies, and to an unknown degree the viability of local elk,

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American pronghorn, mule deer, and bison partially depends on the maintenance of the Centennial Mountains as a functioning corridor (Greater Yellowstone Coalition, 1994; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). This concept of connectivity between large wild areas in the region was initially advanced by the Alliance for the Wild Rockies (Bader, 1992) in a published map depicting the Centennial region as the only direct connection between the Greater Yellowstone and Idaho’s Greater Salmon wildland ecosystems. At that time the concept of Yellowstone National Park and its surrounding environment being an interconnected ecosystem at a multi-state scale had just recently developed (Brussard, 1991). From the earliest conceptualizations, the Centennial Valley and the Gravelly and Snowcrest ranges to the north were considered a part of this system which was aptly regarded as the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, or GYE (Marston & Anderson, 1991). Since then, the Centennial landscape has consistently been cited as a vital corridor or key ecological connection for large mammals between the GYE and the expansive wilderness areas of Idaho which are recognized as the “Central Idaho wilderness complex”, “the Salmon-Selway Ecosystem”, or other similar names (Bader, 1992; Jewett, 1999; Mahr,1996; Middle Rockies-Blue Mountains Planning Team, 2000; National Audubon Society, 1998; National Wildlife Federation, 2002; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998; Wildlife Conservation Society, 2007). Additionally, the Centennial Landscape is part of a much broader continental scale Y2Y Conservation Initiative spanning wildlands between Yellowstone and the Yukon Territory in Canada (Haufler & Mehl, 2002; Korb et al., 2005). This recently developed map produced by American Wildlands illustrates the Centennial Due to the great distances between the Mountains role as a connective corridor between three very large wilderness complexes. American GYE source population and the Idaho and Wildlands released an early version of this image in 1992; really all that has changed is the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystems, linkage sophistication of the software used to render the image. areas must be able to provide suitable year-round habitat since those distances exceed the range of

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habitat since those distances exceed the range of annual dispersal (Primm & Wilson, 2004). Some have questioned the suitability of the Centennial Range as a key corridor, stressing that wildlife utilizes habitats (physical areas), not corridors (concepts), and the range does not provide adequate year-round habitat features. The central tenet of this concern revolves around a lack of critical post-hibernation food in early spring because there is relatively little berry production at the ranges high elevation, there is little winter kill because ungulates winter elsewhere, snow remains so late in the season due to north facing aspect, and there is no livestock because they are moved elsewhere in early autumn (Charles Kay, pers. comm., 8 October 2007). This hypothesis could be valid depending on vegetative and wildlife health trends in the future, especially in regards to climate change. Several major food sources for grizzly bears in the GYE (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2002) are spawning west slope cutthroat trout which are in decline in the Centennial, winter killed ungulates which may be uncommon, and seeds of whitebark pine which is diminishing because of a non-native fungus.

The north-facing valley between Jefferson, Nemesis, and Red Rock Mountains is a good example of a glacial U-shaped valley, and exhibits moraines, willow riparian areas, whitebark pine stands showing evidence of fire, diverse geology, meadows, and more characteristic features of the Centennial Landscape. There are no trails or roads into this very wild niche thus increasing its value as wildlife habitat and wilderness.

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For these reasons the Gravelly Mountains may constitute better habitat, but the overwhelming majority of scientists believe the Centennial Mountains provide key dispersal area despite any published evaluations of habitat viability. The entire range of the Grizzly bear is not immune to the effects of climate change and several probable effects will determine the viability of habitat. Among them are the decreased winter mortality of ungulates in a warmer climate (Romme & Turner, 1991), an emerging asynchrony between when animals leave hibernation and when spring food resources become available (Inouye et al., 2000; Saunders et al., 2006), and enhanced pressure on mammals that will likely exceed past warming periods (Barnosky et al., 2003). Most assumptions about wildlife movements in and around Greater Yellowstone were historically based on modeling and observational accounts (see, for example Bader, 2000; Schwartz et al., 2002) and very little is known about what species are using which areas at what time of the year and under what circumstances. Acknowledging that there have been few studies documenting large carnivore habits in the Centennial Mountains to substantiate claims of the ranges role as a critical corridor, the Wildlife Conservation Society recently adopted a novel approach to gather accurate information on large carnivore occurrence and habitat use. By using search dogs specifically trained by the Working Dogs for Conservation Foundation to locate the scat of black bears, grizzly bears, cougars, and wolves, the group is accumulating information that will be used to help develop collaborative wildlife management strategies that better understand and enhance large carnivore use of the range (Wildlife Conservation Society, 2007). Other work by the Wildlife Conservation Society has documented extensive movements of a female wolverine that exploited a home range of nearly 38,000 km2 including the Centennial Mountains (Inman et al., 2004) where potential denning habitat occurs (USDA Forest Service, 2005b) and wolverine use is well known (Gomez, 2001; National Wildlife Federation, 2002). Greater Yellowstone grizzly bear, wolverine, and wolf populations have grown since conservation measures were first taken over the last few decades and use of the Centennial has increased, highlighting the importance of the Centennial Valley and Mountains as a corridor to facilitate wildlife population growth, genetic flow, and dispersal (Montana Fish, Wildlife, & Parks, 2002; Jay Frederick, pers. comm., 13 July 2007; Primm & Wilson, 2004; Schwartz et al., 2002).

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Conservation Concerns: Development, Roads, Livestock, Logging, Weeds, Climate Change Recognizing the importance of the range as habitat for bear, lynx, and wolf the Bureau of Land Management approved over 40,000 acres in the Centennial Mountains as an Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC) in 2006 which mandates that management decisions be made at the site level, as opposed to the standard landscape-level decision making commonly used by the agency, as well as prohibiting any new roads or additional sheep grazing (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2006). These measures may have positive implications for wildlife on those 40,000 acres, but uncertainties abound elsewhere. Threats to the maintenance and enhancement of carnivore habitat, and in fact the entire Centennial ecosystem, are numerous and have been documented widely. The ultimate fear in the conservation of special places is conversion of wild habitat to residential development. The Greater Yellowstone area is rapidly transforming from a predominantly rural landscape to one of growing cities and associated sprawling suburbs, as well as exurban development. Between 1970 and 1999 the Greater Yellowstone area experienced a 58% increase in population and a 350% increase in the area of rural lands supporting exurban housing (Gude et al., 2005). Since the 1970’s the economy of the area has shifted from one dependent on resource extraction to one dependent on tourism and recreation (Power, 1991) which reduces potential conflicts involving logging and mining, but increases permanent habitat loss to development. The rapid growth in the area is evident just east of Red Rock Pass where Henry’s Lake has been surrounded by residential and second home development. Subdivision and development in the Centennial Valley is possible on more than 50,000 acres of private land in the valley that are not protected by conservation easements. The threat of development in the Centennial Valley has been noted extensively and is sometimes considered imminent (Gomez et al., 2001; Mahr, 1996; National Audubon Society, 1998; Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). Fortunately, nearly half of the 100,000 acres of private land has been protected through conservation easements with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Nature Conservancy, and Montana Land Reliance which prevents them from being overly developed, but not from other threats. Increased use of the main road through the Centennial Valley by residents and visitors could prompt the county to pave it which has been an ongoing source of concern (Greater Yellowstone Coalition, 1994; Mahr, 1996; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998) though some valley residents who regularly drive the full length of the rough dirt road feel that it would be nice to have it

Joseph Trudeau 14 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

paved (Bill Huntsman, pers. comm., 21 July 2007). Forty grizzly bears were killed in southwestern Montana between 1992 and 2001, many of which were hit by vehicles, proving that roads in and around the valley also pose risks to carnivore dispersal (Jewett, 1999). The use of roads and trails by recreationists has been noted as a concern, specifically winter snowmobile activity. Following the designation of most of the Centennial Mountains as a Wilderness Study Area (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1990) the U.S. Forest Service neglected to close the Mt. Jefferson area to snowmobiles which resulted in increased conflicts. Public scoping determined that 60% of respondents were opposed to snowmobiles in the area (USDA Forest Service, 2005b). Snowmobile use was also once relatively common through Odell Creek Canyon though use never occurred legally through this area since neither the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service nor the private property owners at the mouth of the canyon allowed snowmobile access across their lands (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). This area was officially closed to snowmobile use as part of the Centennial Mountains Travel Management Plan (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2001) but illegal use continues. Snowmobiling is the primary reason for decline in bear, lynx, and wolverine use of some areas (Jewett, 1999). The effects of snowmobiles on wildlife are being monitored in the Centennial Mountains (Wildlife Conservation Society, 2007). Construction and maintenance of non-motorized trails in the Centennial Mountains with emphasis on primitive and semi-primitive recreation opportunities has been set as a priority (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2006) despite concerns that trails may compromise wilderness values and encourage illegal vehicle trespass (Jewett, 1999). Roads throughout the Centennial Mountains that originated during the logging boom of the 1960’s contribute sediment to critical habitat of at-risk fish populations in Bean Creek (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). The effects of logging roads in the Bean Creek drainage on riparian function have been noted by valley residents and biologists (Bean Creek Working Group, 2006b) and have served as a point of friction in plans to enter the area again for restoration-based forestry operations that seek to reduce the potential risk of wildfire on the struggling west slope cutthroat trout fishery (Jerry Scheid, pers. comm., 21 July 2007; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2006). Logging has been identified as threat to the Centennial Valley in the past (Jewett, 1999; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998) and on private and state lands it may still be, but most U.S. Forest Service land is no longer considered available as a timber resource (USDA Forest Service, 1999) and lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management that

Joseph Trudeau 15 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

will be logged under the auspices of wildland-urban interface fuels reduction and forest health treatments are undergoing extensive cooperative review and planning that intend to ameliorate any negative impacts (Bean Creek Working Group 2006a, 2006b; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d, 2006). Recent timber sales on state lands in the Tepee Creek area were

Logging operations on state lands in the Tepee Creek area harvested mostly beetle killed lodgepole pine. The several clear-cuts broke up the continuous canopy providing early succesional habitat for insects, birds, and small mammals, forage for ungulates and livestock, and promotes the complex uneven-aged forest structure that has largely been lost because of fire suppression over the last century.

implemented to harvest beetle-killed lodgepole pine (Chuck Maddox, pers. comm., 20 July 2007) and actually improved aspects of forest health by breaking up the continuous forest canopy that has developed in the absence of natural fire, providing early succesional habitat, and required minimal construction of new roads. However, while timber sales are not much of a problem on the Montana side of the Continental Divide, considerable logging activity occurs on the south aspects of the Centennial Mountains in Idaho (Jewett, 1999). Fencing throughout entire valley has diminished habitat for American pronghorn and other ungulates (Povilitis & Mahr, 1998) as well as requires continual maintenance, negatively affects scenery, and concentrates livestock use in defined trails along fence lines (Pat Fosse, pers. Joseph Trudeau 16 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot” comm., 19 July 2007). Thousands of miles of fence cross the valley bottom, many of which are unused, in need of repair, or should be removed (Marcy Mahr, pers. comm., 14 October 2007). Livestock production poses many threats to a variety of ecosystems in the Centennial Valley, but the continued presence of the ranching community is essential in preserving cultural heritage. Riparian areas are damaged by trampling and related effects (later chapters provide in-depth analysis); sagebrush steppe and grasslands that would naturally burn are not allowed to do so because of the fear that utilizable forage is lost (Chuck Maddox, pers. comm., 20 July 2007; Bonnie Huntsman, pers. comm., 21 July 2007); aspen regeneration is consumed not allowing it to grow past browse height (personal observation, Jones Creek area); and long-term vegetation dynamics in low to mid elevation forests are disrupted (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007; Sankey et al., 2006). Sheep grazing in the Centennial Mountains has been identified as a potentially large source of future problems as bear populations continue to expand west from Yellowstone National Park (Greater Yellowstone Coalition, 1994; Jewett, 1999; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). The U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management have responded to potential conflicts by prohibiting current cattle permits from ever being changed to sheep permits in both the Centennial and Gravelly ranges (USDA Forest Service, 2005c; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2006), but the real source of conflict is the ~2,200 sheep that graze annually in the Odell and Tom Creek headwaters on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station summer range. Sheep operations there have been identified as the critical factor in preventing native bighorn sheep from being restored to the Centennial Valley as well as acting as a potential “carnivore sink” (Jewett, 1999; Marcy Mahr, pers. comm., 17 October 2007). Allegations of rogue shooting of grizzly and black bears by shepherds and Sheep Station staff have been made in the past by the Greater Yellowstone Coalition (1986; 1994) and others but little evidence exists to claim that this activity continues. According to the current manager of the station, there are only four or five documented instances of sheep being killed by bears and the reaction was not to kill the bear but to move the sheep out of the area. Moreover, he claimed that at no point in time had a grizzly been shot (Greg Lewis, pers., comm., 24 July 2007). Past Sheep Station annual reports, however, evidently disclosed alarming predator control data, but those data were subsequently withheld after Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. staff began raising concerns over it (Mike Parker, pers. comm., 17 October 2007). It is likely that the Sheep Experiment Station has indeed shot and

Joseph Trudeau 17 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot” killed grizzly bears in the past, and possibly lynx, wolverine, and other predators, but since the Centennial Valley and Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has become the focus of national conservation fervor over the last two decades those actions are probably no longer taken.

Cheatgrass, one of the most destructive invasive weeds in the west, does not pose much of a problem to the Centennial Valley currently, but the potential exists. Cheatgrass thrives in disturbed sites, such as this roadside population on the Clover Divide creeping in from the Blacktail Valley to the north. Throughout Nevada and areas south cheatgrass has invaded sagebrush habitats following fire which has potentially permanently converted those shrub ecosystems to exotic grass-dominated ecosystems to the detriment of biological diversity, aesthetics, and the economy of ranching communities. Suppression of weed populations before they become invasive is a major component of preserving the biological integrity of the Centennial Valley.

A major concern that is directly or indirectly related to all of the aforementioned threats to the valley’s ecosystem is invasive exotic weeds. State designated noxious weeds found in the Centennial Valley include leafy spurge, dyers woad, whitetop, perennial pepperweed, diffuse knapweed, field scabious, common teasel, spotted knapweed, yellow toadflax, hoary alyssum, field bindweed, Canada thistle, common tansy, houndstongue, musk thistle, black henbane, and common mullein (Beaverhead County Weed District, 2007). Beaverhead County initiated a weed control program in 1955 that has involved education, outreach, and eradication which has helped in keeping weeds suppressed throughout much of southwestern Montana and especially in the Centennial Valley (Jack Eddie, pers. comm., 20 July 2007). The Centennial Valley has few

Joseph Trudeau 18 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot” infestations of invasive weeds owing to its remoteness, low recreational use, and the work initiated by The Nature Conservancy in 1994 when interns Kelly Pohl and Brian Gartland started the collaborative Red Rock Watershed Weed Project (Tu, 2002). By 1999, 25 of the 34 landowners within the 400,000 acre project area had committed to the project, nearly 2,100 acres were treated, 10,000 acres were surveyed for infestations, and literature to inform and educate the public about the threats of weeds and their treatment options were distributed widely throughout the region (Tu, 2002). Currently, collaborative efforts between Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho are underway to establish a “Continental Divide Weed Barrier Zone” along the Idaho/Montana divide to hold back surging weed infestations to the south (Montana's Statewide Noxious Weed Awareness and Education Campaign, 2007). Complicating the concerns discussed above is the known and unknown consequences of climate change. The upper Missouri basin has warmed 1.5°F over the last 110 years with the highest warming occurring during the winter and spring (Cayan et al., 2001; Saunders & Maxwell, 2005). Average winter maximum temperatures have remained fairly constant since the early 1900’s but average minimum temperatures have risen several degrees (Saunders & Maxwell, 2005). The observed warming has thus far affected the region in noticeable ways, especially in the earlier arrival of spring (Leung & Wigmosta, 1999). Analyses of historic April 1 snowpack data has shown that the snowpack in the Northern and Central Rockies has decreased substantially since the 1940’s, ranging from 20 to 60 percent declines over the period (McCabe & Wolock, 1999; Mote et al., 2005). Temperature during precipitation events and wet days has risen more than dry days, which has contributed to the observed change of rain falling instead of snow (Knowles et al., 2006). Most of the shift from snow to rain has been at lower to mid elevations where temperatures had to increase small amounts to exceed freezing. Higher and colder climes have had an even greater temperature change but are still cold enough for snow to fall. However, if warming increases, these areas too could pass a threshold and shift to rain as well (Knowles et al., 2006). Winter snowpack accounts for 75 percent of the water supply in the west and is the primary source of water in many areas in dry summer months as the snow melts in high altitude mountains (Glick, 2006). The effects of this has been that over the past 50 years spring runoff has advanced as much as 10 to 20 days in southwestern Montana (Regonda et al., 2005; Stewart et al., 2004) which increases the risk of winter flooding, decreases summer water storage for irrigation, consumption, and wildlife, negatively affects native fish

Joseph Trudeau 19 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot” populations, increases risk of wildfire, and disrupts current water management strategies (Hauer et al., 1997; Knowles et al., 2006; Leung & Wigmosta, 1999; Westerling et al., 2006). The change in winter and spring precipitation and temperature ultimately affects the summer and autumn fire seasons which have warmed as well. The incidence of large wildfires (>1000 acres) in western forests has increased significantly since the mid-1980’s and the change has been concentrated in mid and high elevation forests. The greatest increase has been in the Northern Rockies where forests are highly vulnerable to even more frequent large wildfires, based on the regions sensitivity to changes in snowmelt timing (Westerling et al., 2006). Mid to high elevation conifer forests of the Northern Rockies (such as lodgepole pine, spruce/fir, and whitebark pine) have been less affected by fire suppression and other land use practices than lower elevation forests because they may not have deviated far from a natural fire return interval of 100 years or more. However, recent changes in climate, including decreasing winter snow accumulations (Mote et al., 2005), earlier onset of spring snowmelt (Cayan et al., 2001; Stewart et al., 2004; Westerling et al., 2006), and warmer and dryer summers with lower humidity (Brown et al., 2004) have extended the length of the fire season, enhanced forest flammability, and ultimately led to more, larger, and longer burning fires (Brown et al., 2004; Running, 2006; Westerling et al., 2006). The trends observed over the last 50 to 100 years are not expected to reverse or slow down. Mean annual temperatures in Montana are projected to increase at least another 5°F over the next century (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997). Models predict that over the next century winter precipitation over much of the west will increase along with temperature, potentially resulting in decreased snowpack, earlier snowmelt, and changes in runoff timing as more winter precipitation comes as rain instead of snow (Bartlein et al., 1997; McCabe & Wolock, 1999). These model outputs are regionally variable however. For instance, a comparison of two models of the Central Rockies region provided predictions of April 1 snowpack that ranged from an increase as much as 9% or decrease as much as 75% over the next century (McCabe & Wolock, 1999), but most models predict dramatic declines in snowpack and advances in the onset of spring, especially in the Northern Rocky Mountains (Mote et al., 2005; Stewart et al., 2004) and smaller snowmelt-driven river basins (Barnett et al., 2004). The cumulative effects of these major changes in the regional climate are not totally known, but will be highly disruptive to species, communities, and large ecosystems like the

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Greater Yellowstone and the Centennial Valley ecosystems. Variations in temperature and precipitation patterns have been documented for the past 17,000 years in the Greater Yellowstone area (Millspaugh et al., 2000) but the present rate and magnitude is likely to exceed anything experienced during that era or at any other time, and it is highly likely that the rate of change will exceed the ability of many species to cope and adapt (Barnosky et al., 2003; Bartlein et al., 1997; Peterson, 2003; Romme & Turner, 1991; Saunders et al., 2006). Vegetative patterns, forest stand-age distributions, and species assemblages will change as species lose habitat, increasingly large disturbance events change habitat structure and distribution, and new species from warmer climes migrate into newly available habitat. Simplified projections of range shifts suggest that species will respond to climate warming along latitudinal and elevational gradients. These scenarios are representative at the continental scale but do not account for the complex regional and landscape scale directional migrations that will occur based on patterns of orographic precipitation, elevation, slope, aspect and topography that define the mountainous terrain of the Central and Northern Rockies. Tree taxa and associated ecosystem- level floral and faunal associations will shift independently along directional gradients in addition to general movement north and up in elevation. The outcome of directional migration at the regional scale might result in mixing of Pacific Northwestern, Northern Rockies, and Southern/Central Rockies species into unique assemblages without contemporary analogues (Romme & Turner, 1991). Furthermore, the rate and magnitude of the climatic and ecological change may be greater than in previous warming intervals recorded in the paleoecologic record (Bartlein et al., 1997). The climate of the Centennial Valley 50, 100 or more years from now will in some ways not resemble the current climate. The effects of warming and alterations of precipitation regimes will vary between the species, community, and ecosystem levels, and are discussed in greater detail in the following chapters.

Conservation in Action The success of the Red Rock Watershed Weed Project led to its expansion to the entire Red Rock River watershed as well as the Big Hole River. This bottom-up approach to partnership success bolstered the Nature Conservancy’s reputation as a hard-working and dedicated partner in southwest Montana (The Nature Conservancy, 2007; Tu, 2002). This tactic by The Nature Conservancy to engage local ranching and farming communities in a project that

Joseph Trudeau 21 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot” sought to reduce threats to both parties’ interests was a major influence in the conservation success they have had in the valley. The Nature Conservancy has been an influential partner in comprehensive conservation action in the Centennial Valley since 1993 when they and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Greater Yellowstone Coalition and several landowners came together to develop conservation strategies for the valley based on their belief that the refuge was not large enough to function as a self-sustaining viable ecological unit (Mahr, 1996) which is a concern that has been voiced elsewhere (Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). They started purchasing conservation easements in 1999 which was a critical step towards a broad land protection plan being implemented by Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. that allows the refuge to purchase or accept easements on up to 42,000 acres within the refuge acquisition boundary (Gomez et al., 2001). The combined efforts of the refuge, The Nature Conservancy, and the Montana Land Alliance, and the generosity and foresight of numerous landowners has resulted in nearly 30,000 acres of private land conserved through easements. These private lands in addition to The Nature Conservancy’s Murphy Creek Ranch that hosts unique sandhill and aquatic communities brings the total private lands protected in the Centennial Valley close to 40% percent of the ~100,000 acres of private land in the valley (Kappel, 2006) which has helped Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. earn national distinction (National Wildlife Refuge Association, 2005). Cooperative ventures in forest restoration (Bean Creek Working Group 2006a, 2006b), wetland and riparian restoration (Gomez et al., 2001), and initiation of a multi-agency Fire Learning Network (Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network, 2006; The Nature Conservancy, 2006) shows the role that The Nature Conservancy plays in cooperative conservation action and the commitment that they have made to the valley ecosystem, its residents, and the agencies charged with land management. Collaborative approaches to conservation in the Centennial have been successful in protecting land, improving livestock production practices, focusing group efforts on major problems, and improving habitat for threatened and endangered species.

Conclusion: A “Hot Spot” or not? The Centennial Valley is a place of remarkable natural diversity in its landscape features, hydrologic systems, biota, and ecological processes. As development pressures have reduced habitat quality throughout the northern Rocky Mountains the Centennial has become even more important for its role in protecting diverse wetlands, species, and communities, providing a

Joseph Trudeau 22 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

carnivore dispersal corridor, and preserving the wide open space once common in the valleys of southwestern Montana. Threats to the Centennial Valley have been met with exceptional cooperative conservation accomplishments that have protected critical habitats, defined priorities for action, and enhanced the integrity of the human relationship with the land. Significant unknown challenges to the Centennial Valley and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem exist in the near future regarding persistent drought and climate change (Romme & Turner, 1991), the impacts of uncharacteristically large wildfires on ecosystem components and processes (Korb, 2005a), the remaining 60,000 acres of private land that have not been protected from development, and the fate of species on the brink of extirpation. The valley’s environment, conservation challenges, and cooperative responses to those challenges define the Centennial Valley as a Hot Spot for natural diversity and an exemplary model of flourishing partnerships formed to protect a shared treasure. It is important that entities involved in the protection and restoration of the Centennial Valley expand their focus to include understanding the potential effects of climate change and developing mitigation strategies for the likely loss of habitat, increased occurrence of large wildfires like the 2003 Winslow fire, rapid weed invasions, and changes in ecosystem structure, function, and composition, including the loss of species and arrival of others.

Whitebark pine seedling, Nemesis Mountain

Joseph Trudeau 23 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Centennial “Hot Spot”

Centennial Valley

The 18 million acre Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Map created by the Greater Yellowstone Coalition and available online at http://greateryellowstone.org/media/maps/gye-poster-map-full.jpg. Centennial Valley shape added by the author.

Joseph Trudeau 24 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Wetlands and Riparian Areas

Wetlands and Riparian Areas

Riparian and wetlands systems account for just less than four percent of Montana’s land area (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). Over 45,000 surface acres of wetlands and 500+ miles of riparian area occur in the ~370,000 acre Centennial Valley (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a) signifying the valleys disproportionately large amount of wet habitats. In fact, the Centennial Valley contains the largest wetland complex in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Warren & O’Reilly, 2005). The complex hydrological mosaic of wetlands in the Centennial Valley provides habitat to hundreds of documented species of plants and animals, and countless more species of macroinvertebrates, lichens, mosses, and aquatic vegetation that are still unexplored and not well understood (Jean et al., 2002; Lesica, 2003). The importance of these habitats to the valley ecosystem is immense as over 75% of wildlife in the Centennial Valley use wetlands at some point in their annual life cycle (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Conservation of intact and extensive wetland areas is only going to become more important in the future as the climate warms and precipitation patterns change. Warmer, dryer summers are projected for the future (Bartlein et al., 1997) which could result in decreased inflow and increased evaporation and evapotranspiration that would decrease water levels. According to an assessment by Hurd et al. (1999), the most vulnerable aspect of the upper Missouri headwaters watershed is the enhanced drying of the watershed and the sensitivity of regional ecosystems to temperature increases. Watershed systems currently at the extremes of temperature, such as the typically cold Centennial Valley, are at higher risk due to the more pronounced changes that are likely to occur. The wetlands of the Centennial Valley could potentially contract or disappear under the most severe scenarios. Approximately 25,000 acres of natural and created wetlands are protected by the Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. and associated wilderness area which are afforded the highest level of protection possible on public lands in the United States. Almost 3,000 acres are managed by the Bureau of Land Management primarily in the western part of the valley where management has historically been a cause of severe degradation, and the remaining 17,000 acres are mostly privately held, with some areas managed by the U.S. Forest Service, the State of Montana, the Agricultural Research Service, and The Nature Conservancy. The extensive privately owned wetlands in the Centennial Valley have been the focus of much concern over the integrity of the valley’s hydrologic system as a whole. Conservation of wetlands on private lands outside the Joseph Trudeau 25 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Wetlands and Riparian Areas refuge is critical to the security of resource values found on protected lands (Noss et al., 2001; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Significant wetland modification has occurred outside of the refuge (USDA Forest Service, 1999) where much of the land continues to suffer degradation from livestock production including trampling of riparian areas and loss of native riparian habitat to hay fields and exotic grasses (Korb et al., 2005; Noss et al., 2001). Due to the development and habitat fragmentation pressure on private lands in southwestern Montana and the generally poor condition of wetlands almost everywhere, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (2005) reported that riparian, wetland, and mountain streams are among community types in greatest need of conservation, and most of the Centennial Valley’s lower elevation valley floor was among geographic areas in greatest need of conservation. Furthermore, many species in greatest need of conservation rely heavily on wetlands in the Centennial Valley for their survival. These include Yellowstone cutthroat trout, west slope cutthroat trout, native lake trout, arctic grayling, burbot, western toad, common loon, trumpeter swan, bald eagle, long-billed curlew, black tern, olive-sided flycatcher, and Townsend’s big- eared bat (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). Not all wetlands in the Centennial Valley are natural. In 1875, before the valley was even named by white settlers, the western end had been dammed forming the original Lima Reservoir. That dam later washed out in a summer flood and was replaced in 1902, and then again in 1934 with the dam that exists to this day (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983; 2005a). Even both Upper and Lower Red Rock Lakes are to a degree artificial water bodies. In 1930, the State of Montana installed a wooden water control structure at the exit of Lower Red Rock Lake to create waterfowl habitat (Burton et al., 2002). In 1957 that was replaced by the Refuge with a new structure, and in 1987 that was replaced with another one that incorporated a head gate that allowed water levels to be managed. In total, approximately 5,800 acres are currently affected by the Red Rock Lakes water control structure (Warren et al., 2004). Several ponds northeast of the Red Rock Lakes are also largely artifacts of human intervention. McDonald Pond was formed by the impoundment of Elk Springs Creek in 1953 and is 12 acres in size. Culver Pond was formed by impounding Picnic Creek and enlarged to 27 acres in 1959. Widgeon Pond was created in 1964 by impounding Picnic Creek, and was the last pond to be created on the refuge (Boltz, 2000).

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In total, there has a net been an increase of wetlands in the Centennial Valley because of private and public entities diverting flows, irrigating, storing water, and building ponds. These wetlands may not be as high quality as historic wetlands because of the lost habitat of deciduous woody vegetation (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007), disruption of amphibian breeding habitat (Roedel & Hendricks, 1998) and alteration of natural hydrology, such as at the Red Rock Ponds site in the central Centennial Valley where hydrology has been affected by ditching and excavation to augment stock water access (Jones, 2004). Private irrigation diversions and channel dewatering have affected the hydrologic regimes of some riparian and wetland habitats in the Centennial Valley and are major constraints in achieving proper functioning condition on public land (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). The integrity of the Centennial watershed varies widely between individual streams and water bodies, and between streams originating in the Centennial Mountains versus the Gravelly and Snowcrest Mountains. Generally, headwaters areas have been least impacted by anthropogenic degradation but subjected to natural disturbances which can have profound negative effects on ecosystem function. For example, streams and rivers in the Centennial Mountains are moderately entrenched as they adjust to past and continuing geologic uplift of the range (Jean et al., 2002). Conversely, lowland areas have been most affected by human degradation, but natural flooding disturbances that are critical to wetland health have been limited by artificial installations and control structures (Warren et al., 2004). A combination of anthropogenic and natural disturbance is responsible for issues of aquatic dysfunction, though the role of human intervention has undoubtedly been more pervasive and destructive, especially when considering the potential long-term effects of anthropogenic climate change. Streams and riparian areas are frequently entrenched, high in sediment, have lowered water tables, warmer water temperatures, and habitat quality is diminished from historic condition (Korb et al., 2005). Gillin (2001) reviewed fisheries information for the Centennial Valley on a stream-by- stream basis and thus compiled the most detailed source of not only fisheries-related information but also general stream characteristics, observation of watershed health, and documentation of management actions that have either helped or hindered fish populations. Information was reviewed for 47 flowing streams in the Centennial Valley, including the Red Rock River, that contribute to the Red Rock Lakes and Lima Reservoir aquatic systems; other streams may exist but no information was available (Gillin, 2001). The majority of literature has focused on a

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handful of streams of greater perceived importance than the rest. Red Rock, Elk Springs, and Odell Creeks are frequently discussed due to their importance as the main tributaries flowing into the Refuge and that they harbor remnants of a once plentiful arctic grayling fishery, and Bean, Bear, Jones and again Odell Creeks are referenced for their role as preserving genetically pure strains of west slope cutthroat trout (Gillin, 2001; Korb et al., 2005).

Looking west from the summit of Sheep Mountain, the Odell Creek watershed encompasses the broad valley bounded by the Continental Divide to the south and Slide Mountain to the west. Formed by a north-south trending fault through tilted sedimentary bedrock, the perennial feeder streams that provide Odell Creek with flow naturally carry high amounts of silt in addition to unquantified amounts of sedimentation by sheep grazing and an intrusive road built in the 1950’s to carry phosphate from high elevation mines. Extensive intact riparian ecosystems are found throughout the watershed.

Odell Creek and its associated riparian and headwaters area is the most intensively researched subwatershed in the Centennial Valley. Our understanding of Odell Creek can provide general ecological and hydrological lessons that should serve to build a greater understanding of montane wetland and riparian ecology throughout much of the Centennial Mountains. The upper ~30 miles2 of the Odell subwatershed, which is the montane section before the streams enters the valley bottom, is primarily under the management of the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station with almost one square mile under ownership of the State of Montana and approximately one square mile managed by the Bureau of Land Management. The Creek enters private lands under conservation easement with Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. roughly where it leaves the canyon setting and enters the valley bottom.

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The U.S. Sheep Experiment Station is a unique entity in the Centennial Valley and the entire northern Rocky Mountains. The land was withdrawn by the USDA in 1924 for the purpose of experimenting with sheep at a high elevation summer range. Managed by the Agricultural Research Service, the Sheep Experiment Station is mandated to develop genetically superb sheep that are adapted to a wide range of temperature, high elevations, and constant movement to avoid overgrazing (Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). For decades the effects of what may have been poorly managed shepherding fostered a belief that the range had been severely overgrazed. Rangeland abuse was cited in a report by the Greater Yellowstone Coalition in 1986 that claimed that excessive grazing on the uplands and in riparian The upper headwaters of Odell Creek encompass ~30 square miles of important terrain that drains areas was causing sedimentation of Odell Creek into Lower Red Rock Lake. and ultimately Upper Red Rock Lake, and for those reasons the station should be closed (Greater Yellowstone Coalition, 1986). A major flaw in that argument is that Odell Creek doesn’t even flow into the upper lake; it flows into Lower Red Rock Lake. Additionally, soils in the Centennial Mountains are very unstable (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1990) and pocket gopher burrowing can be a widespread and not insignificant source of sediment throughout subalpine grasslands of the Odell headwaters (Ecret, 1986; Klement, 1997, Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). The accusations of overgrazing by the Greater Yellowstone Coalition led to several studies that examined upland and riparian conditions on the Centennial summer range. In separate evaluations Ecret (1986) and Klement (1997) reported that upland areas grazed by sheep showed little difference than ungrazed areas, concluding that grazing had little effect on floristic composition and erosion in watershed uplands. Surveys by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service staff in the early 1990’s found that sheep grazing had severely impacted ten percent of the area and was contributing small amounts of sediments via surface runoff into Odell Creek, adding that the degree to which it was natural or human induced was debatable (Jordan et al., 1993). Current

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research by the Sheep Experiment Station includes an ongoing evaluation of the effects of sheep bedding areas on hydrologic function and vegetative composition, and an evaluation of sheep impacts on riparian areas at stream crossing sites (Seefeldt & Laycock, 2006; Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). The increased interest in focusing on ecological issues on the Centennial summer range reflects the publics heightened scrutiny of the station as well as an evolution within the Agricultural Research Service that acknowledges the elevated importance of reshaping public lands agriculture as a sustainable land use (Quinn Jacobsen, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). An overlooked but very important factor in the degradation of Odell Creeks’ water quality is the mining activities permitted by the Bureau of Land Management in high elevation grasslands during the 1950’s. Between 1956 and 1958 the Simplot Company hauled nearly 300,000 tons of phosphate rock to railhead in Monida from four open pit mines on the north side of Taylor Mountain on a 30 foot wide road built directly on top of tributaries to Odell Creek (Kay, 1994; Charles Kay, pers. comm., 8 October 2007). This abandoned roadbed continues to be a significant source of sedimentation (Jordan et al., 1993) but efforts to repair or remove it could be more destructive than letting it naturalize (Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). Kay (1994) surveyed the full length of Odell Creek and its tributaries observing that extensive browsing by moose had eliminated most new willow growth which is a pervasive impact throughout willow stands in the Centennial Valley (Dorn, 1970; Warren & O’Reilly, 2005). Little support for claims of Several open pit mines at or near the Continental Divide in the eastern Centennial Mountains and the sheep grazing impact on riparian extensive roads that connect them continue to be a source of ecological and aesthetic problems. areas were detected, but instead signs of excessive ungulate browsing of willows and bark stripping impacts on aspen clones were abundant (Kay, 1994). The idea that sheep contribute to degradation of willow habitats has not only been difficult to document, but also improbable as sheep are not likely to utilize browse or forage in areas with wet ground

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(Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007; Meade Cadot, pers. comm., 8 August 2007). Kay and Walker (1997) compared sites in Odell Creek to similar shrub willow riparian areas in Yellowstone National Park and concluded that the Odell reaches in the Sheep Experiment Station were far healthier than in the Park. Their results showed that willow canopy cover in Odell Creek (93%) was similar to cover inside elk-proof exclosures (95%) at Yellowstone, and higher than areas outside exclosures (14%). Odell Creek willow heights were intermediate between exclosures and open sites at Yellowstone due to intense winter moose browsing, and beaver were present throughout Odell Creek (see Kay, 1994 for description) whereas absent at Yellowstone (Kay & Walker, 1997). Despite concerns over moose browsing effects on willow habitats (see Dorn, 1970; Kay, 1994; Keigley & Frisina, 2001; Warren & O’Reilly, 2005) repeat photography has documented expansion of riparian tall willow thickets throughout the drainages of the Centennial Mountains over the last century (Kay & Walker, 1997; Kay, 1999) perhaps as a result of decreased willow utilization by beaver. Additionally, analysis of several decades of historical data has not shown any increase in browse severity (Warren & O’Reilly, 2005). In the upper Centennial Valley beaver historically maintained ecosystem function in aquatic and riparian systems by forming pools providing year-round fish habitat, creating wetlands, and promoting the growth of bank-stabilizing willows and other shrubs (Jordan et al., 1993). Throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem beaver have been shown to be a positive influence in shaping and maintaining diverse hydrologic systems and associated ecological components (Kay & Walker, 1997). Fisheries and aquatic systems of the Centennial Valley certainly evolved with the influence of beavers and damming (Jordan et al., 1993) but many streams other than Odell Creek currently have very little beaver activity (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). The loss of Beaver throughout the Centennial Mountains has had dramatic effects on channel entrenchment, lowering of water tables, and sedimentation of downstream reaches (USDA Forest Service, 1999). After beaver were trapped and removed from private lands in Odell Creek in response to loss of aspen and cottonwood, the property owner noticed rapid downcutting following the flood of 1984 (White, 1985). Interestingly, the loss of beaver from some streams might be partially attributed to past U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service policies of removing beaver dams to provide fish passage and flush silts out of spawning beds (which also has the unintended consequence of causing increased bank erosion through higher water velocities that result in sedimentation of downstream water bodies), though the

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Service strives for a more holistic approach today by complimenting the positive roles beaver have in riparian habitats (Jordan et al., 1993).

A remarkable gallery of cottonwood trees occurs at the mouth of Odell Canyon where the creek crosses private property. This is the only occurrence of a cottonwood-dominated community in the Centennial Valley making its conservation very important. In response to beavers felling the trees, the owner had them removed only to experience rapid downcutting following a great flood which is visible in the entrenched stream and exposed roots. This balance of resource protection is a persistent dilemma in conservation biology.

Measurable problems in Odell Creek and other large streams like Red Rock Creek become evident where they leave high gradient canyons and enter the valley bottom where more than a century of largely unchecked cattle grazing has severely degraded riparian areas. Eroding banks at the lowest portions of Hell Roaring Creek where cattle use is highest is the major source of silt entering Upper Red Rock Lake through Red Rock Creek, and surveys on Odell Creek found siltation and eroding banks being common and widespread (Jordan et al., 1993). Overflights in 1986 observed clear water in Odell and Hell Roaring Creeks until they hit the meanders of the valley bottom through Bureau of Land Management and private lands where the water became turbid (Kay, 1994). Natural hydrology and stream braiding has been reduced

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through irrigation diversions, cattle trampling, road construction, and other human interventions that have forced once meandering stream complexes into singular channels where, once entrenched, it is difficult if not impossible for the stream to reach its floodplain. The Nature Conservancy has georeferenced aerial photos from 1942 into a Geographic Information System (GIS) to compare with modern aerial images, and analysis shows that Red Rock Creek has become entrenched into one channel. The 1942 photos show the creek braiding in several channels throughout the broad alluvial fan pouring from the mouth of Hell Roaring Canyon into Alaska Basin (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). Degradation of wetland and riparian habitats has prompted inspiring restoration projects on public and private lands. Between 1994 and 2007 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program worked cooperatively with Centennial Valley landowners and partner organizations to restore 143 acres of wetland, 15 miles of stream and improve livestock management on over 34,000 acres (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007). Some of these projects include replacing culverts with bridges on Odell Creek, channel resculpturing and reinforcement on private property in Odell Creek, planting 3,200 propagated willows along Red

In-stream modifications like this line of boulders on Odell Creek can improve fish habitat, reduce erosion and downcuting, allow the stream to reach its floodplain, and increase structural diversity. Actions like this are costly and not guaranteed to work, but when implemented as part of a broader restoration strategy can have positive effects.

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Rock Creek, completion of a restoration plan for Hell Roaring Creek, and removal of in-stream corrals on Corral Creek (Jordan et al., 1993; Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007; Kappel, 2007; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007). Riparian areas on public (Pat Fosse, pers. comm., 19 July 2007) and private (Jordan et al., 1993) land have been fenced off which in itself promotes significant improvement. Complete restoration of historic hydrology is not easily implemented in all cases. For example, it would be difficult to restore Red Rock Creek back into numerous channels because there’s only one bridge and one small culvert on the road under which it passes (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). Of even greater challenge to restorationists is the potential for climate change to constrain the possibilities of restoration as peak flows come earlier in the year (Stewart et al., 2004; Hauer et al., 1997), summers become more dry and warm (Bartlein et al., 1997), and regional climate becomes unsuitable for target plant and animal species (Romme & Turner, 1991). The majority of streams in the Centennial Valley have suffered from similar management misdirection and abuse as Odell and Red Rock Creeks, though some streams, such as sections of Price and Indian Creeks, are so highly functioning as to be considered reference sites (Jones, 2005). Fifty percent of Bureau of Land Management allotments are not meeting standards for rangeland health, and of those, 35% are due to cattle grazing impacts, often in riparian areas (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005b). Brundage Bridge, Brundage Creek, Fish Creek, Metzel Creek, Passmore, and the Phalarope Allotments were the worst, suffering from altered width/depth ratios, excess hummocking and pugging, insufficient vegetative cover, decadent willows, and increased sedimentation of streams (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Willow habitats in the Centennial Valley are important nesting substrate for several hawks (Restani, 1989; 1991) and support the largest and highest density populations of moose in the northern Rocky Mountains (Warren & O’Reilly, 2005). Not all riparian areas have been degraded, however. An extensive willow complex southeast of Upper Red Rock Lake is considered a top-ranked wetland site based on its intact hydrologic regime, high quality native plant communities, and minimal invasive weeds (Jones, 2004). Stream health is exceedingly important in the few streams that support remnant populations of west slope cutthroat trout and arctic grayling. Genetically pure strains of west slope cutthroat trout are only found in the upper reaches of Bean, Bear, Odell and Jones Creeks (Bean Creek Working Group, 2006b; Korb et al., 2005). West slope cutthroat trout have

Joseph Trudeau 34 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Wetlands and Riparian Areas declined in abundance and genetic purity throughout its native range of the northern Rocky Mountains and parts of Washington and Oregon due to introductions of nonnative fishes, anthropogenic habitat alterations, and overharvest. Populations at least 90% genetically pure inhabit only 144 streams, or less than three percent of streams, in the upper Missouri basin. The most loss of occupied habitats for west slope cutthroat trout is at the edges of its range, such as the upper Missouri Basin (Shepard et al., 2003). Because of all of these factors, the Centennial Valley populations are rated as having a high to very high risk of extinction (Sheperd et al., 1997). The Centennial Valley populations face the possibility of habitat loss if a high severity wildfire, like the Winslow Fire of 2003, was to burn through their watershed. Increased sedimentation resulting from runoff over exposed soil could make the streams unsuitable. This concern has prompted collaborative efforts by numerous agencies, organizations, and individuals to restore forest health in the watershed uplands of Bean Creek through strategic thinning and prescribed burning to decrease the risk of such a conflagration (Bean Creek Working Group, 2006b). Restoration of watershed uplands to conserve fish populations must be weighed against the possibility of losing base flows during summer months and the reality of earlier peaks flows that may come before fish are ready to spawn. Changes in snowmelt runoff timing could negatively affect the ability of some fish to access spawning reaches, and higher mean annual temperatures could make some headwaters watersheds unsuitable habitat for cold water fish as well as benefit non-native trout that function more efficiently at higher temperatures than some native fish (Hauer et al., 1997). Also, the likelihood of major fires occurring will only increase as the climate changes over the next century (Barnett et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2004). The second fish of high conservation focus in the Centennial Valley is the native Montana arctic grayling that exists in two ecologically distinct populations. One is the river dwelling fluvial arctic grayling found in the Big Hole River which are a major conservation focus of The Nature Conservancy and federal agencies. Upper Red Rock Lake hosts the other population. The lake-dwelling, technically referred to as lacustrine or adfluvial, arctic grayling exist in other Montana lakes but not in genetically pure populations (Gangloff, 1996; Kappel, 2007). This fish is at the southern extent of its range and population decline is attributed to habitat alteration, drought, reduced stream flows, siltation, anoxic winter habitat, and predation by or competition with non-native fishes (Gangloff, 1996; Rens & Magee, 2007). Lacustrine arctic grayling require suitable streams for spawning and once inhabited at least 12 streams in the

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Centennial Valley, but by the 1950’s populations started to disappear from many (Mogen, 1996). Now they almost entirely rely on Red Rock Creek for spawning habitat, which is why The Nature Conservancy has made restoration of this creek its highest priority in the Centennial Valley (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). Grayling periodically use Odell Creek but spawning is not consistent, and additional surveying is needed to determine if any other reaches are being used. Restoration experiments with remote site incubators installed in Red Rock, East and West Elk Springs, East Shambow, and Grayling Creeks have been marginally successful and may have produced grayling that later spawned in Elk Springs Creek (Kaeding & Boltz, 2004) which, provided water quality and spawning substrates can be maintained or improved, is a positive step towards recovery. The “Chain of Lakes” area from Elk Lake over the Madison River watershed divide into Hidden, Cliff, and other lakes support habitat for bald eagle, trumpeter swan, osprey, peregrine falcon, moose, bear, elk, and boreal chorus frogs, specifically in Narrows Canyon (USDA Forest Service, 2005c). Lake trout are found in Elk Lake but are not native here; the native range is in the Hudson Bay watershed in the far northern portion of Montana. The population is small and declining and has a poor age structure due to limited recruitment (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). Grayling in Elk Lake may have gone extinct early in the 1900’s and then reestablished by stocking (Gangloff, 1996), though they have not appeared in Elk Lake since the late 1980’s (Arctic Grayling Recovery Workgroup, 2006).

Lower Red Rock Lake was formed by impounding the Red Rock River to create waterfowl habitat and is only around six feet deep. About half of the lake is dominated by islands of bulrush and the other half is dominated by emergent vegetation. Lake levels are maintained by a headgate that may have trapped sediment and negatively affected the resources it was intended to protect. Maintenance of water levels could be difficult as climate changes and spring runoff comes earlier.

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The long-term effect of allowing cattle to graze directly in streams has been profoundly destructive. Riparian ecosystems have been destroyed, streams have become entrenched into single channels, water quality has been reduced by high amounts of sediment, and aquatic wildlife suffers from trampling. A critical step in restoring watershed integrity is fencing livestock out of riparian areas, such as this roadside section of East Clover Creek, which allows the system to begin recovering.

The major streams of the upper Centennial Valley ultimately become the lakes of which the Refuge is named, and sources of degradation eventually affect the quality of these lakes which are important habitat for several amphibians and reptiles (Roedel & Hendricks, 1998; Burton et al., 2002) and nearly 50 species of aquatic birds (Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). Upper and Lower Red Rock Lakes, as discussed earlier, are impounded by a water control structure which has regulated the level of the water for decades with some detriment to the biotic system. Interrupting the natural dynamics of rising and falling water levels may have had negative effects on the montane wetland ecosystem of the lake. Vegetation changes through time may be due to the raised level of the wetland complex. Historic records describe aquatic vegetation communities comprised of high amounts of Elodea canadensis, an important food source for trumpeter swans (Squires & Anderson, 1995), and varying amounts of Myriophyllum

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exalbescens and other species. Currently, Elodea cover is low and Myriophyllum is high (Warren et al., 2004) which could have negative impacts on trumpeter swan food availability. To improve habitat for birds, fish, and wildlife, the Refuge is experimenting with fluctuating the level of Lower Red Rock Lake through spring and summer drawdowns. The objective is to increase the percent cover of Potamogeton and Elodea (two species that grow well in low water years) within 10 years (Warren et al., 2004) and an unintended benefit may be flushing of sediments which could decrease turbidity in the lakes and provide downstream floodplains with nutrient rich silts. Water level rose only one foot when the water control structure was installed in 1957, but by holding back the natural flow sediment began to accumulate (Jean et al., 2002). Upper Red Rock Lake is very turbid resulting from sediment-laden inflow coming to rest in the shallow, low gradient geography of the valley bottom that does not lend to sediment flushing (John Pierce, pers. comm., 5 October 2007). The sedimentation of Red Rock Lakes has been an issue since at least the 1980’s (see Greater Yellowstone Coalition, 1986) but it may be a completely natural phenomenon occurring in a low gradient basin receiving drainage from highly erosive uplands since the last glaciation (Katzman, 1998). The long emergent beach on the north shore of Upper Red Rock Lake is evidence that the lake has slowly been receding since the last glaciation (Jean et al., 2002) which could explain claims that the lake has become more shallow. A single sediment core extracted from the northeast portion of Upper Red Rock Lake documented peak sedimentation levels around 1775, 1843, and 1906, and periods of low sedimentation around 1827, 1875, and an all-time low in 1969 (appendix C in Kay, 1994). This data, although it is only a single core from a portion of the lake, does not support claims that the lake has filled in significantly in the past century. In this author’s opinion, the spikes in sedimentation probably occurred following large forest fires that resulted in severe upland erosion. Moreover, analysis of mollusks retrieved in sediment cores refutes the idea that Upper Red Rock Lake has filled in during the last century (Gangloff, 1996). Regardless of the cause of sedimentation, it continues to occur to the detriment of arctic grayling (Gangloff, 1996), trumpeter swans (Povilitis & Mahr, 1998), and amphibians (Roedel & Hendricks, 1998). Very few amphibians and reptiles have been documented in the Centennial Valley. Western chorus frog, Columbia spotted frog, boreal toad, tiger salamander, and western terrestrial garter snake have been observed in recent surveys (Roedel & Hendricks, 1998; Burton

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et al., 2002). Wetland loss and degradation has affected these animals, including drying of isolated wetlands. Northern leopard frog has disappeared across most of its former range in western Montana and was not observed during recent surveys in the Centennial Valley (Roedel & Hendricks, 1998; Burton et al., 2002). It is believed that the drying of breeding ponds associated with climate change led to the local extirpation of this frog from ponds in Colorado (Corn & Fogleman, 1984). Roedel and Hendricks (1998) listed five amphibians and five reptiles as species of concern in Montana, and only eight years later seven amphibians and nine reptiles were listed (Montana Natural Heritage Program & Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2006), concurrent with increasingly dry and warm summers. Climate change can affect amphibians in both direct and indirect ways by disrupting their breeding season in spring, providing conditions suitable for the spread of infectious diseases, severe frosts late in the season, drought, or other unknown mechanisms (Carey & Alexander, 2003). Despite the Colorado frog example and the possible link between pond drying and population decline in the Centennial Valley, some studies have shown that climate change has not been responsible for amphibian declines (Carey & Alexander, 2003). Aquatic plant communities are not well understood in the Centennial Valley and may also suffer from enhanced sedimentation and regional warming and drying. Pierce and Jensen (2002) conducted the only attempt at classification of these communities in the northern Rocky Mountains. Of 111 sites examined, two sites which were representative of aquatic communities observed in the Red Rock Lakes were very near the Centennial Valley (John Pierce, pers. comm., 5 October 2007). The two main ecological values of aquatic plant communities are that they enhance a variety of processes in aquatic ecosystems including oxygen production, substrate stabilization, nutrient cycling and improved water quality, and they provide habitat for aquatic fauna, nest sites for waterfowl, and forage for large ungulates such as moose (Pierce & Jensen, 2002). The effects of sedimentation and land-use on aquatic plant communities are unknown but should be investigated as part of a holistic approach to understanding and restoring the exceedingly important aquatic system at Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. Leaving Lower Red Rock Lake, the Red Rock River travels 26.6 miles to Lima Reservoir and encompasses nearly 12,000 acres of wetland habitat (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d) in a diverse composite of oxbows, meanders, and abandoned channels (Jones, 2004). Vegetation is dominated by sedge, rush, and bulrush communities on a floodplain that varies

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between 100-200 feet wide and is as much as one mile wide near the Price Lane Bridge. Very little woody vegetation is found anywhere along its banks (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983) probably due to past range management practices (Jones, 2004). Two state rare plants, alpine meadow rue and mealy primrose, have been documented along the river as well as greasewood shrub communities on dry and alkaline sites (Jones, 2004). Twelve trumpeter swan breeding territories have been documented on these wetlands (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2002a).

The Red Rock River meanders widely through the western Centennial Valley through a vast expanse of associated wetlands nested in sagebrush steppe and grasslands. Homogenous vegetation dominated by sedges and rushes but very little woody vegetation line the banks of the river which is at times degraded by livestock trampling and entrenchment. Because of concentrated ownership the river presents a fantastic opportunity for restoration that can be compatible with continued livestock production.

Waterfowl habitat assessments by the Bureau of Land Management in 1983 rated most allotments along its course in poor condition and downward trending, and adjacent upland areas were rated as fair to poor (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983). Unfortunately those conditions may not have improved over the last quarter century as the productivity and diversity of wetlands in the Centennial Valley are still below potential due to a lack of water and low

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residual vegetation after grazing (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). The Nature Conservancy recently gave the overall Red Rock River aquatic system poor viability rankings based on its size, condition, and landscape context (Korb et al., 2005) although in some places the river is still relatively diverse and highly functional (Jones, 2004). The turbidity of the Red Rock River during low flow conditions is higher than other major southwestern Montanan streams during high flows. This can be attributed to highly erosive soils and historic overgrazing on public lands (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983, 1990). Degraded water quality, low gradient, and limited habitat diversity make this section of river a sparse fishery (Oswald, 2006). The degraded water of the Red Rock River ultimately constitutes most of the inflow to the Lima Reservoir which averages 5,500 acres depending on in-stream flow, weather, and dam operation (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983). Lima Reservoir provides important habitat for up to 3,000 whistling swans, trumpeter swans, 10,000-15,000 Canada geese, two peregrine falcon territories, bald and golden eagles, 40,000-50,000 ducks, and other waterbirds (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983, 2005a). Operation of Lima Dam results in an unstable environment for shoreline wetland establishment (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2002a, 2005a, 2005d) and wetland habitat conditions are less than desirable due to water level fluctuations, irrigation diversion, and livestock grazing practices (USDA Forest Service, 1999; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Water quality is impaired by sedimentation from upstream livestock operations and generally unstable soils which in addition to shoreline bank erosion has caused the reservoir to fill in significantly with sediment (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983). Livestock congregation around the reservoir has affected uplands to the point that sites within ½ mile of Lima Reservoir show static or declining trends in health (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Habitat improvement projects proposed in the early 1980’s included seasonal closures of oil and gas leases, formulation of allotment management plans, dike construction, pothole blasting along Red Rock River, island creation, goose and raptor nesting structures, land acquisitions, fence installations, tree, shrub, and willow planting, erosion control, and food plot development (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1983) to improve waterfowl habitat. Some objectives are not being met because they are not part of most existing allotment management plans where they exist (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). The Lima Reservoir is released into the Red Rock River that turns north towards its confluence with the Beaverhead River. Analysis of this reach is beyond the scope of this report.

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Wetlands and riparian areas of the Centennial Valley have been shown to be of high biological significance due to their size, diversity, and use by wildlife. Watershed integrity has overall been considered at risk, non-functioning, or in poor condition. Some aspects of the watershed are highly functional, such as willow shrublands, some mountain streams, fringe wetlands around lakes, and sections of the Red Rock River. Taken in sum, however, the net degradation of riparian areas by livestock, roads, and poor land use practices combined with alterations to natural wetland morphology has resulted in a system that functions below its potential but is certainly not beyond successful restoration. Broader continental and global trends such as the widespread loss of amphibians, regional drought, climate change, and interactions between various processes will have continued unknown affects on the Centennial Valley, but adaptive management and holistic restoration can potentially reduce the biological costs associated with these changes. It is important that restoration schemes take into consideration the future climate and how that may affect the outcomes of ongoing species, habitat, or ecosystem level restoration projects. Predictions widely agree that winters will be warmer and slightly wetter, spring and associated runoff events will come sooner, and summers will be more dry and warmer. The cumulative effects of these climatic variables in addition to the effects of larger, more severe fires on watershed processes are possibly outside the natural range of variability for some species and communities. It is likely that small, isolated wetlands or wetlands that depend on spring runoff will disappear altogether, and the freezing cycle of the lakes will be changed with consequences on biotic processes (Hostetler & Giorgi, 1995). The Centennial Valley is an important site for the conservation of species that are regionally or globally imperiled and its relatively intact nature makes it a prime location for maintaining and improving those populations. Additionally, the valleys diverse wetland and riparian systems organized along elevational, topographical, and directional gradients makes it a highly sensitive site to observe the effects of climate change (Hauer et al., 1997). The Nature Conservancy, Montana Partners for Fish and Wildlife, and other groups have made the wetland and riparian systems of the Centennial Valley a focus for collaborative restoration efforts that seek to ameliorate the damage done to natural systems over the past century as well as build a community of partners cooperatively engaged in active stewardship. Integrating comprehensive climate mitigation strategies into ongoing and future conservation initiatives will build upon the legacy of good work completed thus far by these organizations.

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Species discussed in this section: Wetlands and Riparian Areas Common name Scientific name Form State Global rank rank alpine meadow rue Thalictrum alpinum perennial forb S2 G5 arctic grayling Thymallus arcticus fish S1 G5 aspen Populus tremuloides tree bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus bird S3 G5 beaver Castor canadensis mammal black tern Chlidonias niger bird S3B G4 boreal/western chorus frog Pseudacris triseriata amphibian boreal/western toad Bufo boreas amphibian S2 G4 bulrush Scirpus spp. graminoid burbot Lota lota fish Canada goose Branta canadensis bird Canadian waterweed Elodea canadensis aquatic plant Columbia spotted frog Rana luteiventris amphibian common loon Gavia immer bird S2B G5 common water milfoil Myriophyllum exalbescens aquatic plant cottonwood Populus trichocarpa tree elk Cervus elaphus mammal golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos bird lake trout Salvelinus namaycush fish S2 G5 long-billed curlew Numenius americanus fish S2B G5 mealy primrose Primula incana perennial forb S2 G4G5 moose (Shiras) Alces alces shirasi mammal northern leopard frog Rana pipiens amphibian S1 G5 olive-sided flycatcher Contopus cooperi bird S3B G4 osprey Pandion haliaetus bird peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus bird S2B G4 pocket gopher Thymomys talpoides mammal pondweed Potamogeton spp. aquatic plant rush Juncus spp. graminoid sedge Carex spp. graminoid tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum amphibian Townsend’s big-eared bat Corynorhinus townsendii bat S2 G4 trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator bird S2 G4 western terrestrial garter snake Thamnophis elegans reptile west slope cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi fish S4 G2T3 whistling swans Olor columbianus bird Yellowstone cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri fish S4 G2T2

Joseph Trudeau 43 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix

The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix

The principal land cover in the Centennial Valley and much of southwestern Montana is a mosaic of sagebrush and grasslands. The broad, monotone basins connecting the regions much more alluring high country are the ecological and economic matrices that support the more focal components of southwestern Montana’s culture and environment. They are the impetus behind the motto Big Sky Country. Often, the many communities that comprise this mosaic are clumped under labels or descriptions like ‘sagebrush steppe’ or simply ‘sagebrush’, but the diversity found there deserves a more colorful nomenclature that unfortunately has not been developed. At least six species of woody sagebrush occupy various sites in the Centennial Valley (Table 1) and several other herbaceous Artemisia species are present although this discussion will not focus on these. Many dozens of grass, sedge, and rush species (the graminoids) are distributed widely across the Centennial Valley in all habitats and in native and non-native assemblages. The most frequently encountered in the region are Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, and three-leaved sedge (Cooper et al., 1999). In low elevation, non-wetland sites and the Gravelly foothills of the Centennial Valley, cover of grassland and sagebrush exceeds 90% (USDA Forest Service, 1999). For the entire ~370,000 acre Centennial Valley, around 100,000 acres is considered grassland and 130,000 is considered sagebrush (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Can such a large area really be considered a singular cover type? This foremost landscape component is unrivaled in its physical coverage as well as its lack of appreciation.

Table 1. Sagebrush Species of the Centennial Valley Other species may exist but are inadequately documented (A. nova, A. cana, A. pedatifida, A. frigida, and A. scopulorum). Taxonomic confusion surrounds the dwarf sagebrush species; additional research is need to confirm site, distribution, and ecology information Common Scientific Name Habitat Characteristics Ecology Name mountain big sage Artemisia. tridentata 6,000-9,600 feet; broad spectrum of site most extensive sage species in region; moderate post- spp. vaseyana parameters; few specific requirements; fire recovery time (~32 yrs); high fuel accumulations widely distributed basin big sage A. tridentata spp. 5,300-6,900 feet; deep, non-rocky, greatly reduced due to conversion to agriculture; tridentata sandy, well-drained soils, remaining moderately diverse communities; dominant shrub; moist into late summer; low-gradient short post-fire recovery time (~26 yrs); sparse fuels; alluvial terraces; sandhills very tall stature Wyoming big sage A. tridentata spp. 5,900-6,700 feet; lower elevations; driest low growth form; highly diverse communities; co- wyomingensis sites dominant with several other shrubs; very long post- fire recovery time (100+ yrs) low sagebrush A. arbuscula uncommon; restricted to southwest dwarf shrub Montana early low A. longiloba below 7,500 feet; heavy soils; poorly low fuel accumulations, generally inflammable sites sagebrush drained three-tip A. tripartita not tolerant of very xeric sites pulse establishment following fire; opportunistic seral sagebrush dominant Sources: Cooper et al., 1999; Jean et al., 2002; Lesica, 2003; Lesica et al., 2005; Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007

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From Landon Ridge in the foothills of the Gravelly Mountains, the diversity of the Centennial Valleys lower elevations is apparent, as well as the confounding mosaic of communities that has thus far eluded attempts at accurate landscape-scale classification and definition. The ridges in the foreground show the patchwork of sagebrush and grassland types in varying degrees of density and canopy coverage. Beyond the ridge, the Centennial Sandhills are visible which harbor unique communities as well as many animal and plant species of concern. Beyond the sandhills, grassland and shrub communities transition from dry to wet habitats as they near the 8,000 acre riverine marsh complex between Upper and Lower Red Rock Lakes.

The sagebrush-grassland mosaic in the Centennial Valley is second in importance to wetlands and aquatic systems in conserving animal and plant species of concern. Grassland complexes support more terrestrial species in need of conservation than any other community type in Montana (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). Fourteen percent of Montana’s animal species of concern are associated with these vegetation types (Montana Natural Heritage Program & Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2006) and the montage of wide open and largely intact sagebrush and grassland ecosystems in the Centennial Valley provides habitat for a wide range of more common animals as well. Mule deer have historically been a common ungulate in big sage types and since the 1970’s have competed with increasing populations of whitetail deer for forage and cover resources (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Currently 1,500- 2,000 elk winter in the Centennial Valley and several thousand more travel through from areas

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west and north (Jewett, 1999; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). The Centennial Valley is important summer habitat for American pronghorn that move east from the Sage Creek area 10 miles east of Dell although some parts of the valley are not meeting their needs as a result of reduced cover, competing livestock Mule deer are common in sagebrush and ecotone areas in the Centennial Valley. Since the 1970’s use, or habitat fragmentation (USDI whitetail deer populations have risen which has increased competition for fora ge and cover resources. Bureau of Land Management, 2002a, 2005a). Wolves infrequently utilize open habitats in the northeastern Centennial Valley where numerous cattle make easy prey and grizzly bears are known to travel through the valley towards core habitat in the Gravelly Mountains (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). In this open country you can expect to see some of the 22 raptor species that are found in the Centennial Valley like the relatively common northern harrier hovering several yards above the plains or one of three common hawks that feed on small mammals at the forest edge (see Restani, 1989, 1991 for discussion). Open land denizens and rarities of the west like Columbian sharp-tailed grouse, sage thrasher, Brewers sparrow, grey partridge and sage grouse are at home here. The sage grouse has become a focal species for management and conservation in the northern Rocky Mountains in recent years and has been petitioned for listing as an endangered species. Twelve known sage grouse leks (breeding and nesting concentrations) occur in the Centennial Valley, mostly west of the Red Rock Lakes (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d) where populations and individuals move between the Lima Reservoir area and Horse Prairie 50 miles to the west (Roscoe, 2002). High concentrations of sage grouse are found in the Fish Creek vicinity where over 70 males congregate, but leks at Lima Reservoir host fewer than 20 males in

total and have declined significantly since the From: National Wildlife Federation, 2003

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1960’s (Ben Deeble, pers. comm., 15 September 2007) as they have throughout the area (National Wildlife Federation, 2003). One of the Centennial Valley’s hot spots for animals is the Centennial sandhills, where surveys have documented 18 species of mammals, 29 species of birds, two amphibian and one reptile species, four species of tiger beetles, and 14 species of diurnal butterflies (Hendricks & Roedel, 2001). Animals of special concern documented in the sandhills include the black-tailed jackrabbit, pygmy rabbit, Preble’s shrew, great basin pocket mouse, tiger salamander, chorus frog, western terrestrial garter snake, ferruginous hawk, Brewers sparrow, grasshopper sparrow, sage thrasher, and long-billed curlew (Hendricks & Roedel, 2001, 2002).

The sandhills occur on a one to two mile wide and nine mile long band of sand dune deposits that originated following late Pleistocene lake retreat when winds blowing generally from the southwest deposited sand in low parallel ridges at the base of the Gravelly foothills (Cooper et al., 1999; Mantas & Korb, 2007). Among the swath of deposits, two concentrations of mostly stabilized dunes are found approximately five miles from each other on opposite sides of Tepee Creek. The west sandhills cover ~2,800 acres and ownership is divided between the Bureau of Land Management, State of Montana, Red Rock Lakes N.W.R., and The Nature Conservancy. These have substantial topographic relief of 30-40 feet or more and associated with this relief are destabilized blowout features. The east sandhills cover ~800 acres and are entirely within the Red Rock Lakes Wilderness Area. These are generally lower and less dramatic topographically than the west sandhills. The two areas are floristically different from

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The west Centennial sandhills, on the north side of Red Rock Lakes N.W.R., feature globally rare plant communities and species among the matrix of basin and mountain big sage. Many of the rare components of the sandhills ecosystem rely on periodic disturbance to initiate erosion events, or blowouts, on the leeward side of the dunes. These exposed sands offer important habitat for early succesional plants and animals.

each other, though within each, composition is similar (Mantas & Korb, 2007). The west sandhills have received greater conservation interest because of the multiple ownerships that do not ensure appropriately sensitive management and because of the unique blowouts which provide early succesional habitat that is required by several species of concern. The Centennial sandhills are one of only two sandhill sites in Montana and are considered a hot spot for state and globally rare plant species richness because of the large number of rare species in a relatively small area that is in mostly good condition (Lesica, 2003). Those near the Medicine Lakes in northeastern Montana are a larger complex, but the Centennial sandhills are at a higher elevation; in fact they are the highest sandhills in the northern Rocky Mountains (Hendricks & Roedel, 2001). Four rare plants are found there: the only known Montana occurrence of the globally rare Idaho painted milkvetch which is also found in southeastern Idaho’s sandhills; the only known occurrence of sand wildrye in Montana; Fendler’s cats-eye; and pale evening primrose (Cooper et al., 1999; Lesica, 2003; Mantas & Korb, 2007). These

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species require the early succesional habitat provided when dunes blow out following disturbances such as wind, sheep, cattle, and bison (Lesica & Cooper, 1997) grazing, fire which occurred as recently as 2006 (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007), or pocket gopher burrowing (Lesica & Cooper, 1999). Rare communities unique to the Centennial sandhills like the thickspike wheatgrass/silverleaf phacelia association and the green rabbitbrush/needle-and- thread-grass association also require these disturbed habitats, while basin big sage/needle-and- thread-grass is endemic to stabilized dunes (Cooper et al., 1999; Lesica, 2003).

The majority of the Centennial Valley is a mosaic of sagebrush and grassland ecosystems that are heavily influenced by fire, grazing, and long-term climatic cycles. Our understanding of these systems is minimal but interest is growing. The dynamic effects of natural and human induced disturbance on the attributes of this mosaic are largely unknown and due to the sheer extent of these systems not easily deduced.

The Nature Conservancy recently acquired a 1,400 acre parcel in the sandhills as part of their 11,500 acre Murphy Creek ranch purchase (Kappel, 2007) where they are restoring some essential disturbance processes. Here, they are experimenting with combinations of prescribed fire and short duration high intensity cattle grazing on 200-300 acre experimental units to evaluate their effects on promoting early succesional habitats and associated rare plants and animals (Mantas & Korb, 2007). This severe management approach has been suggested by

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experts as a critical strategy for improving and maintaining habitat for what may be imperiled species at the edge of their ranges hanging on in insufficient habitat (Hendricks & Roedel, 2001; Korb et al., 2005; Lesica & Cooper, 1996, 1999; Lesica, 2003). The Bureau of Land Management has adopted a similar approach, designating their 1,040 acre section of the sandhills as an Area of Critical Environmental Concern which is subject to special management including prescribed fire followed by short duration high intensity grazing to destabilize dunes and create and/or maintain early seral habitat (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2006). The role of grazing in promoting significant habitat in the sandhills should not necessarily be extrapolated to the other 200,000+ acres of grasslands and sagebrush in the Centennial. Grazing can be managed well to mimic natural patterns of bison such as in this case, or it can be mismanaged with undesirable outcomes. Livestock production is an important cultural component of the Centennial Valley and understanding the beneficial roles of grazing in addition to the negative effects of it is crucial. Different species of sagebrush respond very differently to fire, with community recovery time ranging from 26 years to more than a century, making proper identification very important before implementing any land management prescriptions (Lesica et al., 2005). Some critics have argued that burning in sagebrush constitutes a habitat conversion because the immediate post-fire community is dominated by grasses and represents a loss of sagebrush habitat (Chuck Maddox, pers. comm., 20 July 2007) prompting realizations that the common notion that fire improves range conditions should be re- evaluated (Wambolt et al., 2001). Land managers who are charged with maintaining the full range of species in addition to providing forage for cattle see the benefits of fire whereas biologists concerned with specific species may be completely against the perceived loss of habitat for sage-obligates. However, this is an unfair assessment since many of these systems have been shown to return to their pre-burn state within a few decades, so the loss is only a short- term, temporary reduction in canopy cover and density at the landscape scale which contributes to the natural patchiness across any given area. (Jay Frederick & Kevin Suzuki, pers. comm., 13 July, 2007). Fire in sagebrush may reduce competition between sagebrush and herbaceous species and help maintain populations of rare plants such as railhead milkvetch, large-leaved balsamroot, and many-ribbed sedge (Lesica, 2003) and lower intensity prescribed fires that increase grass cover could in fact benefit sage grouse as well (Lesica et al., 2005). Assuming that fires historically

Joseph Trudeau 50 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix

may have burned about every 25-50 years (Arno & Gruell, 1983; Heyerdahl et al., 2006; Korb, 2005a) throughout sagebrush and grassland systems and on into higher elevation forests, and that they would have not been constrained by roads or suppression, then much of the landscape would have been maintained in an early to mid-succesional stage in a mosaic of densities, compositions, and coverage (Lesica et al., 2005). Furthermore, in the absence of these common, large fire events our current landscape may be dominated by unnaturally dense stands of sagebrush and fewer grasslands (Jay Frederick & Kevin Suzuki, pers. comm., 13 July 2007) allowing modern fires to act in ways that are indeed undesirable. However, historic accounts of the Centennial Valley made note of sagebrush being an extensive landscape component (Lesica & Cooper, 1997). Focal species such as sage grouse, Brewer’s sparrow, sage thrasher and pygmy rabbit all require certain seral conditions and structural heterogeneity within the mosaic, therefore understanding the role of fire in maintaining a variety of conditions benefits conservation as well as increasing forage for livestock production (Lesica et al., 2005).

In 1981, 2,000 acres burned on Landon Ridge above Tepee Creek. The site was dominated by sagebrush and converted to grassland which has not shown much recovery. The road acted as a fire break and had it not been there the fire would have continued into the forests of the Gravelly Mountains, highlighting the indirect suppression effects of human infrastructure on natural fire regimes.

Despite its prevalence in the Centennial Valley our understanding of sagebrush and grassland vegetation is fairly limited (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). In spite of being the dominant vegetation type in southwest Montana, management strategies to conserve

Joseph Trudeau 51 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix

the full variety of species dependent on these communities have only recently been pursued (Lesica et al., 2005). There is a limited capacity for describing essential characteristics of the density and canopy cover of these systems that are essential information for making sound decisions. Historically, distribution descriptions of the sagebrush landscape have been lumped by density or cover classes across large areas, but those matrices have not afforded a fair assessment of habitat quality, integrity, or other important ecosystem attributes at functional or manageable smaller scales. The Montana Natural Heritage Program “Centennial Valley Land Cover Map” (page 6 this document) is an example of this. Notice how most of the Centennial Valley is classified rather plainly as “sagebrush: low, moderate, or high cover”. This map is a huge step forward (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007) but still inadequate for application to land management on the ground and does not even offer a category for pure grasslands. The patchiness in sage habitats cannot currently be mapped using existing tools in part because the data storage required for such an extensive land area is prohibitively large. Simply stated, we have been using big-picture technology for small scale assessment and description, which cannot capture this variation in density, composition, and cover. Tools for describing this heterogeneity are important developments to be pursued and field data systems for ground truthing those tools could contribute to more informed decision making and better management on-the-ground. The SageMap database, maps, and other products fairly represented Great Basin systems but the use of imagery for Montana was poor (see http://sagemap.wr.usgs.gov/index.asp). GAP analysis (see Fisher et al., 1998 and Redmond et al., 1998) cannot accurately map and describe sagebrush or grassland complexes either. An ecological approach based on the National Vegetation Classification System (see Grossman et al., 1998) will have greater management applicability and should be supported (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). Also, SILC data which is used by federal agencies are also not adequate for fair description of these lands. A revised Landsat map for National Forests within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem can be expected in the next few years that will improve upon these methods (Jay Frederick & Kevin Suzuki, pers. comm., 13 July 2007) but millions of acres of public and private lands dominated by sagebrush and grasslands will not be assessed under this project. Problems with our understanding of these lands can be traced to the unwarranted comparison with Great Basin sagebrush ecosystems, poor imagery of too coarse a scale, and assumptions of landscape homogeneity of density and coverage values. Climatic, soil, topographic, and other factors

Joseph Trudeau 52 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix

differentiate northern Rockies sagebrush types from Great Basin types, and the use of literature and classifications developed in the Great Basin inaccurately describes or represents the sagebrush communities present in the Centennial Valley and environs (Jay Frederick & Kevin Suzuki, pers. comm., 13 July, 2007). There have been significant modifications to sagebrush and grassland ecosystems in the Centennial Valley outside Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. mostly due to the high percentage of these lands held in state and private ownership (57% of the valley; Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation manages over 57,450 acres in Centennial Valley; Gomez et al., 2001). At least 11,000 acres of native grassland have been converted to irrigated pasture and over 5,000 acres are now dominated by wild hay (Povilitis & Mahr, 1998) although little or no hay is actually produced in the Centennial Valley today (Gomez et al., 2001). Pastures converted to hay field are now wild meadows of introduced grasses like timothy, Kentucky bluegrass, fowlgrass, and smooth brome which have probably irreversibly reduced biodiversity in valley bottom mixed grasslands (Cooper et al., 1999). Sagebrush treatments in the past along the northern flanks of the Centennial Valley, such as herbicide application and prescribed burning are at least partially responsible for depressed populations of sage grouse and other sagebrush dependent wildlife species; in fact, across southern Beaverhead County these effects are most pronounced in the Centennial Valley (USDA Forest Service, 1999). The restoration of these habitats in the Centennial Valley could improve wildlife habitat significantly which would benefit Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. by reducing fragmentation and enhancing wildlife distribution and dispersal (USDA Forest Service, 1999). Montana’s Comprehensive Fish and Wildlife Conservation Strategy (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005) identified Southwest Montana’s Intermontane Basins and Valleys ecoregion, which encompasses most of the Centennial Valley’s lower elevation valley floor, as an area in great need of conservation. Community types in greatest need of conservation in the Centennial Valley include grassland complexes, sagebrush, sandhills, and salt flats (Korb et al., 2005; Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). These basins and valleys are highly valued for residential development and are under imminent threat of habitat fragmentation. These characteristic open spaces have been in some places significantly reduced in size by encroaching forests in the absence of fire (Arno & Gruell, 1983; Kay, 1999; Sankey et al., 2006). Invasive exotic weeds pose incredible threats to the integrity of the Centennial Valley’s bottomlands and

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sagebrush steppe, especially if major fires open up niches for them to invade. Cheatgrass, one of the worst weeds in the west, was noted as a concern on the south facing grassland slopes along the northwest part of Lima Reservoir (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a) and may be creeping into the Centennial Valley via back roads coming from valleys to the north and west. Climate change may have tremendous effects on the sagebrush ecosystem. Sagebrush is generally dominant in areas where temperatures typically fall below freezing for portions of the year but may be too dry to support forest trees. If the lower elevations of the Centennial Valley warmed sufficiently to reduce the number of days below freezing then sagebrush could lose its competitive advantage over other shrubs. It is projected that sagebrush habitats will decline significantly over the next century all across the west and convert to shrub systems dominated by warm weather species (Rapp, 2004; Shafer et al., 2001. The existing interior western region dominated by sagebrush could in fact fragment quickly if a temperature threshold were exceeded (Rapp, 2004). Conversely, if summers were to become wetter, sagebrush habitats could be invaded by expanding Douglas-fir forests that would move downslope unless soil, nutrient, or other factors prevented tree encroachment, or desert-like environments such as the sandhills could be eliminated (Romme & Turner, 1991). Interestingly, sagebrush responds to decreased snowpack by increasing growth rates (Perfors et al., 2003), so upper elevations could see enhanced stands of sagebrush as snowpack decreases and melts earlier. Despite the possibility of expansion at higher elevations, the loss of lower elevation sagebrush-dominated shrub systems would be hugely detrimental to the variety of wildlife discussed in this chapter. Additionally, conversion of shrub systems to non-native grass systems as seen throughout the Great Basin is a possibility. Creative solutions to problems with management and understanding of the Centennial Valley’s grasslands and sagebrush steppe are being pursued by The Nature Conservancy at the sandhills, by cooperative ventures that improve livestock management, and by technological investments by managing agencies. Appropriate fire and livestock management are important components of a comprehensive approach to a holistic association between humans and Nature in the Centennial Valley. Acceptance of fire as part of natural systems has been embraced by agencies and much of the public. Innovative ideas can facilitate restoration of grassland and shrub ecosystems, such as establishing free-ranging bison populations outside of Yellowstone National Park in suitable grassland habitats where they can function ecologically and operate as

Joseph Trudeau 54 Centennial Valley Environmental Review The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix

keystone species (Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 2005). Our collective understanding of these ecosystems has advanced significantly in recent years as we have become enlightened to their role in species conservation, ecological processes, watershed protection, and cultural heritage. Understanding the habitat requirements for the variety of wildlife that utilize sagebrush and grasslands in the Centennial Valley as well as the management requirements for plants will help develop strategies for conservation of common and rare species as the climate continues to change and the dominance of sagebrush across the lower elevations of the interior west comes into question. Species discussed in this section: The Grassland/Sagebrush Matrix *excludes Artemisia species listed earlier Common Name Scientific Name Form State Global Rank Rank American pronghorn Antilocarpa americana mammal bison Bison bison mammal black-tailed jackrabbit Lepus californicus mammal S2 G5 Brewers sparrow Spizella breweri bird S2B G5 cheatgrass Bromus tectorum graminoid chorus frog (western/boreal) Pseudacris triseriata amphibian Columbian sharp-tailed grouse Tympanuchus phasianellus columbianus bird S1 G4T3 elk Cervus elaphus mammal Fendler’s cats-eye Cryptantha fendleri annual forb S2 G4 ferruginous hawk Buteo regalis bird S2B G4 fowlgrass Poa palustris graminoid grasshopper sparrow Ammodramus savannarum bird S3B G5 great basin pocket mouse Perognathus parvus mammal S2S3 G5 green rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus shrub grey partridge Perdix perdix bird grizzly bear Ursos acrtos mammal S2S3 G4 Idaho painted milkvetch Astragalus ceramicus var. apus perennial forb S1 G4T3 Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis graminoid large-leaved balsamroot Balsamorhiza macrophylla perennial forb S2 G3G5 long-billed curlew Numenius americanus bird S2B G5 many-ribbed sedge Carex multicostata graminoid S1 G5 mule deer Odocoileus hemionus mammal needle and thread grass Stipa comata graminoid northern harrier Circus cyaneus bird pale evening primrose Oenothera pallida var. idahoensis perennial forb S1 G4T4Q pocket gopher Thymomys talpoides mammal Preble’s shrew Sorex preblei mammal S3 G4 pygmy rabbit Brachylagus idahoensis mammal S3 G4 railhead milkvetch Astragalus terminalus perennial forb S2 G3 sage grouse Centrocercus urophasianus bird sage thrasher Oreoscoptes montanus bird S3B G5 sand wildrye Elymus flavenscens graminoid S1 G4 silverleaf phacelia Phacalia hastata perennial forb S2 G4 smooth brone Bromus inermis graminoid thickspike wheatgrass Elymus lanceolatus graminoid tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum amphibian timothy Phleum pratense graminoid western terrestrial garter snake Thamnophis elegans reptile whitetail deer Odocoileus virginianus mammal wolf Canis lupus mammal S3 G4

Joseph Trudeau 55 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Mid Elevation Conifer Forests

Mid Elevation Conifer Forests

The mid elevation coniferous forests of the Centennial Valley are found in both the Centennial Mountains to the south of the valley bottom, the Henry’s Lake Mountains that form the eastern boundary of the valley, and the Gravelly foothills to the north. These widespread forests are dominated by Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine with small amounts of higher elevation conifer species, as well as aspen, often in extensive groves (these types are described in the following two sections). Topography in the mid elevation conifer forest ranges from nearly flat at the base of the Centennial Mountains and low-slope hills and ridges on Elk and Deer Mountains to very steep at the highest occurrences of Douglas-fir at approximately 8,200 feet in the Centennial’s (Korb, 2005a). Precipitation varies widely across this type, from 15 inches at the valley floor to over 30 inches on high north facing slopes. Mid elevation conifer forests were selected by The Nature Conservancy as a specific conservation target in the Centennial Valley. Enhanced conservation of these Douglas-fir dominated stands will help protect goshawk, great gray owl, black- backed woodpecker, fisher, martin, wolverine, grizzly bear, and vernal wetlands (Korb et al., 2005). The effect of aspect is a highly important determinant of forest structure, composition, and disturbance history in the Centennial Valley’s mid elevations. The Centennial Mountain range is unique in that it is the only east-west trending range of significant relief in Montana (Lesica, 2003) and one of only a few in the entire Rocky Mountains. The east-west trend creates Even-aged Douglas-fir stand on the lower north slope of Nemesis Mountain that has probably increased in many north facing slopes on a small density significantly since the initiation of fire suppression and livestock grazing in the late 1800’s. range which has profound influence on Lush carpets of grass and forbs are common to this forest type that is at high risk of widespread wildfire.

Joseph Trudeau 56 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Mid Elevation Conifer Forests

moisture regimes, species composition, and wildlife use (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007) and supports forest plant associations at low elevations in contrast to other portions of southwestern Montana where grasslands prevail (Cooper & Heidel, 1999). This forest is essentially an unbroken canopy from Red Rock Pass to the far western portion of the Centennial Mountains at Monida Pass, except for avalanche chutes at the eastern end, periodic sagebrush/grassland openings, and recent forest loss resulting from the 2003 Winslow Fire. These moist, open forests provide habitat for the rare Sitka columbine which is known in Montana only from the Centennial Valley and surrounding areas, and James’ stitchwort, known in Montana only from the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station and Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. (Culver, 1994). Some of the best examples of old-growth Douglas-fir in the Middle-Rockies-Blue Mountains Ecoregion occurs on the slopes of the Centennial Mountains (Middle Rockies-Blue Mountains Planning Team, 2000). Subalpine fir is considered a climax species in these forests but due to intense winter moose hedging the fir will probably never become an important component of the canopy of these stands. (Cooper & Heidel, 1999; Dorn, 1970; Lesica, 2003). Conversely, other forested areas such as the Gravelly foothills and Deer and Elk Mountains are much dryer and comprised of patches, or islands, of forest versus a continuous canopy. Fire-history study sites at Elk Mountain were only 40% forested (Korb, 2005a) and the U.S. Forest Service’s Low Elevation Breaklands and Shrublands Ecological Land Unit which covers the Gravelly foothills averages only six percent forested (USDA Forest Service, 1999).

Patchy forests of Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and aspen are distributed throughout much of the northern and eastern Centennial Valley. This view from the summit of Mt. Jefferson through haze caused by wildfires in the Pioneer and Tendoy Mountains in July, 2007 captures the mosaic of forests, shrublands, and grasslands on Deer Mountain above Alaska Basin. The Madison Valley lies beyond Deer Mountain and Henry’s Lake is to the right.

Joseph Trudeau 57 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Mid Elevation Conifer Forests

Tom Creek viewed from the Continental Divide. Douglas-fir mortality is severe in areas and appears to be continuing based on recent browning of needles. Bark beetle infestations in the eastern Centennial’s have become epidemic. The largest and oldest trees are typically targeted by the insect. A warmer climate has triggered these events.

Recent assessments of the Centennial Valley by the Bureau of Land Management determined that overall forest health on lands administered by that agency was Functioning at Risk and trending downward because of overstocking due to fire suppression and insect epidemics (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Douglas-fir bark beetle has been locally present for at least 20 years but has recently exploded into an epidemic problem in the eastern Centennial’s where it has killed up to 30% or more of the largest trees, and it is likely that it will continue to expand west to where it is already active in Peet Creek. In addition, a spruce budworm cycle that began in 2002 is attacking intermediate and suppressed Douglas-fir and has risen to epidemic rates, and combined with drought and bark beetle has resulted in tremendous mortality and extreme fuel loads (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005c, 2005d). Forest pest infestations across the west can be attributed to exceptional hot, dry weather over the past decade (Logan et al., 2003) and it is very likely that warmer and dryer summers will enhance the rate and extent of these infestations (Ayers & Lombardero, 2000; Dale et al., 2001). The western Centennial Mountains have experienced a serious mountain pine beetle outbreak that has resulted in 35-60% mortality of larger lodgepole pine (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a, 2005c). Mountain pine beetle outbreaks are limited and Douglas-fir bark beetle is present at low levels in the xeric forest islands on the north side of the Centennial

Joseph Trudeau 58 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Mid Elevation Conifer Forests

Valley, but these stands may still be at risk of serious insect mortality as spruce budworm is approaching epidemic levels (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Lower to mid elevation forests have undergone moderate to severe departure from their natural fire regimes (Korb, 2005a) which has fostered the conditions that insect outbreaks require to occur. Douglas-fir stocking has tripled in the Baldy Mountain area since the 1860’s (USDI Bureau of An island of Douglas-fir and aspen at the headwaters of Land Management, 2005c). Tepee Creek in the northeastern Centennial Valley. The stature of these trees is impressive: many are more Repeat photography, aerial than three feet diameter yet shorter than fifty feet tall, and they tend to lean considerably to the east as a result photography analysis, and of constant high winds. ecological studies have documented loss of montane grasslands, sagebrush communities, aspen, and subalpine meadows throughout the Centennial Mountains as conifers have expanded into openings and increased the density of existing stands (Kay, 1999; Korb, 2005; Sankey et al., 2006). Climate change studies have predicted that Douglas-fir will expand its range both up and down in elevation and along other gradients as well (Romme & Turner, 1991), further enhancing the current situation of forest encroachment. Proactive steps to improve forest health in the mid elevation forests of the Centennial Valley are necessary to reduce the risk of widespread loss of key ecosystem components. These forests are no longer resilient to fire and insect stress as these natural disturbances have evolved from being frequent small-scale events to infrequent but sustained landscape-scale catastrophe’s. The future climate will potentially exacerbate the existing widespread mortality caused by pests, pathogens, and severe fire.

Joseph Trudeau 59 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Mid Elevation Conifer Forests

Species discussed in this section: Mid elevation forests Common name Scientific name Form State rank Global rank black-backed woodpecker Picoides arcticus bird S2 G5 Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii conifer Douglas-fir bark beetle Dendroctonus pseudotsugae insect pest Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii conifer fisher Martes pennanti mammal S3 G5 goshawk Accipiter gentalis bird S3 G5 great gray owl Strix nebulosa bird S3 G5 grizzly bear Ursus arctos mammal S2S3 G4 James’ stitchwort Stellaria jamesiana perennial forb S1 G5 lodgepole pine Pinus contorta conifer martin Martes martes mammal moose Alces alces shirasi mammal mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae insect pest Sitka columbine Aquilegia formosa perennial forb S1S2 G5 subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa conifer spruce budworm Choristoneura occidentalis insect pest wolverine Gulo gulo luscus mammal S3 G4T4

Tomorrows old-growth, northern Centennial Valley

Joseph Trudeau 60 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Aspen

Aspen

The Centennial Valley supports some of the most extensive and pristine aspen stands in southwest Montana, but a substantial portion of aspen cover has been lost in recent decades (Korb et al., 2005; Middle Rockies-Blue Mountains Planning Team, 2000) and patterns in climate change will likely cause continued decline. Extensive stands occur on approximately 33,000 acres throughout the riparian, Douglas-fir, and subalpine forests of the Centennial Mountains as well as riparian and upland sites on the north side of the valley. Aspen groves tend to support a variety of plants, insects, and birds not found in coniferous forests (Hessl, 2002) such as many-flowered viguera, a rare flower found in aspen forests in the eastern Centennial Mountains (http://nhp.nris.state.mt.us/). Many of these stands, however, are in dramatic decline and warrant immediate attention to restore the processes that sustain the aspen cover type within the Centennial Valley and across the entire region. Restoration of this tree may be difficult within the context of a warmer, dryer climate.

A unique pocket of aspen on private land in the northwestern Centennial Valley. This isolated stand near the Clover Divide on the Blacktail Road shows signs of decline and rejuvenation. Clones like this in sagebrush-dominated steppes may be thousands of years old. These islands offer important refugia in an otherwise exposed landscape.

Joseph Trudeau 61 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Aspen

The foothills of the Gravelly and Snowcrest Ranges support islands of aspen in pure stands or intermixed with Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine. These clones form pockets of rich, shaded habitat valuable to plants and animals in a landscape that is otherwise exposed sagebrush and grasslands (USDA Forest Service, 1999). The most extensive aspen stands in southwest Montana occur on the lower flanks of the Centennial Mountains (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Frequent fire, avalanches, landslides, slumps, floods, and beaver historically maintained this early succesional tree across a broad swath of the range. Historical photos show aspen as a much more prominent feature of the Centennial landscape and stands were in healthier condition (Kay, 1999; USDA Forest Service, 1999). Modeling by the Bureau of Land Management suggested that prior to the advent of fire suppression policies aspen cover was 300% greater in the Centennial Valley (Pat Fosse, pers. comm., 19 July 2007). Periodic flooding by beaver contributes to creation of wetlands rich in nutrients that can provide valuable floodplain habitat for aspen (Jordan et al., 1993; Kay, 1994). Local biologists have observed that An island of young aspen 15-20 feet tall in the northeastern Centennial Valley. Aspen stands north of Red Rock Lakes beaver colonies have declined are declining less than those in the Centennial Mountains. substantially since the 1970’s and long-term re-colonization is not occurring (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Historic beaver activity was noted on almost all drainages surveyed for the Bureau of Land Managements Centennial Watershed Assessment, but very little current activity was noted. Loss of aspen may have detrimental impacts on beaver food supplies (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a), thus enhancing the negative effects of diminished beaver populations on riparian habitat creation and maintenance. The Odell Creek watershed, which is one of the largest tributary streams to the Red Rock River in the Centennial Valley, supports viable beaver populations. Surveys in 1993 observed at least 44 active beaver dams and seven active colonies in the Odell Creek drainage yet aspen clones were still observed to be in decline (Kay, 1994). In addition to contributing to

Joseph Trudeau 62 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Aspen

aspen decline, the loss of beaver throughout much of the Centennial Valley has had dramatic effects on channel entrenchment, lowering of water tables, and sedimentation of downstream reaches (USDA Forest Service, 1999). Overall, aspen in the Centennial Valley is in poor condition (Korb et al., 2005). Most stands in the valley are being lost to conifers in the absence of fire and other disturbances (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Where young stands have regenerated following the 2003 Winslow fire, ubiquitous elk browsing has prevented most recruitment from growing past browse height (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). Elk browsing is the principal concern of land managers in the Centennial Valley who deal with aspen, and despite the co-evolution of aspen and elk in the Centennial Valley, external stressors like removal of predators, changes in habitat use, and expanding human population which may lead to an increasing population in the secure Centennial Valley have worsened the elks effects on aspen (Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network, 2006). A small number of stands are in good health, however, such as areas east of Metzel Creek on the north side of the valley where a variety of age classes are present, possibly due to increased disturbance caused by soil movement (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005c).

A declining aspen strand near the edge of Upper Red Rock Lake, Red Rock Lakes N.W.R. Overstory trees are dead or dying, and sprouts are limited in growth due to ungulate browsing pressure. The ability of this clone to persist in a shrub state for extended periods may be an important factor in the preservation of this highly significant tree in the Centennial Valley.

Joseph Trudeau 63 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Aspen

Aspen restoration in the Centennial Valley has been made a priority by The Nature Conservancy (Korb et al., 2005), the U.S. Forest Service (USDA Forest Service, 1999) and the Bureau of Land Management (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Thinning of conifers, prescribed fire, wildland fire use, or a combination of these has the potential to benefit a variety of wildlife including red-naped sapsuckers, Swainson’s hawk, red-eyed vireo, lazuli bunting, veery, boreal toad (Korb et al., 2005), red-tailed hawk (Restani, 1991), grizzly bear, lynx, wolves, songbirds (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d), and moose which use aspen only second to willow habitats (Dorn, 1970). Aspens life history trait of clonal reproduction may be an evolutionary adaptation that allows it to persist through times of unfavorable conditions. It can exist in a shrub state for extended periods of time and when conditions improve it may react favorably, though little evidence exists to support the idea that shrub aspen can survive when the overstory parent trees die (Hessl, 2002). If this is the case the decline in aspen may be a temporary adjustment that will correct itself if elk effects can be mitigated and fire-induced recruitment increases. If the decline signals a long-term elimination of aspen from the Centennial Valley, then restoration projects must continue to expand throughout the valley or risk losing a critical component of the valley ecosystem. Decreased winter snowpacks could reduce the rate of winter mortality of ungulates which could put even more pressure on this diminishing resource. More severe and frequent large fire events could provide extensive early succesional habitat for aspen recruitment. The effects of climate change on aspen are unknown and are complicated by compounding natural and anthropogenic factors. Species discussed in this section:

Aspen Common name Scientific name Form State rank Global rank aspen Populus tremuloides tree beaver Castor canadensis mammal boreal toad Bufo boreas amphibian S2 G4 Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii conifer elk Cervus elaphus mammal grizzly bear Ursus arctos mammal S2S3 G4 lazuli bunting Passerina amoena bird lodgepole pine Pinus contorta conifer lynx Lynx Canadensis mammal S3 G5 many flowered viguera Viguera multiflora perennial forb S1 G4G5 moose Alces alces shirasi mammal red-eyed vireo Vireo olivaceus bird red-naped sapsuckers Sphyrapicus nuchalis bird red-tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis bird Swainson’s hawk Buteo swainsoni bird S3B G4 veery Catharus fuscescens bird wolf Canis lupus mammal S3 G4

Joseph Trudeau 64 Centennial Valley Environmental Review High Elevation Forests

High Elevation Forests

High elevation forests of the Centennial Mountains are dominated by subalpine fir and Douglas-fir with Engelmann spruce distributed throughout but secondary in importance. Patches of limber pine occupy suitable sites at all elevations, and lodgepole pine is found in lesser amounts at lower and warmer sites (Pfister et al., 1977; USDA Forest Service, 1999). Whitebark pine is variably distributed (Walsh, 2005), occurring from 8,000 feet where it is mixed with Douglas-fir, to upper treeline where it may dominate small wind-battered patches. A fairly continuous forest canopy of these species stretches the length of the range with less than a third of the area occupied by grassland or sagebrush. Most land exceeds 20% slopes, and precipitation ranges from 19-50 inches or more (USDA Forest Service, 1999), mostly coming between October and April. This forest type is projected to change immensely as the climate warms and precipitation patterns modify. Climatic changes will trigger extensive disturbances and species shifts which have already begun to reshape the structure and composition of this type.

Blair Lake and Mt. Jefferson, eastern Centennial Mountains. Subalpine fir dominates most of these open forests, with whitebark pine as an important co-dominant here. The dying tree left of center is a whitebark pine succumbing to mountain pine beetle, white pine blister rust, or a combination of the two. A warmer climate has allowed the beetle to move into higher elevation forests where cold temperatures historically resisted invasion. Blair Lake, one of only a few alpine lakes in this range, is encompassed by the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, but the area is seldom utilized as summer pasture. Small, isolated lakes like this are highly vulnerable to chemical, trophic, and hydrologic disruption by climate change. The Mt. Jefferson area is a U.S. Forest Service inventoried roadless area, and is the ultimate headwaters of the Missouri River.

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The eastern Centennial Mountains are considered a hot spot for state and globally rare plant species richness and host a large number of species in a relatively small area (Lesica, 2003; Mahr, 1996; Povilitis & Mahr, 1998). The globally rare beautiful bladderpod occurs in poorly developed, stony soils of subalpine slopes and ridges between 8,600 and 9,200 feet. This species is only found elsewhere in the Pioneer Mountains northwest of the Centennial Valley. An important influence on plant community distribution and composition on the steep north facing wall of the Centennial range are the numerous avalanche chutes that bisect the otherwise unbroken forest. The only known extant occurrence of Whipple’s penstemon is on avalanche runout areas, and talus slopes provide potential habitat for dwarf goldenweed, a rare species in Montana only known in the Centennial Valley from a historical refuge collection from 1952 (Lesica, 2003). Some unique subalpine fir forest types are found in the Centennial Mountains that are very limited elsewhere in Montana. Fir stands more than 200 years old with understory vegetation dominated by pinegrass and heartleaf arnica are found extensively here but lesser in other parts of the state. At higher elevations, between 8,300 and 9,000 feet, mountain gooseberry becomes an important understory shrub (Pfister et al., 1977). Old growth stands are also documented on the Sheep Mountain Research Natural Area, an 85 acre tract of forested and woodland community on the north and northwest slopes of Sheep Mountain between 7,600 and 8,400 feet elevation. This small parcel contains several intact stands of old-growth forest and woodland including subalpine fir/western meadowrue stands greater than 200 years old, 350 year old stands of subalpine fir/common juniper woodland, and stunted stands of limber pine/bluebunch wheatgrass that could exceed 500 years of age. The driest sites are wind scoured

areas that support little biomass and are Sheep Mountain Research Natural Area is dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg’s located on the north and northwest slopes of Sheep Mountain and contains excellent bluegrass, and alpine cushion plants. This examples of old-growth woodlands. Research Natural Area is significant because it is the only one administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the Northern Rocky Mountains in a forested setting and it is protected by the Red Rock Lakes Wilderness Area (Cooper & Heidel, 1999; Lesica, 2003). Also, ecological

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studies there can serve as important baseline documentation to monitor the effects of climate change. Whitebark pine forests on Sawtell Peak have been aged at over 350 years (Walsh, 2005) and it is probable that very old stands exist throughout the Centennial’s where they have avoided fire and avalanche disturbance. The full extent of old-growth forests is unknown as there has not been any comprehensive inventory but it is likely that vast tracts occur throughout the higher elevations since less than five percent of these forests have been logged (USDA Forest Service, 1999) and most is protected from future intrusions by the Centennial Mountains Wilderness Study Area (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 1990) or the Red Rock Lakes Wilderness. Furthermore, forests at all elevations have aged in the absence of fire and expanded into openings such as subalpine meadows, grasslands, and sagebrush communities (Kay, 1999). There is more old subalpine fir-dominated forest at the present time than at any time before owning to fire suppression and insect effects on whitebark and lodgepole pine (USDA Forest Service, 1999). Climate change studies predict increased frequency and severity of wildfires in spruce-fir forests which will have major effects on stand-age distributions and negative consequences for wildlife that require extensive old-growth habitat (Millspaugh et al., 2000; Romme & Turner, 1991).

Mortality of spruce and fir has occurred throughout the Centennial Mountains due to epidemic insect outbreaks that can be partially attributed to climate change. This view into Tom Creek shows the extent and severity of the damage. Stands in this condition are at risk of major wildfires. Warmer and dryer climate as projected for the future will lead to more outbreaks like this, possibly followed by severe fires. Major fires will release more CO2 into the atmosphere, further enhancing the effects of ongoing and future climate change. This reaction is called a positive feedback mechanism, and many such examples are now being recognized as our understanding of climate change and global biogeochemical cycles develops.

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Despite the relatively intact qualities of some stands in the Centennial Mountains, the majority of the high forest suffers from insect and disease stresses that threaten the integrity of the forest at stand and landscape levels. On Bureau of Land Management lands, balsam bark beetle is present at epidemic levels and has resulted in mortality of 60-80% of subalpine fir (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a) and a spruce budworm infestation cycle which began in 2002 is at epidemic levels and affecting all conifers except lodgepole pine (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a, 2005d). Mountain pine beetle has gone through several minor cycles since the late 1970’s and at the present time a major infestation is causing lodgepole pine mortality in the Centennial Mountains and endemic populations are beginning to increase in the Gravelly Range as well (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d). Perhaps the most important forest health issue at higher elevations is the combined effects of mountain pine beetle and the non-native white pine blister rust fungus on whitebark pine. Mountain pine beetle, which is native and has had outbreaks in the 1930’s, 1970’s, and 1980’s, has caused whitebark pine mortality on more than 170,000 acres of public land in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Gibson, 2006). Infestations around the Centennial Valley include widespread mortality in the Gravelly Mountains and localized areas in the eastern and central Centennial Mountains. These ancient forests have endured centuries of harsh climate and thin soils, but they may not be able to tolerate the rapid changes associated with a warmer climate. Warming has allowed the mountain pine beetle to expand into higher elevations which have historically been unsuitable habitat because of the beetles intolerance of very cold temperatures, with dire consequences on whitebark pine (Gibson, 2006; Logan & Powell, 2001; Logan, 2006). Little is known about the ecology of bark beetles in whitebark pine forests and due to the remote nature of the sites that the tree is found at, most mortality goes unrecorded (Logan, 2006). The range of this species is the most restricted of the trees encountered in the Centennial’s and the trophic cascade of this loss of a keystone ecosystem component is potentially devastating. The fatty seeds of the whitebark pine are the primary food source for grizzly bears before they go into hibernation, and the shade and structure of the tree contributes to snowpack retention into summer (Walsh, 2005), which is also diminishing due to higher temperatures and reduced snowfall (Mote et al., 2005; Stewart et al., 2004).

Joseph Trudeau 68 Centennial Valley Environmental Review High Elevation Forests

White pine blister rust is a non-native fungal pathogen that attacks whitebark pine during part of its life cycle. This stand on the southeast shoulder of Nemesis Mountain has been almost completely decimated by the pathogen leaving almost pure subalpine fir. Not only has this disease affected the ecology of the high elevation forest, but it has fundamentally altered the aesthetic qualities of high mountain forests throughout the trees range.

White pine blister rust has been present in the Greater Yellowstone area since at least 1945 and is widely present throughout the area at generally low levels of outbreak. Infected stands can experience partial to total mortality of overstory trees (Newcomb, 2003). Some drainages in the Centennial’s, such as Price Creek, have experienced nearly 90% mortality of whitebark pine (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005c) especially in the eastern portion of the range, while other have been minimally affected (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). The fungus spends half of its life cycle on secondary host plants in the genus Ribes which are the gooseberries and currants. Nine species of Ribes occur in the Yellowstone region, and each has different disease transmission tendencies. In nearby mountain ranges stands nearest streams and associated riparian Ribes species have a higher degree of infection than those further away (Newcomb, 2003), but these interactions are unknown in whitebark pine stands of the Centennial Valley.

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Whitebark pine mortality in a mixed pine/spruce/fir stand at the headwaters of Tom Creek on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station summer range.

A typical spruce-fir forest in the Odell Creek watershed; this one along Spring Creek in the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station summer range.

Tremendous mortality of dominant canopy trees is evident throughout the photo, but consistently some trees survive.

Visible is the road bench constructed in the 1950’s to haul phosphate from high elevation mines. It is now a recreational trail.

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Species discussed in this section:

High elevation forests Common name Scientific name Form State Global rank rank balsam bark beetle Dryocoetes confusus insect pest beautiful bladderpod Lesquerella pulchella perennial forb S2 G2 bluebunch wheatgrass Pseudoroegneria spicata graminoid Clark’s nutcracker Nucifraga columbiana bird common juniper Juniperus communis shrub Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii conifer dwarf goldenweed Haplopappus nanus perennial forb SH G5 Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii conifer grizzly bear Ursus arctos mammal S2S3 G4 heartleaf arnica Arnica cordifolia perennial forb limber pine Pinus flexilis conifer lodgepole pine Pinus contorta conifer mountain gooseberry Ribes montigenum shrub mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae insect pest pinegrass Calamagrostis rubescens graminoid Sandberg’s bluegrass Poa secunda graminoid subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa conifer spruce budworm Choristoneura occidentalis insect pest western meadowrue Thalictrum occidentale perennial forb whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis conifer white pine blister rust Cronartium ribicola fungus Whipple’s penstemon Penstemon whippleanus perennial forb

High elevation spruce and whitebark pine, Blair Lake

Joseph Trudeau 71 Centennial Valley Environmental Review High Elevation Shrublands, Grasslands, & Fields

High Elevation Shrublands, Grasslands, & Fields

The highest elevations of the Centennial Mountains (above 8,500 feet) are a mosaic of forest and alpine meadow habitats that give way to exposed ridges and rocky fields at or near the Continental Divide. The north-facing Montana side is a steep escarpment that rapidly drops over a series of cliff faces, steep ridges, glacial cirques, and avalanche chutes to lower elevation forests. The south-facing Idaho side and areas extending into Odell, Tom, and Hell Roaring Creeks comprise gentler slopes that support patchy forests dominated by subalpine fir and whitebark pine (described elsewhere in this document). Montane grassland, shrubland, and tall- forb climax communities cover the majority of the area that isn’t forested. Mountain peaks and exposed ridgelines provide habitat for unique alpine plant communities that are highly vulnerable to climate change and will likely contract, fragment, or disappear over the next century (Lesica & McCune, 2004; Romme & Turner, 1991; Saunders et al., 2006; Shafer et al., 2001).

Taylor Mountain viewed from the Continental Divide Trail at the headwaters of Tom Creek in the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station’s Tom Creek Allotment. Tall forb vegetation with the addition of fireweed dominates the foreground meadow, followed by dense patches of subalpine fir giving way to true alpine communities. The different characteristics of the gentle versus steep topography of the south and north faces, respectively, of the eastern Centennial Range are apparent. The author located a shepherd’s camp in the fir patch in the center of the view and running water nearby in a tributary to Tom Creek. No exotic species were encountered at these elevations.

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The U.S. Sheep Experiment Station administers over 16,000 acres as a summer sheep grazing range from Odell Creek to Hell Roaring Creek. At least 35% of that range consists of these high elevation grass, shrub, and forb communities (Kay, 1994), and it is on these lands that the greatest contributions to our understanding of these types comes from. Alpine and subalpine grass and shrublands here provide habitat for the uncommon but widespread subalpine sage (Wambolt, 2001; USDA Plants Database), along with the state rare many-ribbed sedge and large-leaved balsamroot (Heidel, 1992; Lesica, 2003). The most common shrub in high elevation sites is mountain big sage which is also the most widely distributed plant in the Centennial Valley. This shrub may expand its dominance into even higher elevations as the climate warms and snowpack declines, negatively affecting forb communities (Perfors et al., 2003). The tall forb community in the Centennial Range represents the northernmost extension of this subalpine type found throughout the mountains of central Utah and western Wyoming (Kay, 1994) and comprises nearly 30% of the Sheep Experiment Station range (Murray et al., 1991). At least 116 plant species have been documented in the tall forb type (Ecret, 1986) which grows on deep soils and accounts for more than 80% of annual vegetative production on the Sheep Experiment Station (Murray et al., 1991). Many tall forb species are unpalatable to ungulate grazers (Murray, 1991) but moose rely heavily on forbs, specifically sticky geranium, during summer months (Knowlton, 1960). These diverse communities, dominated by sticky geranium and cinquefoils, but also rich in perennial grasses, forbs, and annuals (Murray et al., 1991), are highly resilient to disturbance and may be examples of highly intact systems. Despite concerns about overgrazing and depleted rangelands (Klement, 1997; Kay, 1994; Greater Yellowstone Coalition, 1986) perennial forb cover in the tall forb community has been increasing since the 1950’s indicating succession towards climax conditions (Klement, 1997). Improved sheep grazing practices, constant movement of flocks (Charles Kay, pers. comm., 11 October 2007), rest-rotation grazing regimes, and underutilization of forage have contributed to static or improving range conditions (Klement, 1997). Studies have not been able to discern any effects of grazing on floristic composition even when comparing seasonal exclosures to known grazed areas (Ecret, 1986; Klement, 1997).

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Additional support for the resilience of the tall forb type can be found in the community’s resistance to change following herbicide application. Sheep Station researchers tested the use of herbicides to reduce the cover of non- desirable forage species,

Mount Jefferson and the Tom Creek headwaters area viewed from notably sticky geranium, in near GLO Post #10 on the Continental Divide. Vast subalpine the Odell Creek meadows and barren alpine summits punctuated by patches of forest define the easternmost portion of the Centennial Mountain headwaters. Spraying range. Notice the rich forb community in the foreground. significantly reduced the production of some forbs for a few years, but not necessarily the target species. Grass and sedge production increased and partially compensated for the reduction in forbs. Pre-treatment production of forbs was expected to return within four to five years indicating that application of the herbicide tested would have no long-term effect on unpalatable forb suppression. Additionally, treated plots resisted invasion by seeded exotic species (Murray et al., 1991). The resilience of these communities to anthropogenic stress may be attributed to their evolutionary adaptations to high winds, annual precipitation of over 50” (Lesica, 2003), and regular desiccation during drought periods. The uppermost communities in the eastern Centennial Mountains, on limestone peaks above 9,000 feet, provide good examples of several alpine plant cover types dominated by Carex rupestris and Carex elynoides (Lesica, 2003). Fellfield vegetation is dominated by Carex rupestris and cushion plant forbs such as moss campion and cushion phlox. Snowbed communities harboring creeping sibbaldia and black alpine sedge are important components as well. Wind erosion is important in maintaining the skeletal soils that support these communities (Lesica, 2003). The high elevation ecosystems of the Centennial Range have not been without change, however. Repeat photography at over 100 sites throughout the range showed a loss of montane

Joseph Trudeau 74 Centennial Valley Environmental Review High Elevation Shrublands, Grasslands, & Fields grasslands and subalpine meadows to conifer encroachment from the 1870’s to the mid 1990’s, though treeline was observed to have remained constant (Kay, 1999). The increase of woody vegetation could be attributed to elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 or fire suppression. Warmer temperatures and declining snowpack could lead to further loss of open areas as trees encroach into sites that they have not been able to tolerate in the past (Lesica & McCune, 2004; Romme & Turner, 1991; Saunders et al., 2006). Sagebrush could expand up in elevation (Perfors et al., 2003) along with trees as treeline could potentially rise more than 1000 feet over the next century (Romme & Turner, 1991), virtually eliminating most of the potential alpine habitat throughout the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Lesica & McCune (2004) documented substantial declines of high elevation species at Glacier National Park after a decade of consistent warmer and dryer conditions leading them to predict that moist tundra communities will eventually be replaced by dryer turf or grasslands. A similar scenario is possible in the Centennial Mountains. Pocket gopher burrowing is an important disturbance factor on steep slopes in the alpine grasslands (Ecret, 1986) and may be a source of annual post-snowmelt soil movement and loss that potentially contributes to sedimentation of creeks (Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). Reduced snowpack could enhance the loss of soil from alpine areas. Phosphate mining permitted by the Bureau of Land Management in the 1950’s denuded several areas on Taylor and Sheep Mountain which will always stand out against the natural landscape and have been difficult to revegetate despite creative restoration techniques (Quinn Jacobson, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). Despite natural and human disturbance, these sites may be highly resistant to invasive plant colonization because of their high elevations (Lesica, 2003), but climate change may affect that degree of resistance and these bare sites will be the first to be invaded. Enhanced inventory and monitoring of intact and degraded sites at the highest elevations of the Centennial Valley will help determine the vulnerability to climate change and serve as a benchmark to measure changes against.

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Species discussed in this section: High elevation shrublands, grasslands, and fields Common name Scientific name Form State Global rank rank Shiras moose Alces alces shirasi mammal black alpine sedge Carex nigricans graminoid cinquefoil Potentilla spp. perennial forb creeping sibbaldia Sibbaldia procumbens perennial forb curly sedge Carex rupestris graminoid cushion phlox Phlox pulvinata perennial forb fireweed Epilobium annual forb angustifolium Kobresia-like sedge Carex elynoides graminoid large-leaved (Balsamorhiza perennial forb S2 G3G5 balsamroot macrophylla) many-ribbed sedge Carex multicostata graminoid S1 G5 moss campion Silene acaulis sub-shrub round-fruited draba Draba globosa perennial forb S1 G3 sticky geranium Geranium perennial forb viscosissimum subalpine sagebrush Artemesia tridentata shrub spiciformis subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa conifer whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis conifer

Taylor Mountain and Upper Red Rock Lake

Joseph Trudeau 76 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Fire Ecology & Management

Fire Ecology & Management

Fire is the most influential force in shaping site, ecosystem, and landscape patterns of structure and composition in the American west. Both naturally ignited and human caused fires have burnt through the Centennial Valley since the end of the last ice age and presumably during interglacial periods of the past as well. Fire is affected by long-term and annual climate cycles which also influence vegetative patterns and processes. The combination of climatic and fire effects on vegetation promotes heterogeneity at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Furthermore, fires effects on the landscape (severity, intensity, rate of spread, size, and duration) are strongly influenced by topography, elevation, slope, and aspect. These factors taken in sum illustrate the dynamic ecology of fire which is as much affected by the land as it is an effect on the land. The effects of fire on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is expected to increase as the climate becomes warmer and the fire season more dry (Dale et al., 2001). The diverse landscape features in the Centennial Valley provide a wide variety of environments for fire to have widely variable effects upon. The steep, north-facing, moist, forested slopes of the Centennial Mountains are juxtaposed against the low angled, dry, south- facing, windswept steppe of the Gravelly foothills. Between these, the broad Centennial Valley grasslands and wetland systems provide a unique environment for fire spread that, under the right conditions, could potentially burn in entirety. The history of fire in the Centennial Valley, while it has not been adequately studied to ensure utmost confidence, is evident in the diversity of vegetative communities and structural patterns. The Centennial Valley is similar to much of southwestern Montana in that it is a high elevation alluvial basin bounded by high, forested mountains. The literature contains many examples of fire history studies from the region that provide a range of information that may apply well to the Centennial Valley. Despite the availability of fire history information from the region I focus specifically here on literature that directly focuses on sites in or near the Centennial Valley or specific fires in the Centennial Valley. This approach provides enough information to understand the basics of the valleys fire history and also highlights the needs for additional research to fill in the gaps. Our ability to reveal the history of fire is limited by the ways Nature records it. The most commonly used tools are dendrochronological techniques that involve finding basal scars on large, old trees, cutting a section of the scar out, and dating fires by comparing the rings to

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regional tree-ring datasets. An alternate method is a forest structural analysis whereby stand- level forest ages are mapped and burn events are deduced by identifying even-aged patches,

The high elevational gradient from wetlands to alpine tundra provides a diverse suite of environments for fire to move through. Avalanche chutes such as this one on Taylor Mountain may act as fire breaks, further enhancing the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of fires occurrence at particular sites and across the landscape.

discernable cohort divisions, or other structural features. These techniques are limited by the uppermost attainable ages of trees and forests. Arno and Gruell (1983) identified a scar dating to 1554 which is among the oldest possible dates one might expect to find on a fire scar. In order to determine fire history beyond the limits of tree age you would need to extract lake-sediment cores and analyze charcoal deposits with various isotope or chemical techniques. These techniques have been able to reveal fire histories millennia into the past, but none have been completed in the Centennial Valley (a study is in progress summer 2007 but no results are available). Below treeline, there are few opportunities for gaining information about fire history beyond the age of dominant shrubs which might be inferred to have established following a fire, although they might not have. Shrub and grass distribution and patterns can be analyzed from

Joseph Trudeau 78 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Fire Ecology & Management aerial imagery and fire patterns and dates may be inferred, but again, this is limited by the uppermost ages of the dominant shrubs. Ultimately, our assumptions about fire frequency, intensity, and spatial patterns under natural or anthropogenic circumstances are deduced through analysis of fire effects on contemporary landscape features and vegetation. Our theories about fires history in treeless ecosystems are largely based on obsevations and accounts of today. Interestingly, this is logic is reflected in one of geology’s great paradigms, the principal of uniformitarianism, wherein it was stated that the processes affecting Earth today are the same ones that affected it in the past. While this perspective can offer some clues into the ecology of fire it surely has not permitted a holistic understanding of this dynamic and unpredictable force. It should not be assumed that because much of the lowest elevations in the Centennial Valley are wet that they were not historically subject to periodic fire. Many wetland and bog systems throughout the temperate zone burn under exceptionally dry conditions. An example is the spring, 2007 fires in Florida and Georgia that scorched nearly a quarter-million acres of predominantly swamplands. Prior to installation of water control structures that regulate the level of the Red Rock Lakes it is likely that extremely low-snow winters would lead to very low- water summers in the valley bottom. These conditions could allow fire to move from adjacent dry uplands into sedge and bulrush dominated wetland perimeters and burn exposed vegetation. Even under damp conditions these wet meadows are indeed flammable, as evidenced by the 1966 fire that started by a lightning strike in a sedge flat to the north of Swan Lake in the Centennial Valley (Red Rock Lakes N.W.R., 1995). The fire was small and easily extinguished but it shows that the wetlands are subject to periodic fire under natural circumstances. Adjacent riparian areas have also been subject to the influence of fire, such as a patch of willows that burned in May, 1940 on the Refuge when a grass fire moved into it (Red Rock Lakes N.W.R., 1995). Given that winds come predominantly from the southwest or west in the Centennial Valley it is likely that fires in sagebrush, grassland, or forest settings would have moved into the wetland and lake complex and either extinguished or moved through depending on water levels. The likelihood of fire moving into and through these systems today is low because of elevated water levels. Decreased snowpack and summer precipitation could enhanced the susceptibility of these sites to fire. Fire regimes in the sagebrush and grassland matrix that dominates much of the Centennial Valley have been deduced primarily through fire history studies at the forest ecotone,

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but modern fire effects on plant communities and species has also provided ecological information that can be interpreted into likely fire regime scenarios. Arno and Gruell (1983) studied the Douglas-fir forest/grassland ecotone at 14 sites within high valleys of southwestern Montana. None of the study sites were located in the Centennial Valley but sites nearby include Henry’s Lake, Papoose Creek in the southern Madison Range, Pleasant Valley, 25 miles southwest of Lakeview in Idaho, Dutch Hollow, 35 miles west of Lakeview in Idaho, Basin Creek in the Snowcrest Range, and Price Creek in the Upper Blacktail River Watershed. The study found that prior to 1910, mean fire return intervals at the Douglas-fir-grassland transition were 35 to 40 years and likely shorter in pure grasslands. No fires were detected from tree scars after 1918 and since 1900 conifers and mountain big sagebrush had increased substantially (Arno & Gruell, 1983). These results suggest that surface fires were relatively frequent and sagebrush was probably much less abundant in presettlement times although historic records indicate that sagebrush was abundant in the Centennial Valley (Lesica & Cooper, 1997). Arno and Gruell (1983) relocated 10 early photos (pre-1900) and changes suggested that sagebrush that had been restricted to small patches or widely spaced plants in high valleys of coarse or clayey soils had by 1983 spread out and filled in significantly. Kay (1999) compiled and relocated 130 historic photos from the Centennial Mountains which showed dramatic filling in of sagebrush and grassland with Douglas-fir, suggesting that in the absence of fire since 1910, when suppression began in earnest, open steppe areas and small open patches have been reduced in size and frequency (this photoset is housed at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station in Dubois, Idaho). These sentiments are shared almost universally by ecologists and managers in sagebrush and grassland systems (for example, see Heyerdahl et al., 2006; Korb, 2005a; Sankey et al., 2006; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005a). Despite suppression efforts, sagebrush/grassland fires in the Centennial Valley have burned in 1941, 1942, 1950, 1953, 1964, 1965, 1975 (~10,000 acres), 1981 (~2,000 acres), 1990 (~700 acres), and of course the 2003 Winslow fire which consumed over 13,000 acres in a variety of sites (Korb, 2005a; Red Rock Lakes N.W.R., 1995). On average, the Refuge experiences a wildfire every three years and the upper Centennial Valley a fire every year (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2002). Additionally, prescribed fires are being used more in recent years. Between 1970 and 1998, 3,300 acres were intentionally burnt on the Refuge, mostly in non-forested habitats (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2002). The Bureau of Land Management burned 240 acres in the western

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Centennial Valley between 1982 and 2005 (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005d), and state and private landowners have burned an unknown number of acres. The effects of natural and prescribed fires on sagebrush and grasslands have received considerable attention in recent years. Lesica et al. (2005) studied thirty-eight sites in southwest Montana to determine the recovery of sagebrush stands following fire. Stands of mountain big sage (Artemesia tridentata ssp. vaseyana) basin big sage (A. tridentata ssp. tridentata) and Wyoming big sage (A. tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) were evaluated following wild and prescribed fires ranging from three to 34 years prior to the study. In the Centennial Valley, study sites were located near Elk Lake, in the Tepee Creek area, the Fish Creek headwaters area, and within the Winslow Fire of 2003. They found that recovery time was variable between subspecies: mountain big sage, the most common type in the region, recovered fully within 32 years; basin big sage recovered somewhat quicker, at 26 years; and Wyoming big sage experienced very slow recovery, perhaps taking a century or more. No difference in recovery times was observed between natural fires and prescribed fires or at sites with more or less precipitation; however prescribed fires tended to be of a lesser intensity, usually leaving skeletons with some branches whereas wildfires incinerated the whole plant and even dished out the stem into the ground. Prescribed fires tended to have increased grass cover and marginally increased forb cover. All stands were uneven aged suggesting that establishment is not limited to immediate post-fire conditions. Conservation of the full range of species that require sagebrush vegetation types would necessitate fire return intervals of 50-80 years and perhaps longer in Wyoming big sage dominated stands. If presettlement fire return intervals were ~25 years as reported by others most sage would have been in early to mid seral condition (Lesica et al., 2005). Another study selected thirteen mountain big sage and Wyoming big sage sites in southwestern Montana that had been prescribed fire between 1964 and 1994. The site nearest the Centennial Valley was at Snowline, Montana 32 miles west of Lakeview where a fire was set in 1985. Following eleven years of recovery at Snowline, sage canopy cover had not increased past 0%, and perennial grass cover was less than on a paired control plot. Green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) was not reduced and horsebush (Tetradymia canescens) had higher cover on the burn site. Conclusions from analysis of all sites determined that it may take over 30 years for communities to recover after fire, and there was minimal perennial grass and

Joseph Trudeau 81 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Fire Ecology & Management forb production following prescribed fires. Livestock forage improvements were not experienced with prescribed fire suggesting that common notions that fire improves the range conditions should be re-evaluated (Wambolt et al., 2001). The role of fire in sagebrush systems is contested because of its potentially detrimental effects on sage-obligate wildlife species despite benefits to rare communities and species (Lesica & Cooper, 1999; Lesica, 2003; Hendricks & Roedel, 2002). Basin big sage communities as found in the sandhills are less fire adapted and/or prone than mountain big sagebrush communities because the fuels are less continuous, which may explain why basin big sage can grow so old and tall (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). However, it is these sandhill communities that are the center of attention for restoring fire to sagebrush in the Centennial Valley (Mantas & Korb, 2007). Putting fire back into sagebrush stands may return them to their natural range of variability (Pat Fosse, pers. comm., 19 July 2007) although some stands may have gone so long since their last fire that they may be too far past a critical threshold and “throwing in a match and closing the gate” may not be the best idea (Jay Frederick, pers. comm., 13 July 2007). Because of these varying outcomes and complex interactions, understanding the effects of fire on the different species of sage is essential in properly managing it. Korb (2005a) provided the most detailed fire history study yet completed for the Centennial Valley’s forest ecosystems, documenting evidence of two different fire regimes in the Douglas-fir forests. A xeric (dry) study area on Elk Mountain and a mesic (moist) study area on Baldy Mountain were sampled intensively for fire evidence, tree ages, stand structure and dynamics. The xeric site was found to have large fires on an average of every 26 years, and smaller fires returning on average about every 15 years. Vary large, open grown trees in small patches were separated by great swaths of grasses and sagebrush. The mesic site had more frequent small fires, returning on average about every 9 years, but large fires returned on average about every 35 years. Historic fire severity at the mesic site varied, where most were small and of low severity, probably naturally extinguishing due to high fuel moisture. However, 22 stand- replacing fire events, all less than ~100 acres, were mapped indicating that local climatic and stand-level influences had effects on fire severity. Longer term climatic influence may have been identified as there appeared to be an era of low fire frequency in the early 1800’s and then a period of relatively high frequency in the 1850’s and 1860’s in both xeric (Elk Mtn.) and mesic (Baldy Mtn.) sites (Korb, 2005a).

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Xeric (dry) forest patches are common in the northern and eastern Centennial Valley. Very large trees dating back several hundred years occur in clumps surrounded by a matrix of sagebrush and grasslands. Some of these patches have retained their open nature but others have filled in with young Douglas-fir in the absence of fire suppression, putting the large ancient trees at risk of death if a large fire starts.

The period 1998 to 2005 was exceptionally dry; total mean annual precipitation was only 60-97% of the long term average (Lesica et al., 2005). This extended dry period created conditions suitable for a major conflagration, resulting in the 2003 Winslow Fire on Baldy Mountain which was the largest and most severe fire in recorded history in the Centennial Mountains. Lightning ignited the fire on August 12, 2003 and final control was achieved October 27, 2003 and it cost $6.5 million to suppress. Overall, 13,558 acres burned: 6,111 Bureau of Land Management acres; 4,612 on the Targhee National Forest; 966 acres on Red Rock Lakes N.W.R.; and 1,869 private acres (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005c; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003). Stand and landscape reconstruction in the area of the Winslow fire on Baldy Mountain determined that the extent and severity of that fire surpassed any regime

Joseph Trudeau 83 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Fire Ecology & Management experienced in the past in low to mid elevation forests of the Centennial Valley (Korb, 2005a). However, despite its large size, rather severe effects, and extensive overstory mortality, post-fire monitoring and inspections determined that the burn was in fact a beneficial natural event that left a mosaic of burned and unburned areas, restarting the succesional process with only minor, short-term reductions in ecological integrity except for some areas where the fire burned outside of its range of natural variability (Korb, 2005b; USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2005f; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003). A plan for post-fire rehabilitation work on the Refuge called for replacing burnt and damaged fencing, inventorying and assessing streams after two runoff events to describe functional conditions, and establishing upland vegetation transects to monitor the spread of invasive weeds (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003) but none of these were carried through with due to time and budgetary constraints (Jeff Warren, pers. comm., 31 July 2007).

The Winslow fire of 2003 on Baldy Mountain burnt through more than 13,000 acres of sagebrush, grassland, and forest. Much of the burn was high severity and killed extensive contiguous forest. The fire was unnaturally large and intense, but it may prove to be a positive step in returning the Centennial forest towards a more natural fire regime as long as invasive species can be kept out.

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The variable 20-50 year-return fire regime of the Douglas-fir forest (Arno & Gruell, 1983; Heyerdahl et al., 2006; Korb, 2005a) ultimately influences the high elevation spruce, fir, whitebark pine, and limber pine forests above. There have been no studies of fire history or ecology in the spruce and fir zones of the Centennial Valley but some effort has been put into the whitebark pine community. Fire scars are found all through the elevational range of Douglas-fir in the Centennial Valley (Korb, 2005a) and have been observed on whitebark pine stumps at 10,000 feet on Mount Jefferson (personal observation, J. Trudeau) and areas where grasslands surround small patches of trees (Nathan Korb, pers. comm., 15 July 2007). Due to more moist conditions and late snowpack in the higher elevations, fire can not carry under all conditions and are often self extinguishing. Korb (2005a) reported that four percent of plots at the Baldy Mountain site had not burned in over 250 years. These plots were at the highest and most moist sites. Whitebark pine communities are characterized as most often having stand replacing and mixed severity fire regimes with a very wide range of 60-300 year mean fire return intervals (Walsh, 2005). Walsh (2005) studied seven high elevation whitebark pine sites in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem to determined fire regimes and provide insights into stand dynamics and development following disturbances. A site on Sawtell Mountain at the eastern end of the Centennial Mountains was included. This site had been mechanically treated in the 1999 and 2000 to eliminate competition between pine and subalpine fir to promote and protect the pine nut food source for grizzly bears. The site was found to have a mixed severity fire regime and may have been maintained by periodic non-lethal understory fires, indicated by basal scars, although fire dates were not calculated. The seven sites showed considerable variability in fire history and stand dynamics, illustrating the wide range of variability in whitebark pine ecosystems (Walsh, 2005). It is possible that because the south slopes of the Centennial Mountains are so exposed to sun that they may be more apt to have shorter fire return intervals than the Montana side where little sun reaches the steep escarpment. Fire regimes in high elevation forests throughout Montana have typically been reported as similar to these: a wide range of frequency and severity, strongly dependent on site and weather. The major impact of the Winslow fire was an eye-opening event for the Centennial Valley. If efforts are not made to ameliorate the effects of 100 years of fire suppression and livestock grazing then future losses may be even greater. The Bureau of Land Management

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plans on conducting extensive prescribed burns throughout their forestlands in the Centennial Mountains in order to improve ecosystem health, reduce undesirable effects of potential future wildfires on sensitive species, and protect the wildland urban interface around Lakeview (USDI Bureau of Land Management, 2006). Wherever it’s not Wilderness Study Area there is a plan for fuels reduction treatments, including Price Creek, Bean Creek, around Lakeview, and some areas on the north side of the valley (Pat Fosse, pers. comm., 19 July 2007). Prescribed burns at lower elevations are necessary to reduce the risk of fires that start high in the mountains from moving down and threatening private land and homes. Additionally, all of the U.S. Forest Service lands around the Centennial Valley are available for Wildland Fire Use and that policy will soon be enacted (USDA Forest Service, 2005c; Jay Frederick, pers. comm., 13 July 2007). The U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, which manages thousands of ecologically important acres in the Centennial Mountains, burns in their lower sagebrush holdings in Idaho and is interested in potentially working on collaborative solutions to forest health issues in the Odell Creek and Tom Creek watersheds as well (Greg Lewis, pers. comm., 24 July 2007). Wildfire activity is strongly correlated with temperature, and warm summers in the future will likely see more large fires like the Winslow fire (Running, 2006; Westerling et al., 2006). Conversely, cool years will be relatively minor fire years where fuels will accumulate rapidly under higher CO2 concentrations (Dale et al., 2001). Dale et al. (2001) compared two models that provided predictions of fire weather severity and are rough indicators of area burned. The two models differed substantially at a continental scale but showed similar outputs for the Greater Yellowstone Area: that there will be a ~10% increase fire weather severity by 2060. Scientists predict that the overall area of acreage burned by wildfires will double in size across 11 western states between 2070-2100. States hit particularly hard include will Montana, Wyoming, and Utah (Glick, 2006). Increased summer temperatures, higher evaporation and evapotranspiration rates, decreased humidity, and a longer fire season will affect the Northern Rockies such that by 2070 the length of the fire season could be increased by two to three weeks (Barnett et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2004). Climate change may affect disturbances such as insect and pathogen outbreaks, ice storms, fire severity and occurrence, drought, windthrow, exotic species spread and outbreaks, and landslides (Dale et al., 2001; Logan et al., 2003). Furthermore, many disturbances are cascading and once initiated will lead to subsequent disturbances and positive feedback mechanisms that will enhance the already detrimental

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outcomes. As a consequence of climate change, forests may soon face rapid alterations in the timing, intensity, frequency, and extent of disturbances that will concurrently interact with species range migrations (Shafer et al., 2001) and opportunistic weeds invasions. The number and complexity of climate variables related to forest disturbance make integrated research an awesome challenge. Specifically, widespread and devastating disturbance agents such as Douglas fir bark beetle, spruce budworm, mountain pine beetle, ungulate browsing, and white pine blister rust should be evaluated for their response to climate change (Ayers & Lombardero, 2000) so that effective management and response strategies can be developed. Fire history in the Centennial Valley is a complex and varied topic and the future fire scenario will likely exceed our current understanding of fires role in the valley. Fires may be as frequent as every few years in the most exposed and dry ridges of the Gravelly foothills, or as infrequent as every several hundred years in moist enclaves of the Centennial Mountains depending on the rate of climate change. On average it would be safe to say that prior to settlement of the Centennial Valley in the 1870’s there would be at least a few small fires every year in the valley, a moderate one every several years, and perhaps a major fire that carried from river to ridge top every several decades or longer. The severity would have varied from rapid flash combustion of light surface fuels to total stand incineration. Ecosystems of the Centennial Valley evolved with fire as a prominent disturbance agent and many require periodic burning to maintain essential processes, habitats, niches, and nutrient cycling. These historic models may no longer be within the range of variability under a different climate scenario. The dominant philosophy of controlling all fire has been subdued in the last decade by fires of unprecedented size and severity and those fires will likely come more often (Westerling et al., 2006). Investments into understanding the role of fire in ecosystem dynamics and how to best use it as a management tool are being made by agencies and academia. Major opportunities for fire and forest restoration and preparation for future conflagrations exist in the Centennial Valley that may reduce the risk of another Winslow fire decimating habitat for species of concern.

Joseph Trudeau 87 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Research Needs

Research Needs

The Centennial Valley is an exceptional landscape for conducting ecological research. It is a relatively intact system, has a road network that permits travel but is not so extensive that it strongly detracts from natural values, offers numerous ecosystem types to study in close proximity, and is largely protected from major future land use changes. Research needs are presented here as bulleted items. These needs were expressed in primary literature, by area experts, determined through literature synthesis, or a combination.

•The greatest gap in floristic survey work has been byrophytes and lichens

•Alpine communities are underrepresented in surveys and literature

•It’s hard to determine the amount of and distribution of old growth as there has been no formal inventory. A functional definition is anything that’s over 250-300 yrs old

•There’s a need to classify and identify canopy closure, density, and patchiness of sagebrush stands and how that interacts with sage grouse habitat

•The status, trends, and habitat associations of most birds in refuge is unknown

•Bats, invertebrates, butterflies, and terrestrial snails need additional surveying

•Further investigation into beaver abundance and distribution on the refuge and adjacent lands would help determine if restoration is needed

•Existing aquatic plant communities have been classified but site-potential schemes are unknown because we have an insufficient understanding of the seral relationships between aquatic plant communities

•Macroinvertebrate surveys should be done as part of stream health assessments

•What is the significance of aquatic vegetation in the Red Rock Lakes and how does it relate to invertebrate communities?

•There are unexplored aquatic vegetation beds along south shore of Upper Red Rock Lake

•The tall forb community should receive greater classification attention

•More accurate description of sagebrush and grasslands from satellite imagery needs to be developed

•The narrative files at the Refuge house vast historical information; a review of these could discern demographic trends and other population patterns for numerous species and communities

Joseph Trudeau 88 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Research Needs

•A post-fire rapid assessment and monitoring protocol based on existing criteria used by various agencies should be developed. The agencies are not doing the monitoring they need to do to respond in a timely fashion to invasive plants, excessive erosion, or other risks. Once developed, this protocol could be taught to volunteer stewards that could cover large areas of ground relatively quickly to assess threats following major fires

• The potential for increasing conflict between predators and sheep in the Centennial Mountains needs to be evaluated

•Identify survivor or resistant stands of whitebark pine and collect seeds

•Identify army cutworm moth aggregation sites

•What is the ecological significance of avalanche chutes and debris?

•How does succession proceed on avalanche chutes?

•Anything related to climate change and its actual and potential effects on all attributes of the Centennial Valley.

Joseph Trudeau 89 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Centennial Valley Documents Library

Part II. Centennial Valley Documents Library

•Centennial Valley Documents Library 91 What’s in the library and how to use it

•Master Bibliography 94 All works referenced in the report or otherwise included in the library

•Annotated Bibliography 112 Summaries of over half of all works included with emphasis on Centennial Valley environmental descriptions and information

•Top-Ten Must Reads 135 The ten most important documents to read to help build an understanding of the ecology and management of the valley

•Un-retrieved Literature 136 Titles that were identified during research but were not obtained and should be to fill in information gaps

Joseph Trudeau 90 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Centennial Valley Documents Library

Centennial Valley Documents Library

Included in the Library This is a collection of scientific literature, reports, agency studies and guidance documents, and other related documents that are directly relevant or in a few instances indirectly relevant to the ecology, natural history, and environmental management of the Centennial Valley. Included in nearly 17,000 pages of information over 200 separate documents are:

•published scientific articles that had research sites in the Centennial Valley or described environmental conditions in and around the Centennial Valley;

•published studies of observed, modeled, and projected climate change effects on the general area of the northwestern conterminous United States;

•governmental agency documents that describe environmental conditions and/or outline management plans that affect those environments;

•Montana Natural Heritage Program reports of ecological studies, surveys, and inventories relevant to the Centennial Valley;

•non-governmental organizations’ published and unpublished reports and newsletters that include information pertinent to the Centennial Valleys environment;

•University research reports and graduate thesis describing aspects of the Centennial Valley’s environment;

•meeting minutes that recorded presentations and other discussion of environmental topics relevant to the Centennial Valley;

•and a variety of miscellaneous documents including letters, unpublished government notes and reports; reports commissioned by private land owners, and other important information.

Not Included in the Library This compilation represents the most comprehensive collection of information specific to the Centennial Valley yet completed, but it does not include everything relevant to the valley’s environment that has been written. Historical accounts and past social commentary would provide unique insight into environmental conditions but these sources were not reviewed. An environmental history review and synthesis would undoubtedly provide valuable information about the past and present landscape of the Centennial Valley and would merit a study of its own. Reams of anecdotal accounts, observations, and relatively disorganized reports exist in files and folders in every agency office that manages land in and around the Centennial Valley. These files were perused by the author at varying degrees of intensity depending on the time available and willingness of agency staff to permit such investigation. Some important information was gleaned from these searches but the time investment involved in these activities Joseph Trudeau 91 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Centennial Valley Documents Library rarely merits the actual amount of valuable information uncovered in a preliminary study such as this. If future researchers had specific questions and could develop relationships with agency officials then more relevant information could be retrieved; of course significant time investments would have to be made. An example is the file cabinets of annual wildlife observations and recordings at the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge office. Species counts and surveys dating back more than sixty years are buried in these drawers, and if a student of biology had the time to review these hand written accounts surely a unique chronology of wildlife activity could be developed. Randall (1978) completed a review of aquatic information buried in these files and should be examined for additional insights into this type of assessment. Also not included herein are the vast collections of data that provide the basis for the many conclusions and assumptions referenced in this report. Every agency, university researcher, and individual has used different methods and indices of environmental evaluation thus making data comparison, or crosswalking, difficult, but such an endeavor could yield an interesting integration of knowledge that could provide an historical or contemporary context for those environmental issues and their management. Again, if future researchers had the resources available to delve into these data, they would provide very important baseline measurements to compare current conditions against. Finally, the works not included here are simply reports, articles, and documents that were not readily available or locatable. The internet has indeed advanced our ability to collect enormous amounts of information in relatively short periods of time but it has not stretched its cyber-tentacles into every last volume of knowledge in existence. Additionally, those scientists and managers seated in offices charged with the management of today’s landscape may not have themselves searched the files of their predecessors. Also, the bibliographies of some works included here list documents that to this point the author has been unable to identify or locate, but with additional time they could become available. These facts highlight the importance of this collection in making formerly obscure or hidden documents available to the scientific and conservation communities for the promotion of resource protection and preservation work. However, the task of compilation and synthesis must not end here. While this collection represents, by far, the most comprehensive gathering of information relevant to the Centennial Valley thus encountered, it should not be considered the ultimate record of that landscape. It is imperative that this database should stay plastic in its ability to receive and include additional existing and forthcoming information so that the actions taken in the name of environmental conservation can build upon the sound foundation of knowledge that does in fact exist and will undoubtedly continue to expand.

How to Use the Library Simply put, the Centennial Valley Documents Library is a searchable collection of literature relevant to the environment of the Centennial Valley. The library itself is a handful of folders containing electronic versions of journal articles, reports, assessments, and all other types of documents that were retrieved and referenced in this report. Every document in the collection, with the exception of a few maps, is a searchable “.pdf” file. Users of the library will need to run recent versions of Adobe Acrobat software in order to read these files and to utilize the search function that allows the reader to search a document for keywords. The program used to navigate these folders is a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Every item in the document library is included in the spreadsheet, or workbook as termed by the program. Included in the workbook are a series of sheets. Each sheet represents a folder within the

Joseph Trudeau 92 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Centennial Valley Documents Library

documents library. The Sheets and associated Folders are organized more or less by authorship and include: •Bureau of Land Management Documents •Greater Yellowstone Coalition Documents •Miscellaneous Documents •Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks Documents •Montana Natural Heritage Program Reports •Nature Conservancy Documents •Scientific Articles •U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Reports •U.S. Forest Service Documents •U.S. Sheep Experiment Station Documents •Climate Change Documents

This format of organization should be considered a model for what the Lakeview Center can do with an appropriate web-based system. Once the Center develops a website, which is almost mandatory in this modern era, it can set up a more user-friendly and attractive interface that links a visitor to the electronic literature, thus enabling easy and free information sharing and integration for anyone interested in researching the Centennial Valley. I will add here that no permission was sought or granted during this compilation process for any works that may be subject to copyright. Everything that was collected was scanned, and when this library is to go public it may behoove the information manager to review certain proprietary works and institutions, namely some University theses, for appropriate authorization. By stating this I hereby absolve myself from future issues of copyright infringement and expect those responsibilities to be met by persons formally affiliated with the Lakeview Center.

Joseph Trudeau 93 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Master Bibliography

Master Bibliography

The following list represents the entire body of literature that has been included in the Centennial Valley Documents Library; every item here should be included in an electronic format except for only a few which were either unavailable or unnecessary. Not every piece was referenced in the review chapters section of this report. Many items herein will however prove useful in future research, analysis, description, or documentation of the Centennial Valley environment. Detailed review of this list is suggested before and during future planning and projects to assure the fullest level of understanding of environmental conditions and resource management in and around the Centennial Valley.

Alden, W.C. 1953. Physiography and glacial geology of western Montana and adjacent areas. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 231. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Arctic Grayling Restoration Workgroup. 2004. Annual Meeting: 2004 Montana Fluvial Arctic Grayling Restoration Workgroup Meeting. Notes from the meeting held on February 20, 2004. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, Montana.

Arno, Stephen F. and George E. Gruell. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management 36(3):332-336.

Aumack, E. 2006. Centennial Valley Project Notes. Unpublished report to the Pegasus Foundation.

Ayres, M.P. and M.J. Lombardero. 2000. Assessing the consequences of global change for forest disturbance from herbivores and pathogens. The Science of the Total Environment 262:263-286.

Bader, M. 1992. A northern Rockies proposal for Congress. Wild Earth. Special Issue: Plotting a North American wilderness recovery strategy. Cenozoic Society, Canton, NY.

Bader, M. 2000. Distribution of grizzly bears in the U.S. northern Rockies. Northwest Science 74(4):325-334.

Bailey, R.G. 1980. Description of the ecoregions of the United States. USDA Forest Service Miscellaneous Publication Number 1391.

Bailey, R.G. 1983. Delineation of ecosystem regions. Environmental Management 7(4):365-373.

Banko, W.E. 1960. The trumpeter swan: Its history, habits, and population in the United States. North American Fauna 63. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

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Barnett, T., R. Malone, W. Pennell, D. Stammer, B. Semtner, and W. Washington. 2004. The effects of climate change on water resources in the west: Introduction and overview. Climatic Change 62:1-11.

Barnosky, A.D., E.A. Hadly, and C.J. Bell. 2003. Mammalian response to global warming on varied temporal scales. Journal of Mammalogy 84(2):354-368. Bartlein, P.J., C. Whitlock, and S.L. Shafer. 1997. Future climate in the Yellowstone National Park region and its potential impact on vegetation. Conservation Biology 11(3):782-792. Bean Creek Working Group. 2006a. Bean Creek Working Group Meeting Notes. Meeting at the Bureau of Land Management Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT, February 23, 2006.

Bean Creek Working Group. 2006b. Bean Creek Forest Project Presentation. Meeting at the Bureau of Land Management Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT, February 23, 2006.

Beaverhead County Weed District. 2007. Integrated weed management plan. Beaverhead County Weed District, Dillon, MT.

Boltz, G. 2000. Fisheries investigations on the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bozeman, MT.

Brown, T.J., B.L. Hall, and A.L. Westerling. 2004. The impact of twenty-first century climate change on wildland fire danger in the western United States: An applications perspective. Climatic Change 62:365-388.

Burton, S.R., D. Patla, and C.R. Peterson. 2002. Amphibians of Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge: Occurrence, distribution, relative abundance, and habitat associations. Report of the U.S.G.S. Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative, Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Project. Herpetological Laboratory, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID.

Carey, C. and M.A. Alexander. 2003. Climate change and amphibian declines: is there a link? Diversity and Distributions 9:111-121.

Cayan, D.R., S.A. Kammerdiener, M.D. Dettinger, J.M. Caprio, and D.H. Peterson. 2001. Changes in the onset of spring in the western United States. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82(3):399-415.

Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network. 2006. Developing an aspen conservation plan: Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network Aspen Workshop summary. September 2006. Online at http://tncfire.org/training_usfln_CVfln.htm

Chase, A. White House pulls wool over publics’ eyes. Bozeman Daily Chronicle, February 22, 1995.

Joseph Trudeau 95 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Master Bibliography

Clark, T.W., A.H. Harvey, M. Rutherford, B. Suttle, and S.A. Primm.1999. Management of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: An annotated bibliography. Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Jackson, WY.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 1997. Ecological regions of North America: Toward a common perspective. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Cooper, S.V., and B.L. Heidel. 1999. Biodiversity and representativeness of Research Natural Areas on National Wildlife Refuges in Montana: Designated areas within Benton Lake, Charles M. Russell, Lake Mason, Medicine Lake, and Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuges. Unpublished report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Cooper, S., C. Jean, and B. Heidel. 1999. Plant associations and related botanical inventory of the Beaverhead Mountains Section, Montana. Unpublished report to the Bureau of Land Management. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Corn, P.S. and J.C. Fogleman. 1984. Extinction of montane populations of the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) in Colorado. Journal of Herpetology 18:147–152. Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats on the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. (Version 04DEC98) Available online at: http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/1998/classwet/classwet.htm

Culver, D. R. 1993. Sensitive plant species inventory in the Centennial Valley, Beaverhead County, Montana. Unpublished report to the Butte District, Bureau of Land Management. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Culver, D.R. 1994. Floristic analysis of the Centennial region, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.

Custer, S.G. and R.S. Sojda. 2006. Hydrologic landscape units and adaptive management of intermountain wetlands. Proceedings of the American Water Resources Association Summer Specialty Conference, Adaptive Management of Water Resources, June 26-28, 2006.

Dale, V.H., L.A. Joyce, S. McNulty, R.P. Neilson, M.P. Ayers, M.D. Flannigan, P.J. Hanson, L.C. Irland, A.L. Lugo, C.J. Peterson, D. Simberloff, F.J. Swanson, B.J. Stocks, and B.M. Wotton. 2001. Climate change and forest disturbances. Bioscience 51(9):723-734.

Dorn, R.D. 1968. Plants of Red Rock Lakes Refuge and the adjacent Centennial Mountains, Beaverhead County, Montana. Supplement to graduate thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.

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Dorn, R.D. 1970. Moose and cattle food habits in southwest Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 34(3):559-564.

Ecosystem Research Group. 2006. Partnership strategy for the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest. Unpublished report prepared for the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Dillon, MT.

Eckert, J.B., B.B. Baker, and J.D. Hanson. 1995. The impact of global warming on local incomes from range livestock systems. Agricultural Systems 48:87-100.

Ecret, R.L.V. 1986. An ecological analysis of the tall forb community of the Centennial Mountains, Montana. M.S. Thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID.

Fisher, F.B., J.C. Winne, M.M. Thornton, T.P. Tady, Z. Ma, M.H. Hart, and R.L. Redmond. 1998. Montana land cover atlas. Montana Cooperative Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.

Frisina, M.R. and C.L. Wambolt. 2005. Ground-truthing the “Sagebrush Land-Cover Montana” Gap Analysis map: A summary of progress. In Frisina, M.R. and S.J. Knapp, eds. Statewide Browse Evaluation: Project Report Number Two. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT.

Frisina, M.R. and S.J. Knapp, eds. 2005. Statewide Browse Evaluation: Project Report Number Two. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT.

Gale, R. 1987. Learning from the past, preparing for the future. Greater Yellowstone Report. Summer 1987.

Gangloff, M.M. 1996. Winter habitat and distribution of arctic grayling in upper Red Rock Lake, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.

Gibson, K. 2006. Mountain pine beetle conditions in whitebark pine stands in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 2006. Forest Health Protection Numbered Report 06-03. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Missoula Field Office, Missoula, MT.

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Gomez, D., R. Gazda, G. Sullivan, and J.F. Esperance. 2001. Centennial Valley Conservation Easement Program Environmental Assessment and Land Protection Plan. Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lima, MT and USFWS Branch of Planning, Denver, CO.

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Kappel, T. 2003, Spring. The lure of conservation: Kent Brodie wants people to get hooked. Big Sky Landmarks, 9.

Kappel, T. 2005, Fall. Community is alive and well in the Centennial Valley. Big Sky Landmarks, 11-12, 19.

Kappel, T. 2006, Fall. A new era in the Centennial, conservancy buys the 11,500-acre Murphy Creek ranch. Big Sky Landmarks, 12-13.

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Kay, C.E. and J.W. Walker. 1997. A comparison of sheep- and wildlife-grazed willow communities in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Sheep & Goat Research Journal 13(1):6-14.

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Korb, N., B. Martin, T. Swanson, M. Mantas, A. Pearson, R. Gazda, J. Warren, G. Boltz, S. Cooper, J. Brammer, S. Kujula, and P. Lesica. 2005. Centennial Valley Conservation Area Plan. Unpublished report by The Nature Conservancy, Montana. (Sections withheld for privacy)

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Restani, M. 1991. Resource partitioning among three Buteo species in the Centennial Valley, Montana. The Condor 93:1007-1010.

Roedel, M. and P. Hendricks. 1998. Amphibian and reptile inventory on the Headwaters and Dillon Resource Areas in conjunction with Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

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Rotella, J. 1993. Yellowstone Project Briefing: Wildfire and hooves. Unpublished document.

Ruediger, B., J. Claar, S. Gniadek, B. Holt, L. Lewis, S. Mighton, B. Naney, G. Patton, T. Rinaldi, J. Trick, A. Vandehey, F. Wahl, N. Warren, D. Wenger, and A. Williamson. 2000. Canada lynx conservation assessment and strategy. USDA Forest Service, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, USDI Bureau of Land Management, and USDI National Park Service. Forest Service Publication #R1-00-53, Missoula, MT.

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Shepard, B.B., B. Sanborn. L. Ulmer, and D.C. Lee. 1997. Status and risk of extinction for west slope cutthroat trout the upper Missouri River basin, Montana. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 17:1158-1172.

Shepard, B.B., B.E. May and W.Urie. 2003. Status of west slope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi) in the United States: 2002. West slope Cutthroat Trout Interagency Team, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT.

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Thompson, W.H. 2004. A riparian inventory along selected reaches of the Red Rocks River and its tributaries on the J Bar L Ranch in the Centennial Valley of Montana. Unpublished report to the Partners for Wildlife and USDI Fish and Wildlife Service.

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USDA Forest Service. 2005b. Draft Revised Land and Resource Management Plan, Draft Environmental Impact Statement, V.2. Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Dillon, MT. USDA Forest Service. 2005c. Revised Land and Resource Management Plan, Draft Forest Plan. Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Dillon, MT.

USDA Forest Service. 2007. Beaverhead-Deerlodge Forest Plan Revision Update. Unpublished document. Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Dillon, MT.

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USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2002a. Relevance and Importance Evaluations of Area of Critical Environmental Concern Nominations. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005a. Centennial Watershed Assessment Report. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005b. Centennial Watershed Assessment Executive Summary. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005c. Centennial Watershed Environmental Analysis. Report compiled by the Dillon Field Office.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005d. Proposed Dillon Resource Management Plan and Final Environmental Impact Statement, Volume 1. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005e. Proposed Dillon Resource Management Plan and Final Environmental Impact Statement, Volume 2 appendices and maps. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT.

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USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005f. Vegetation response and recovery on the Winslow Fire. Memorandum from Brian Hockett, Rangeland Management Specialist, Burned Area Emergency Recovery Team Lead, to Tim Bozorth, Dillon Field Manager, Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT. November 1, 2005.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2006. Record of Decision and Approved Dillon Resource Management Plan. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000. Ecosystem plan: Upper Missouri, Yellowstone, and Upper Columbia River. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mountain-Prairie Region, Lakewood, CO.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2007. Centennial Valley Accomplishments. Partners for Fish and Wildlife. online at http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/pfw/montana/mt3b4.htm

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service et al. 2007. West by Northwest Carnivore Conference Agenda. Unpublished.

U.S. Sheep Experiment Station. 2007. U.S. Sheep Experiment Station Ongoing Research Projects. available online at: http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=410132

Walsh, J.R. 2005. Fire regimes and stand dynamics of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) communities in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.

Wambolt, C. 2001. Montana sagebrush. In Frisina, M.R. and J.J. McCarthy, eds. Montana sagebrush bibliography. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT.

Wambolt, C.L., K.S. Walhof, and M.R. Frisina. 2001. Recovery of big sagebrush communities after burning in south-western Montana. Journal of Environmental Management 61:243- 252.

Warren, J.M, S.A. Comeau, and G.M. Demher. 2004. Adaptive resource management plan for lower Red Rock Lake, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. Unpublished report by Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lima, MT.

Warren, J.M. and M. O'Reilly. 2005. Hunting district 334 winter moose survey data analysis. Unpublished report by Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lima, MT., and Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Bozeman, MT.

Westerling, A.L., H.G. Hidalgo, D.R. Cayan, and T.W. Swetnam. 2006. Warming and earlier spring increase western U.S. forest wildfire activity. Science 313:940-943.

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Western Watersheds. 2007. WWP files litigation to stop risks to native wildlife from the Sheep Experiment Station in Dubois, Idaho. Available online at: http://www.westernwatersheds.org/news_media/newsmedia_2007/wwp129_newsmedia.s html

White, R.J. 1985. Preliminary inspection of aquatic resources of the John Taft Property, Centennial Valley, Montana. Trout Habitat Specialists, Bozeman, MT.

Wildlife Conservation Society. Summer 2004. Greater Yellowstone Field Update. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bozeman, MT.

Wildife Conservation Society. 2007. Greater Yellowstone Wolverine Program. Wildlife Conservation Society Greater Yellowstone Wolverine Program, Ennis, MT.

Wilmers, C.C. and W.M. Getz. 2005. Gray wolves as climate change buffers in Yellowstone. Public Library of Science 3(4):0571-0577.

Wilson, E.O. 1999. The diversity of life. W.W. Norton & Co., Inc. New York, NY.

Witkind, I.J., L.C. Huff, J.Ridenour, M.D. Conyac, and R.B. McCulloch. 1979. Mineral resource potential of the Centennial Mountains Wilderness Study Area and contiguous areas, Idaho and Montana. U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies MAP MF- 1342-B Pamphlet.

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Annotated Bibliography

Approximately half of the works included in the Centennial Valley Documents Library are summarized here with an emphasis placed on highlighting information specific to the Centennial Valley.

Arno, Stephen F. and George E. Gruell. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management 36(3): 332-336. Fire history was studied at the forest-grassland ecotone at 14 sites within high valleys of southwestern Montana. None of the study sites were located in the Centennial Valley but sites near the Centennial Valley include Henry’s Lake, Papoose Creek in the southern Madison Range, Pleasant Valley (25 miles southwest of Lakeview in Idaho) Dutch Hollow (35 miles west of Lakeview in Idaho) Basin Creek in the Snowcrest Range, and Price Creek in the Upper Blacktail River Watershed. The study found that prior to 1910 mean fire intervals at the Douglas-fir-grassland transition were 35 to 40 years and likely shorter in pure grasslands. No fires were detected from tree scars after 1918. Since 1900 conifers and mountain big sagebrush have increased substantially. These results are typical of southwestern Montana.

Bader, M. 1992. A northern Rockies proposal for Congress. Wild Earth. Special Issue: Plotting a North American wilderness recovery strategy. Cenozoic Society, Canton, NY. Describes the Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act sponsored by Rep. Peter Kostmayer (D-PA) which would implement protective designations for over 20 million acres of public lands in the Northern Rockies. Identifies the Centennial Valley as a Connecting Corridor between the Greater Yellowstone and Greater Salmon ecosystems.

Bean Creek Working Group. 2006. Bean Creek Working Group Meeting Notes. Meeting at the Bureau of Land Management Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT, February 23, 2006. Notes from the Bean Creek Working Group meeting provide information on habitat and environmental integrity in Bean Creek and describe goals, objectives, strategies, and concerns related to the forest restoration project to be implemented there on Bureau of Land Management lands. Specific actions to be taken and potential ideas are discussed.

Bean Creek Working Group. 2006. Bean Creek Forest Project Presentation. Meeting at the Bureau of Land Management Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT, February 23, 2006. Describes the Bean Creek Forest Project on BLM lands. The objectives for forest and woodland health are to restore historic density, structure, and species composition of forest and woodland habitats, improve forest health and resiliency to insects, disease, drought and wildland fire, enhance existing aspen and whitebark pine stands and promote successful regeneration, and allow fire to burn more naturally across Centennial Mountains. Silvicultural prescriptions were presented that were designed to reduce conifer encroachment into aspen stands, dramatically reduce stocking of beetle killed and infested lodgepole pine while leaving groups of 10-25 trees per acre where possible, removing most dead/dying Douglas fir and opening stands to 100 basal feet/acre by removing spruce, fir, and lodgepole pine.

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Beaverhead County Weed District. 2007. Integrated weed management plan. Beaverhead County Weed District, Dillon, MT. Details the goals of the plan, the systems to control weeds, and components of the program to combat weeds at numerous levels. Provides an inventory of infestations and treatment options. Centennial Valley is included in the Centennial Management Area. Numerous appendices detail ordinances, herbicide application, biological control agents, policies, and other information. State designated noxious weeds found in the Centennial Valley include leafy spurge, dyers woad, whitetop, perennial pepperweed, diffuse knapweed, field scabious, common teasel, spotted knapweed, yellow toadflax, hoary alyssum, field bindweed, Canada thistle, common tansy, houndstongue, musk thistle, black henbane, and common mullein.

Boltz, G. 2000. Fisheries investigations on the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bozeman, MT. Provides summaries of investigations into stream discharge, water temperature, and electro- fishing surveys of tributaries to upper and lower Red Rock Lakes, as well as biological information regarding fishes on the refuge.

Burton, S.R., D. Patla, and C.R. Peterson. 2002. Amphibians of Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge: Occurrence, distribution, relative abundance, and habitat associations. U.S.G.S. Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative, Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Project. Herpetological Laboratory, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID. Surveys in the summer of 2001 provided ecological information used to develop probability of occurrence maps based on National Wetland Inventory habitat types. Western chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata), Columbia spotted frog (Rana luteiventris), Boreal toad (Bufo boreas), and Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) were documented. Tiger salamander was documented at only one site and is believed to be rare in the Centennial Valley. A digitized National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) map was created and a total of 26 NWI habitats were identified, with the majority (77%) covering less than 1% of the refuge. McDonald Pond, Pintail Pond, Sparrow Pond and Slough, and the south and southwest shore and wetlands of Upper Red Rock Lake were considered important habitat areas for amphibian conservation at RRLNWR. Habitat characteristics and needs are discussed, and management recommendations are made.

Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network. 2006. Developing an aspen conservation plan: Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network Aspen Workshop summary. September 2006. Online at http://tncfire.org/training_usfln_CVfln.htm Discusses the September 21-22, 2006 Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network workshop at Elk Lake Resort. The Centennial Valley Fire Learning Network is one of ten regional networks nationally that focuses on collaborative restoration of landscape-scale fire-adapted ecosystems. The network idea was started by The Nature Conservancy. Highlights include remarks that aspen cover has declined substantially in the Centennial Valley while it has changed little other places in its range; preliminary data from an ongoing aspen assessment in the Centennial Valley showed that elk browsing is ubiquitous across the landscape and is suppressing aspen recruitment; elk browsing is the biggest concern of land managers in the Centennial Valley; and despite the co-evolution of aspen and elk in the Centennial Valley external stressors like removal of predators, changes in habitat use, expanding human population and increasing population in

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the secure Centennial Valley have enhanced the elks effects on aspen. Includes a list of participants and contact information.

Cooper, S.V., and B.L. Heidel. 1999. Biodiversity and representativeness of Research Natural Areas on National Wildlife Refuges in Montana: Designated areas within Benton Lake, Charles M. Russell, Lake Mason, Medicine Lake, and Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuges. Unpublished report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. The Sheep Mountain Research Natural Area (RNA) is an 85 acre tract of forested and woodland community on the north and northwest slopes of Sheep Mountain between 7,600 and 8,400 feet elevation. This small parcel contains several intact stands of old-growth forest and woodland including 200+ year old stands of subalpine fir, 350 year old stands of subalpine fire/common juniper woodland, and stunted stands of limber pine that could exceed 500 years of age. The driest sites in the RNA are wind scoured grass-dominated areas that support little biomass. This RNA is significant because it is the only RNA administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the Northern Rocky Mountains in a forested setting. It is protected by the Red Rock Lakes Wilderness Area.

Cooper, S., C. Jean, and B. Heidel. 1999. Plant associations and related botanical inventory of the Beaverhead Mountains Section, Montana. Unpublished report to the Bureau of Land Management. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. This document represents the first comprehensive vegetation classification for an entire ecoregional section in Montana. In total, 273 plant associations were classified through analysis of existing data and information as well as additional ecological studies and surveys. Four- hundred eighty associations have been identified for the entire state of Montana. The Beaverhead Section is very diverse having 57% of all associations in less than 10% of the states land area. Eighty percent of the states plants were documented in this section, totaling over 2,200 species. Eighteen endemic species were documented which is the highest level of endemism in Montana, and 130 species of state or global concern were documented included 28 globally rare species on lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Furthermore, this section has been subdivided into 11 subsections; more than any other section in the state. The reasons for this high diversity lie in the incredible landscape diversity of the region. There is greater geologic diversity and elevational relief than the rest of Montana, the region is influenced by Pacific and Gulf weather patterns, and there is overlapping floristic influence of the Great Basin, Plains, and Rocky Mountain floras. The Centennial Valley, Centennial Mountains, and Centennial Sandhills were among several landscapes identified as having exceptional ecological significance. The report contains a complete list of the plant associations, a complete list of species, a dichotomous key to the associations, and descriptions of 130 associations.

Dorn, R.D. 1970. Moose and cattle food habits in southwest Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 34(3):559-564. This study was part of a series of ecological studies of the Shiras moose in southwest Montana. The main objectives were to determine the use of vegetation types, food habits, movements, and sex ratios, and the extent of moose-cattle competition in willow-sedge areas of the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. The study determined that Shiras moose use willow habitats more than any other cover type during both winter and summer, accounting for 84% and 93% of

Joseph Trudeau 114 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Annotated Bibliography observations respectively. Following willow, moose used aspen, sedge, and grassland habitats in decreasing amounts and other forested habitats only minimally. When using forested habitats, moose hedged subalpine fir extensively in conifer stands while using Douglas-fir much less. There was little competition between moose and cattle for forage. Cattle used Salix wolfii 50% of the time which moose largely avoided. Moose relied heavily on browse and used Salix bebbiana, S. geyeriana, S. planifolia, S. myrtillifolia, and Betula glandulosa primarily, with S. myrtillifolia being the most important accounting for 58% of utilization.

Ecret, R.L.V. 1986. An ecological analysis of the tall forb community of the Centennial Mountains, Montana. M.S. Thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID. Sixty plots in homogenous stands of tall forb vegetation were sampled across a range of slopes and aspects in both the Tom and O’Dell Creek headwaters areas in the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station during the summers of 1981 and 1982. The objectives of the study were to determine succesional trends in the tall forb community relative to sheep grazing over time, determine the differences between sites due to environmental factors, and determine whether the communities were seral or climax to grasslands. The author found that the effects of sheep grazing on floristic composition were indiscernible and non-influential and therefore could not correlate sheep grazing to any succesional trends. Tall forb communities in grazed and ungrazed areas were located near each other after ordination analyses and appeared to be in late seral or near climax condition. Pocket gophers (Thamomys talpoides) had conspicuous effects on vegetation and surface conditions though the disturbance was not quantified.

Frisina, M.R. and C.L. Wambolt. 2005. Ground-truthing the “Sagebrush Land-Cover Montana” Gap Analysis map: A summary of progress. In Frisina, M.R. and S.J. Knapp, eds. Statewide Browse Evaluation: Project Report Number Two. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT. The second report on statewide browse conditions provides even more ecological information regarding ungulate browse effects on their habitats, though none were relevant to the Centennial Valley. The chapter highlighted here describes the authors concern about the accuracy of the Gap sagebrush map in depicting and classifying sagebrush cover. They are in the process of ground truthing the data and have sites northwest of the Centennial Valley in the Gravelly- Snowcrest Mountains.

Gangloff, M.M. 1996. Winter habitat and distribution of arctic grayling in upper Red Rock Lake, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT. This thesis reviews the biology of arctic grayling and researches the hypotheses that low dissolved oxygen contributes to fish mortality and affects wintering habitat in Upper Red Rock Lake. Fish were captured and tagged with radio telemeters, then monitored through two winters. Dissolved oxygen amounts differed between winters and were related to macrophytic vegetation growing conditions the following summer and the effects of snow and ice accumulation on light penetration. These factors can contribute to lethally low dissolved oxygen content. Grayling were found to congregate at small oxygen refugia at the mouths of the inlet streams Red Rock Creek and Grayling Creek.

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Gibson, K. 2006. Mountain pine beetle conditions in whitebark pine stands in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 2006. Forest Health Protection Numbered Report 06-03. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Missoula Field Office, Missoula, MT. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is defined herein as the National Parks and Forests of the Yellowstone region. Aerial Detection Surveys were flown and documented approximately 171,200 acres showing signs of some level of whitebark pine mortality caused by mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) infestations. Infestations around the Centennial Valley include widespread mortality in the Gravelly Mountains and localized in the Baldy Mountain area in the Centennial Range. Warmer than normal temperatures over the last several years may have triggered the outbreaks. Pine beetle outbreaks are natural disturbance agents and have occurred in the region as recently as the 1930’s, 70’s and 80’s.

Gillin, G. 2001. Literature review: Fisheries information for the Centennial Valley, Montana. Unpublished report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dillon, MT. The ultimate source for fisheries information for the Centennial Valley. The author reviews letters, documents, reports, and unpublished data for lakes, rivers, streams, species, habitats and all other aspects of fisheries information. Organized to be easily searched for information specific to species or water body of interest.

Gomez, D., R. Gazda, G. Sullivan, and J.F. Esperance. 2001. Centennial Valley Conservation Easement Program Environmental Assessment and Land Protection Plan. Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lima, MT and USFWS Branch of Planning, Denver, CO. The rural character of the Centennial Valley is likely to undergo substantial change in the next 10-20 years. The primary threat to the valley is conversion of land to summer homes, developments, and residential areas. The service proposed herein to acquire through fee simple purchase or conservation easement donation approximately 42,000 acres of lands surrounding the refuge. The Nature Conservancy started protecting easements in 1999 and has had success. Private lands are prioritized for acquisition and listed in tables.

Greater Yellowstone Coalition. 1994. Saving greater Yellowstone, a blueprint for the future. Greater Yellowstone Coalition, Bozeman, MT. 240pp. Blueprint builds upon the environmental review that the Greater Yellowstone Coalition completed with their 1991 report, An environmental profile of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Strategies for meeting resource and cultural protection goals are presented. Chapters address resource condition, current issues, and conservation recommendations for wildlands, refuges, fisheries, riparian areas, rangelands, private lands, geothermal features, ecological processes, plant communities, and wildlife.

Hendricks, P., and M. Roedel. 2001. A faunal survey of the Centennial Valley Sandhills, Beaverhead County, Montana. Unpublished report to the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. Surveys of the Centennial Valley sandhills during the summer of 1999 documented 18 species of mammals, 29 species of birds, two amphibian and one reptile species, four species of tiger

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beetles, and 14 species of diurnal butterflies. Mammals of special concern documented in the sandhills include the black-tailed jackrabbit, pygmy rabbit, Preble’s shrew, and great basin pocket mouse. Observed birds on the Montana Partners in Flight Priority II list include Ferruginous hawk, Brewers sparrow, grasshopper sparrow, sage thrasher, and long-billed curlew. Habitat associations and recommendations for management are discussed. Several species are dependent on specific succesional stages of sandhills vegetation and may require active disturbance to maintain viable populations. Appendices include lists of all species documented and additional descriptions of special status small mammals encountered.

Hendricks, P. and M. Roedel. 2002. Preble's shrew and great basin pocket mouse from the Centennial Valley Sandhills of Montana. Northwestern Naturalist 83:31-34. Rodent surveys in Centennial sandhills collected at least three species of shrew including Preble’s shrew (Sorex preblei) which was previously undocumented in Beaverhead County. Also collected for the first time in the Centennial Valley and the first Montana record since 1961 was the Great Basin pocket mouse (Perognathus parvus). Both collections expand the documented range of the two species.

Jean, C., P. Hendricks, M. Jones, S. Cooper, and J. Carlson. 2002. Ecological communities on the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge: Inventory and review of aspen and wetland systems. Unpublished report to the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. 45pp. This report provides an overview of aspen and wetland habitats on the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. The authors surveyed small mammals, snails, birds, vegetation, and other ecological components of selected communities and described the condition, status, threats, and research needs related to those systems and the refuge as a whole. The report describes communities at the habitat-type level and provides the most detailed treatment of aspen habitats yet completed. A brief annotated bibliography highlights some important works previously done in the refuge and the Centennial Valley.

Jewett, P. 1999. Threats to the Centennial Mountain Wildlife Corridor. American Wildlands Report number 15. American Wildlands, Bozeman, MT. Only portions of this document are included due to unavailability. It describes wildlife use of the east-west Centennial Mountains and the threats to the integrity of the range as a corridor. Also included and of importance are personal notes by Centennial Valley resident Patrick McKenna describing his experiences and wildlife observations spanning two decades in the mountains.

Jones, W.M. 2004. Ecologically significant wetlands in the Missouri headwaters: Jefferson, Lower Madison, Lower Gallatin, and Upper Red Rock River Watersheds. Unpublished report to the Montana Department of Environmental Quality. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. An inventory of twenty-one ecologically significant and restorable wetlands in the Missouri River headwaters evaluated their integrity and diversity to inform and prioritize protection and restoration efforts. In the Centennial Valley five wetlands were surveyed. Wetlands associated with the Red Rock Lakes including an extensive willow complex and old growth spruce forests are highest ranked. The Red Rock River upstream from Lima Reservoir and a nearby fen were ranked intermediately because of human impacts. Red Rock Ponds in the Brundage Lane area

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were ranked low but still very important for habitat. Status, threats and conservation recommendations are discussed.

Jones, W. 2005. A vegetation index of biotic integrity for small-order streams in southwest Montana and a floristic quality assessment for western Montana wetlands. Unpublished report to the Montana Department of Environmental Quality and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. The study evaluated the relationship between grazing-related disturbances and vegetation in small streams in SW Mt. In the Centennial Valley reaches of Price Creek and Indian Creek were included in the survey and were regarded as reference reaches and listed as Properly Functioning by the BLM. 178 species were encountered and the mean richness was 43± species/site. The VIBI was based on eight attributes of vegetative community structure and condition that were strongly respondent to grazing related disturbance. Cover of native grasses, exotic species, water-loving species, willow seedlings, willow seedling density, and bank stability indices were all strongly affected by grazing. The Index could be used to assess riparian health throughout the Centennial Valley and the author suggested that more such studies are needed to field verify the accuracy of the Index.

Jordan, G., R.C. Skates, K. Niethammer, and D. Gomez. 1993. Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge Fisheries habitat enhancement and management plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bozeman, MT. Describes goals and objectives related to improving fisheries integrity, notably arctic grayling and west slope cutthroat trout. Includes important environmental information gleaned through decades of observation and knowledge accumulation by refuge biologists, including information related to beaver dam ecology, sedimentation of creeks and lakes, fish harvest and stocking, and water diversions. Also includes examples of habitat restoration or mitigation projects that had occurred up to that point, as well as fish stocking records dating back to 1899.

Kaeding, L.R. and G.D. Boltz. 2004. Use of remote-site incubators to produce arctic grayling fry of wild parentage. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 24:1031-1037. A remote site incubator (RSI) is an out-of-stream device that supplies developing embryos with clear water from natural springs and thus avoids the chance that embryos could be suffocated by sedimentation. These devices were installed at Red Rock Creek, East and West Elk Springs Creeks, East Shambow Creek, and Grayling Creek. Only Red Rock Creek has naturally spawning grayling so the researchers took breeding stock from that stream. The RSI’s were used to incubate developing grayling embryos before release into the 5 streams. In May, 2002 eleven arctic grayling were seen spawning in Elk Springs Creek downstream of the two RSI sites installed on its tributaries. Grayling spawn at two years old so they believe the fish observed were produced with the RSI’s.

Kappel, T. 2001, Fall. The Centennial: A valley that time forgot takes on new importance as a wildlife corridor. Big Sky Landmarks, 11-14. Kappel, T. 2003, Spring. Long-time ranch family works with The Nature Conservancy to protect the Centennial Valley. Big Sky Landmarks, 7-8.

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Kappel, T. 2003, Spring. The lure of conservation: Kent Brodie wants people to get hooked. Big Sky Landmarks, 9. Kappel, T. 2005, Fall. Community is alive and well in the Centennial Valley. Big Sky Landmarks, 11-12, 19. Kappel, T. 2006, Fall. A new era in the Centennial, conservancy buys the 11,500-acre Murphy Creek ranch. Big Sky Landmarks, 12-13. Kappel, T. 2007, Spring. The lake dwelling arctic grayling of the Centennial. Big Sky Landmarks, 11-12. The Nature Conservancy. 2005. The Centennial Valley. Montana Landmarks. 2005 Annual Report. The Nature Conservancy of Montana. The Nature Conservancy. 2005. Conservation easements in Montana. Available online at: http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/montana/ The Nature Conservancy. 2006. Nature Conservancy buys Centennial Valley Ranch. Available online at: http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/montana/press/press2721. html. The Nature Conservancy. 2007. Huntsmans protect their Centennial Valley ranchland. Available online at: http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/montana/news/news2031. html Above sources are all various articles from The Nature Conservancy’s Montana chapter magazine or web site that discuss Centennial Valley specific issues such as conservation easements, weed control projects, internships, arctic grayling, maintenance of rural character, and personal stories from ranch families who worked with the Conservancy to put their land into conservation easements.

Katzman, L.M. 1998. Effects of predation on status of arctic grayling at Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT. Predation was quantified on early life stages of arctic grayling during 1995 and 1996. The non- native brook trout and adult Yellowstone cutthroat trout X rainbow trout hybrids consumed an estimated 36% of available egg stock in 1995, and brook trout consumed an estimated 14% of the 1996 egg stock. No eggs were found in stomach contents of mottled sculpin, white suckers, and juvenile Yellowstone cutthroat trout X rainbow trout hybrids. The native burbot (Lota lota) is a potential predator and was studied to determine life history traits. While depredation contributes to mortality of arctic grayling it is probably not as much a cause of the fishes decline as winter mortality resulting from anoxic conditions and competition with non-native fish. Additionally, the lake is naturally filling in with sediment and habitat may be naturally becoming unsuitable.

Kay, C.E. 1994. An evaluation of willow communities on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station's Centennial Mountains summer range. U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, ID. This report describes a survey of willow communities in the Tom and Odell Creek drainages on lands administered by the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station. The survey was commission in response to accusations by some groups that sheep grazing was contributing to the rapid

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sedimentation of Upper Red Rock Lake. The entire lengths of Odell, Meadow, Twin Basin and Spring Creeks were surveyed as well as the entire lengths of all streams in Tom Creek drainage. The study sought to identify conditions in willow communities that would reflect on overgrazing and the claims of excessive sedimentation. Perennial flows in Odell, Meadow, and Twin Basin Creeks supported dense stands of willows. Spring Creek only flows in runoff but still supported some willow stands. Tom Creeks’ small size and steep gradients supported few riparian shrub communities. Extensive willow browsing by moose had eliminated most catkins so surveys were delayed in the first year. Surveys found little support for claims of sheep grazing impact but observed signs of excessive ungulate browsing of willows up to and above 1.5 meters and also bark stripping impacts on aspen clones. Overall riparian health was good. There were at least 44 active beaver dams and seven active colonies in the Odell Creek drainage, and overflights in 1986 observed clear water in Odell and Hell Roaring Creeks until they hit the meanders of the valley bottom through BLM and private lands and became turbid. Sources of sediment were the phosphate mine and associated haul road, an avalanche chute in Tom Creek, and natural slumping. Appendix C includes some very interesting correspondence with a geographer that studied a lake core from Upper Red Rock Lake and determined that sedimentation rates in 1990 were far below any low point in the last 200 years.

Kay, C.E. and J.W. Walker. 1997. A comparison of sheep- and wildlife-grazed willow communities in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Sheep & Goat Research Journal 13(1):6-14. Willow communities on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station (USSES) summer range were compared to willow communities in Yellowstone’s Northern Range. USSES willow canopy cover (93%) was similar to cover inside elk-proof exclosures (95%) at Yellowstone, and higher than areas outside exclosures (14%). Willow heights at the USSES were intermediate between exclosure and open sites at Yellowstone due to intense winter moose browsing. Repeat photography indicated that willow communities in the Centennial Mountains had expanded during the last century while those at Yellowstone had declined 95% or more. Beaver were present in all drainages suitable for habitat at the USSES but absent at Yellowstone. Intensive and extensive native ungulate browsing was responsible for dramatic reduction of riparian tall willow communities at Yellowstone.

Kay, C.E. 1999. Repeat photography and long-term vegetation change on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station and other rangelands in the Centennial Mountains. Executive Summary. U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, ID. Over 100 historic photos from the Centennial Mountains were compiled dating from the 1870’s to the 1940’s. Re-photos were taken and images were compared to detect landscape level vegetation changes. In general, montane grasslands, sagebrush communities, aspen, and subalpine meadows were encroached by conifers that had expanded markedly. Repeat photos indicate that grazing has had little apparent impact on vegetation, little soil erosion or long- distance soil transport had occurred, and except where conifers had invaded, open sites showed little change. Willows have expanded since original photos were taken. Fire should be restored to reverse the effects of conifer invasion. Over 300 pairs of photos are on file at the Sheep Experiment Station headquarters along with this report in its full length.

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Keigley, R.B. and M.R. Frisina. 2001. Browse conditions at Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. In Knapp, S.J. and M.R. Frisina, eds. Statewide Browse Evaluation: Project Report No, One. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT. This statewide review of browsing has a variety of information important to the understanding of herbivore-habitat associations, with special regards to ungulate browsers. One chapter describes the survey of a permanent browse evaluation transect in the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. Biologists found that at sites near Lakeview willows were heavily browsed, showed an increase in browsing pressure, and that the browse resource appears to be in overall decline. At a site near Battle Creek browsing had limited the growth of willows to one meter, about snow depth; this evidence suggested that moose were contributing significantly to the willow decline throughout the refuge.

Klement, Keith D. 1997. Condition and trend analysis on subalpine rangeland grazed by sheep in the Centennial Mountains, Montana. M.S. Thesis, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY. Tall forb, sagebrush, grassland, and open conifer sites at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station summer range were evaluated to determine changes caused by sheep grazing and environmental fluctuations on species composition, biomass, ground cover, and soil surface conditions. Exclosures in all sites except grasslands were compared to grazed areas and to historic datasets dating back to 1959. Results indicated improved or static rangeland condition based largely on the increase in perennial forb cover in tall forb and open conifer sites. Grazing did not appear to be a factor in vegetation composition. Improved range management and rest rotation grazing systems contributed to the improvement in conditions. Also, the thesis provides a review of historic floristic survey work in the Centennial summer range which documents continually improving evaluations since 1951.

Knowlton, F.F. 1960. Food habits, movements and populations of moose in the Gravelly Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 24(2):162-170. Moose populations in the Gravelly Mountains were studied. The headwaters of Long Creek which flows into the Centennial Valley was included. During summer, most moose stayed above 7,500 feet and relied primarily on forbs (70%) over browse (28.6%) for food. Sticky geranium (Geranium viscosissimum) accounted for 64% of summer forb grazing. Towards winter, they moved down to willow bottoms below 7,000 feet and relied heavily on browse (95-100%) for their diets. Of all browse species willow and subalpine fir were the most important. Records of moose in southwest Montana prior to 1900 were rare.

Korb, N.T. 2005. Historical fire regimes and structures of Douglas-fir forests in the Centennial Valley of southwest Montana. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. This study found evidence of two different fire regimes in the Douglas-fir forests of the Centennial Valley. A xeric study area on Elk Mountain and a mesic study area on Baldy Mountain were sampled intensively for fire evidence, tree ages, stand structure and dynamics. The xeric site was found to have large fires on an average of every 26 years, and smaller fires returning on average about every 15 years. Vary large, open grown trees in small patches were separated by great swaths of grasses and sagebrush. The mesic site had more frequent small fires, returning on average about every 9 years, but large fires returned on average about every

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35 years. The mesic site characteristically was varied in the severity of historic fires, where most were small and of low severity, but 22 stand-replacing fire events, all less than 40 hectares, were mapped indicating that local climatic and stand-level influences had effects on fire severity. Stand, fire patch, and landscape reconstruction in the area of the 2003 Winslow Fire on Baldy Mountain determined that the extent and severity of that fire surpassed any regime experienced in the past in low-mid elevation forests of the Centennial Valley. The large patches of destroyed Douglas-fir timber may transition to other forest types.

Korb, N., B. Martin, T. Swanson, M. Mantas, A. Pearson, R. Gazda, J. Warren, G. Boltz, S. Cooper, J. Brammer, S. Kujula, and P. Lesica. 2005. Centennial Valley Conservation Area Plan. Unpublished report by The Nature Conservancy, Montana. (Sections withheld for privacy) A conservation plan specific to the Centennial Valley was developed following the ecoregional plan. It is meant to remain dynamic and will be amended as new information comes to light. Within the context of the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative the Centennial Valley is a “key linkage” between the Greater Yellowstone and Salmon-Selway Ecosystems. Specific conservation targets identified in Conservation Plan include west slope cutthroat trout; Red Rock aquatic systems; valley bottom wetlands; non-native grasses; sagebrush-grassland complex; mid- elevation conifer forest; sandhill complex; riparian communities; and aspen. By focusing on protecting and restoring these essential habitats fine filter targets will benefit. Only a small portion of the report is contained here.

Lesica, P. and S.V. Cooper. 1997. Presettlement vegetation of southern Beaverhead County, Montana. Unpublished report to the State Office, Bureau of Land Management and Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. Historic accounts, journals, and other primary sources were reviewed for information relevant to the vegetation of southern Beaverhead County. Though only a few references to the Centennial Valley are made, many observations from the surrounding landscape can help one imagine the area in the mid 1800’s. Specific accounts from the Centennial Valley describe bison being common and sagebrush being very abundant.

Lesica, P. and S.V. Cooper. 1999. Succession and disturbance in sandhills vegetation: Constructing models for managing biological diversity. Conservation Biology 13(2):293-302. Analysis of the Centennial Sandhills determined three seral stages: lower slope erosional blowouts, upper slope deposition, and stabilized dunes. Blowouts provide early succesional habitat for four rare plants, and late succesional sandhills habitat is a rare community in itself, thus conservation of biological diversity will require preservation of both early and late seral communities. Factors in maintaining early seral habitats include fire, which occurred as recently as 1975, ungulate grazing, which has included bison, sheep, and cattle through time, and pocket gophers. Pocket gophers preferred slopes over level areas, and deposition over erosion sites and none were found in stabilized sites. Gophers may help maintain early seral habitat and they may be attracted to it as well. The authors recommend experiments with prescribed fire followed by intense cattle grazing for one to two years to attempt to revert areas to early succesional habitat.

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Lesica, P. 2003. Conserving globally rare plants on lands administered by the Dillon Office of the Bureau of Land Management. Unpublished report to the Bureau of Land Management, Dillon Field Office. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. Surveys in the Centennial Sandhills and Eastern Centennial Mountains in the summer of 2002 expanded the known locations of state and globally rare species. This report reviews the biology and status of rare plants in the Dillon Field Office of Montana. Excellent description of the sandhills and mountains of the Centennial Valley are provided as appendices.

Lesica, P., S.V. Cooper, and G. Kudray. 2005. Big sagebrush shrub-steppe postfire succession in southwest Montana. Unpublished report to the Bureau of Land Management, Dillon Field Office. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. Thirty-eight sites in southwest Montana were studied to determine the recovery of sagebrush stands following fire. Stands in mountain big sage (Artemesia tridentata ssp. vaseyana) basin big sage (A. tridentata ssp. tridentata) and Wyoming big sage (A. tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) types were evaluated following wild and prescribed fires ranging from three to 34 years prior to the study. In the Centennial Valley, study sites were located near Elk Lake, in the Tepee Creek area, the Fish Creek headwaters area, and within the Winslow Fire of 2003. Recovery time was variable between subspecies. Mountain big sage, the most common type in the region, recovered fully within 32 years. Basin big sage recovered somewhat quicker, at 26 years, and Wyoming big sage experienced very slow recovery, perhaps taking a century or more. No difference in recovery times was observed between wild fires and prescribed fires or at sites with more or less precipitation, however prescribed fires tended to be of a lesser intensity, usually leaving skeletons with some branches whereas wildfires incinerated the whole plant and even dished out the stem into the ground. Prescribed fires tended to have increased grass cover and marginally increased forb cover. All stands were uneven aged suggesting that establishment is not limited to immediate post-fire conditions. Conservation of the full range of species that require sagebrush vegetation types would necessitate fire return intervals of 50-80 years and perhaps longer in Wyoming big sage dominated stands. A detailed comparison of physiographic requirements and differences between the three types are discussed.

Mahr, M. 1996. A natural diversity “hot spot” in Yellowstone Country. Wild Earth 6(3):33- 36. The author described the Centennial Valley as an “oasis of diverse high quality habitat for a broad range of wildlife.” She discusses the valleys vegetation, geology, and importance as a linkage between the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and the Idaho wilderness complex. Also, she describes the Centennial Valley project: in summer 1993 The Nature Conservancy, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Greater Yellowstone Coalition and several landowners came together to develop conservation strategies for the valley based on their belief that the refuge was not large enough to function as a self- sustaining viable ecological unit. Threats to the Centennial Valley as determined through conversations with residents and literature reviews included accumulation of sediment in the lakes, overgrazed riparian areas, wildlife barriers produced by extensive livestock fences, proposed subdivisions, paving the road, logging and road building on adjacent National Forests, increased recreational use, and Animal Damage Control practiced against predators on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station summer range.

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Mantas, M. and N. Korb. 2007. Centennial sandhills habitat restoration project: Initial study design and 2006 baseline report. Unpublished report by The Nature Conservancy of Montana. Baseline survey of The Nature Conservancy’s Centennial Sandhills Preserve identified different plant communities in the west and east sandhills. The survey was used to design experimental restoration treatments that are intended to return portions of those communities to an early seral state which may maintain uncommon plant species assemblages and landscape patterns.

Marston, R.A. and J.E. Anderson. 1991. Watersheds and vegetation of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Conservation Biology 5(3): 338-346 A review of watershed systems and vegetation patterns across the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and coarse assessment of the conditions of those systems.

Middle Rockies-Blue Mountains Planning Team. 2000. Middle Rockies-Blue Mountains Ecoregional Conservation Plan. Unpublished report by The Nature Conservancy. This document describes the planning process used by The Nature Conservancy to focus their efforts on the most important conservation priorities. Fine scale (species) and coarse scale (associations, habitats, communities) filters were analyzed to correlate landscapes to importance in protection those filters. The Centennial Valley hosted 177 fine and coarse filter targets and was thus identified as priority conservation area. It was chosen as a high priority site for future conservation work due to its biological richness, unique landscape features, and its context for connectivity for wide-ranging species in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Also, a brief description of the Centennial landscape mentions that some of the best examples of old growth Douglas fir and pristine aspen ecosystems in the ecoregion occur on the north flank of the Centennial Mountains. Appendices list the species and habitats considered during analysis.

Mogen, J.T. 1996. Status and biology of the spawning population of Red Rock Lakes arctic grayling. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT. Red Rock Lakes arctic grayling were monitored during the spring spawning runs in 1994 and 1995. Mid-May marks the peak of spawning activity, and fish reside in the streams for about 3-5 weeks. Historically 12 streams supported very abundant spawning grayling. Grayling used Red Rock Creek primarily and there was limited use of O’Dell Creek where 12 fish were caught in 1994. No grayling were caught in O’Dell Creek in 1992 or 1993. Habitat improvements could be attributed to improvements in riparian protection and restoration efforts. Grayling tagged in O’Dell Creek were located the following year in Upper Red Rock Lake indicating they are able to negotiate the marshlands between the upper and lower lakes. The 1995 survey recorded only a fraction of the 1994 fish due to sampling problems and continual drastic declines in the population.

Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. 2002. Grizzly Bear management plan for southwestern Montana, 2002-2012: Final programmatic environmental impact statement. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT. The Yellowstone population of grizzly bears has expanded into southwestern Montana. The minimum population estimate for the population rose from 219 in 1991 to 361 in 2001. Bears have been documented throughout the area including the Centennial and Gravelly Ranges. In cooperation with the Intergovernmental Grizzly Bear Committee the state agency completed a management plan that addresses bear biology, conflicts, future management strategies, and other Joseph Trudeau 124 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Annotated Bibliography

information. The agency considers the Centennial Mountains an area to focus on to address future problems with bear expansion and dispersal.

Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. 2005. Montana's comprehensive fish and wildlife conservation strategy. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT. This comprehensive review of wildlife information and conservation status for the state of Montana is organized into four components that help describe status, trends, and management actions related to wildlife. It identifies geographic focus areas in greatest need of conservation, community types in greatest need of conservation, species that are in greatest need of conservation, and species and species groups targeted for inventory. Geographic areas in greatest need of conservation include Southwest Montana Intermontane Basins and Valleys ecoregion which encompasses most of the Centennial Valley’s lower elevation valley floor. Community types in greatest need of conservation that are found in the Centennial Valley include grassland complexes, riparian and wetland systems, sagebrush and salt flats, and mountain streams. Species in the Centennial Valley that are ranked as having the greatest conservation need include Yellowstone Cutthroat trout, west slope cutthroat trout, native lake trout, arctic grayling, burbot, western toad, common loon, trumpeter swan, bald eagle, greater sage grouse, long-billed curlew, black tern, flammulated owl, burrowing owl, black-backed woodpecker, olive-sided flycatcher, Townsend’s big-eared bat, pygmy rabbit, Great Basin pocket mouse, gray wolf, grizzly bear, and Canada lynx. The most imminent threat to most species is development and habitat fragmentation.

Murray, R.B., H.F. Mayland, and G.E. Shewmaker. 1991. Response of montane tall-forb communities to 2,4-D and mixtures of 2,4-D and picloram. Journal of Range Management 44(4): 311-318. This study took place on the United States Sheep Experiment Station in the O’Dell Creek drainage of the Centennial Mountains in the montane tall forb community. Tall forb communities in the Centennial Mountains are dominated by sticky geranium and Potentilla spp along with several other common grass and forb species. The researchers tested the use of herbicides to reduce the cover of non-desirable forage species, notably sticky geranium (Geranium viscosissimum). Herbicide was applied in 1983 and 1984 and response was measured from 1984 to 1986. Herbicide spray significantly reduced production of forbs but not necessarily the target species. Grass and sedge production increased and partially compensated for the reduction in forb production. Pre-treatment production of forbs was expected to return within four to five years indicating that application of the herbicide tested would have no long-term beneficial effect on palatable forage production.

National Wildlife Federation. 2002. Tom France, Glenn Hockett, Tim Stevens, Paul Rubright, Ben Deeble, Deb Kmon-Davidson, Bruce Nelson, and Jeff Reider. Letter dated August 8, 2002 to Jon Raby, Acting Area Manager, Bureau of Land Management, Dillon Field Office. This letter from a coalition of environmental organizations and individuals assembled by the National Wildlife Federation urges the Bureau of Land Management to pursue Area of Critical Environmental Concern designation for the Centennial Mountains.

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Newcomb, M. 2003. White pine blister rust, whitebark pine, and Ribes species in the Greater Yellowstone area. M.S. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. The first study of the relationships between the pathogen and its two alternate hosts describes the spatial patterns of blister rust occurrence related to host species distribution. Only two environmental variables were found to positively correlate with an index of infection severity: distance to the nearest 5th order stream and distance to the nearest stream at or below 2621 meters. These factors may be useful in landscape scale analyses of disease distribution but are not effective at local scales. Despite not having studied any stands within the Centennial Valley, this thesis can provide useful insight into the complex disease cycle as well as ecological information for all nine species of Ribes shrubs that occur in the area.

Noss, R., G.Wuerthner, K. Vance-Borland, and C. Carroll. 2001. A Biological Conservation Assessment for the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Report prepared for the Greater Yellowstone Coalition, Bozeman, MT. A GIS based assessment of focal species, existing habitat protected, and trends in human and natural systems was used to prioritize conservation sites specific to the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE). The Red Rock/Centennial megasite was ranked as being a medium conservation priority in the GYE based on scores of irreplaceability and vulnerability. Wetland sites were generally ranked higher in the analysis.

Oechsli, L. and C. Frissell. 2002. Aquatic integrity areas: Upper Missouri River basin. American Wildlands, Bozeman, MT, Pacific Rivers Council, Eugene OR, and Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, Canmore, AB, Canada. A Geographic Information Systems (GIS) approach was used to analyze existing fisheries and land management information to determine integrity of aquatic systems at the 4th level hydrologic unit. Subwatershed basins were ranked based on the proportion of the subwatershed in roadless condition, the frequency of fish stocking, an index of the richness and integrity of native fish species assemblages, and known occurrences of sensitive or rare aquatic- or riparian- dependent species of plants and animals. The Red Rock subwatershed ranked as having the highest overall conservation quality along with the Sun, Big Hole, and Beaverhead units. None of the Red Rock subwatershed was ranked the highest possible score, but 57% ranked second highest, 33% was ranked third, 9% was ranked fourth, and only 3% was ranked lowest. Within the Centennial Valley, aquatic integrity varied. Alaska Basin and the uppermost portions of the valley as well as much of the lower valley were rank 2; much of the central and northern valley were rank 3; and the Elk Springs Creek and Elk Lake area were ranked lowest at 4. Portions of Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge were ranked as 3 and 4.

Olsen, D.M., E. Dinerstein, E.D. Wikramanayake, N.D. Burgess, G.V.N. Powell, E.C. Underwood, J.A. D’Amico, I. Itoua, H.E. Strand, J.C. Morrison, C.J. Loucks, T.F. Allnutt, T.H. Ricketts, Y. Kura, J.F. Lamoreux, W.W. Wettengel, P. Hedao, and K.R. Kassem. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: A new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 51(11): 933-938. The World Wildlife Fund defines 867 ecoregions of the world based on classical biogeographical patterns and community and species assemblages to provide a framework for comparison among units at a global scale. The relevance of this classification scheme to conservation is discussed.

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Oswald, R.A. 2006. Inventory and survey of selected stream fisheries of the Red Rock, Ruby, and Beaverhead River drainages of southwest Montana: 2003-2006. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Region 3, Bozeman, MT. Sections of three rivers were surveyed for fish, including a section of the Red Rock River below Lima Dam. The dam has the effect of limiting instream flow and in fact has led to complete dewatering of stream reaches in the past.

Pfister, R.D., B.L. Kovalchi, S.F. Arno, and R.C. Presby. 1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. U.S.D.A. Forest Service General Technical Report INT-34. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. Some unique subalpine fir forest types are found in the Centennial Mountains that are very limited elsewhere in Montana. The Abies lasiocarpa/Calamagrostis rubescens type (subalpine fir/pinegrass) is most extensive in the Centennial Mountains and in the Gallatin National Forest. It transitions over a broad area into the Abies lasiocarpa/Arnica cordifolia type (subalpine fir/heartleaf arnica. Some old stands (~200 years old) are found in the Centennial Mountains. At higher elevations are some Abies lasiocarpa/Ribes montigenum types (subalpine fir/mountain gooseberry) found between 8,300 and 9,000 feet. Intermixed in this type is some whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) and lesser amounts of Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). Overall the spruce-horsetail habitat type found near the Upper Red Rock Lake is rare.

Pierce, J.R. and M.E. Jensen. 2002. A classification of aquatic plant communities within the northern Rocky Mountains. Western North American Naturalist 62(3):257-265. This study was the first attempt at classifying aquatic plant communities in the northern Rocky Mountains. One hundred and eleven water bodies in northern Idaho and western Montana were surveyed, including two sites near the Centennial Valley: Hebgen Lake and Beaverhead headwaters. Communities were classified based on species and environmental gradients and resulted in 24 submergent types and six planmergent types. Plant community diversity was maximized at areas of inflow into lakes and ponds, and recreation was observed to have negative effects on some communities. Permanent plots were established and may form an important baseline for future monitoring.

Primm, S. and S.M. Wilson. 2004. Re-connecting grizzly bear populations: Prospects for participatory projects. Ursus 15(1):104-114. The survival of Grizzly bear depends on connected populations. Linkage zones between existing populations can help maintain population viability, but only if managed appropriately within existing and future social contexts. Locally developed, bottom-up bear management programs that are participatory by nature hold promise for improving conservation and achieving linkage goals.

Randall, L.C. 1978. Red Rock Lakes National Wilderness-An aquatic history. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Kalispell, MT. This often referenced report provides a unique and time consuming review of narrative reports housed in many file cabinets at the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge Office as well as fish stocking histories for the period 1899-1967, and thorough reviews of all other data available at the time of writing. The authors’ intent was to relate a brief history of the fishery at Red Rocks, not to list recommendations or draw conclusions. The narrative statements are organized

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by creek, pond, or lake so site specific information is easy to retrieve. Fish biological and water quality data are included, as well as several historic reports that provide information on grayling, fish-counting weirs, habitat management and plans, aquatic vegetation, regulations and inventories. An invaluable tool for comparison of contemporary conditions.

Restani, M. 1991. Resource partitioning among three Buteo species in the Centennial Valley, Montana. The Condor 93: 1007-1010. Restani, M. 1989. Resource partitioning among three species of hawks in the Centennial Valley, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT. Eighty-six nesting pairs of red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), ferruginous hawk (B. regalis), and Swainson’s hawk (B. swainsoni) were studied to determine nest site substrate and habitat, food preference, and productivity in 1987 and 1988. Eighty-eight percent of nest sites were in foothill drainages surrounding the valley floor. Willow was the most important habitat for Ferruginous and Swainson’s hawks and second most important for red-tailed who used aspen habitats primarily. Red-tailed hawks consumed birds associated with aspen stands while Swainson’s hawks consumed birds associated with grasslands. Otherwise, prey species overlapped and diets reflected prey availability. Resources were partitioned by habitat, specifically nesting sites.

Roedel, M., and P. Hendricks. 1998. Amphibian and reptile inventory on the Headwaters and Dillon Resource Areas in conjunction with Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. Surveys between 1994 and 1998 at 81 sites throughout areas of southwest Montana documented 50 sites with one or more amphibians or reptile species present. Ten of 12 amphibians known from the area were detected and seven of 11 reptiles were detected. In the Centennial Valley the amphibians Western chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata), Columbia spotted frog (Rana luteiventris), Boreal toad (Bufo boreas), Tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) and the reptile Western terrestrial garter snake (Thamnopsis elegans) were observed. Tiger salamander, Columbia spotted frog, and Western chorus frog were not encountered at historic observation sites at Elk Lake but were found lower in the watershed. Biology and ecology information for each species is presented as are data in appendices.

Roscoe, J.W. 2002. Sage grouse movements in southwestern Montana. Intermountain Journal of Sciences 8(2):94-104. Baseline information on sage grouse movements was gathered. Thirty-seven grouse were captured and radio-tagged in three meta-population areas in southwestern Montana. West of the Centennial Valley, grouse were tagged in Big Sheep Creek basin. A male captured in Horse Prairie in spring of 2000 was relocated in the summer of 2001 near Lima Dam in the Centennial Valley, having moved fifty miles. This was the greatest movement of any of the grouse observed in the study, though the author did not document large scale seasonal movements of groups that could be considered migration. Some grouse were resident to an area and others traveled to utilize suitable breeding, summer and winter habitats.

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Rotella, J. 1993. Yellowstone Project Briefing: Wildfire and hooves. Unpublished document. In 1993 EarthKind! attempted to start a citizen science research/education program in the Greater Yellowstone Area and a project was designed in the Centennial Valley that would have examined the effects of grazing and fire suppression on riparian area ecology and bird populations. An esteemed biologist from Montana State University was recruited to lead the research program. A series of volunteers would work with scientists as field crews to collect data as part of the ongoing study. The project failed due to lack of interest and funding problems with the HSUS (Jay Rotella, Pers Comm, 7/22/07)

Sankey, T.T., C. Montagne, L. Graumlich, R. Lawrence, and J. Nielsen. 2006. Twentieth century forest-grassland ecotone shift in Montana under differing livestock grazing pressure. Forest Ecology and Management 234:282-292. This study examined a 15 km ecotone at the base of the Centennial Mountains in the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge and adjacent private lands. Inventory plots and aerial photo interpretation comparing 1942 and 1999 photos confirmed that the forest-grassland ecotone shifted into the grassland and the forest had increased in density. No direct correlations with grazing pressure were detected indicating that grazing effects were complex and varied across temporal and intensity gradients. Plots tallied nearly 9000 aspen stems that established between 1992 and 2002 suggesting aspen was successfully regenerating.

Seefeldt, S.S. and W. Laycock. 2006. The United States Sheep Experiment Station: Shedding light on rangeland ecosystems. Rangelands, April 2006: 30-35. An overview of research programs and projects on the Sheep Experiment Station, mostly on the winter feedlot range in Idaho.

Shepard, B.B., B. Sanborn. L. Ulmer, and D.C. Lee. 1997. Status and risk of extinction for west slope cutthroat trout the upper Missouri River basin, Montana. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 17: 1158-1172. The authors examined the risk of extinction posed to west slope cutthroat trout in the upper Missouri River basin. The fishes abundance and distribution has declined dramatically throughout the subspecies range. Reasons for the decline include introductions of nonnative fishes, habitat alterations caused by land and water use practices, and overharvest. Populations at least 90% genetically pure inhabit less than three percent of the upper Missouri basin. Only 144 streams are known to support these populations. The Centennial Valley populations are rated as having a high to very high risk of extinction. They recommend that healthier populations be protected first because those will be easier than those less healthy.

Shepard, B.B., B.E. May and W.Urie. 2003. Status of west slope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi) in the United States: 2002. West slope Cutthroat Trout Interagency Team, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT. Fisheries professionals collaborated to provide data and information across the range of west slope cutthroat trout to describe the status of the species stream occupancy and genetic purity across that range. The trout were found to occupy 59% of their historic habitat of the northern Rockies and parts of Oregon and Washington. Streams in roadless and wilderness areas were found to provide the most and highest quality habitat. The Red Rock River basin historically had

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1664.8 miles of occupied habitat, but currently there are 153.7 miles of stream in the basin that are habitat to 38 different conservation populations. The most loss of occupied habitats is at the edges of its range, such as the upper Missouri Basin.

Squires, J.R. and S.H. Anderson. 1995. Trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator) food habits in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. American Midland Naturalist 133: 274-282. Study sites east of the Centennial Valley in Wyoming were visited to collect fecal matter for analysis. Swans in this region were found to feed almost exclusively on aquatic macrophytic vegetation throughout the year. Forage species included Chara spp., Elodea canadensis, Potamogeton spp. foliage, and Potamogeton pectinatus tubers. This habit is atypical of other swans which often rely on agricultural lands for foraging.

Tu, M. 2002. Forging new partnerships to prevent a small problem from becoming big- Centennial Valley, Montana: A success story. Global Invasive Species Initiative, The Nature Conservancy. Available online at http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu The Centennial Valley has few infestations of invasive weeds. A major concern is the large populations of spotted knapweed that occur to the west and north of the valley. To that end, securing the valley before invasions is essential to maintaining biodiversity and productive ranch lands. In 1999 Nature Conservancy interns Kelly Pohl and Brian Gartland started the Red Rock Watershed Weed Project. Representatives from state and federal agencies and conservation groups joined the coalition, whose initial goals were to provide landowners with the tools to carry out noxious weed control in the western Centennial Valley. In their first year they received nearly $26,000 from the Montana Noxious Weed Trust Fund and the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation as well as cost share agreements with the cooperators. In 1999, 25 of the 34 landowners within the 400,000 acre project area committed to the project, nearly 2,100 acres were treated, 10,000 acres were surveyed for infestations and mapped, and literature to inform and educate the public about the threats of weeds and their treatment options were distributed widely throughout the region. The success of the program led to it expanding to cover the entire Red Rock River watershed and the Big Hole River as well. The Nature Conservancy bolstered its reputation as a hard-working and dedicated partner in southwest Montana by using its organizational and financial resources to assist rural communities and individuals combat a shared threat.

USDA Forest Service. 1999. Gravelly Landscape Analysis. Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Dillon, MT. A large document that describes the area of the Gravelly, Snowcrest, Centennial, and Ruby Mountains called the Gravelly Landscape. Chapters on geology, landforms vegetation, management and more lay out basic information regarding the diversity of features encountered in the landscape. Ecological Landscape Units (ELU’s) are discussed. ELU’s in the Centennial Valley include High Altitude Forest, Upper Elevation Valley Bottom, and Low Elevation Breaklands and Shrublands. Environmental attributes of these units are presented.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 1983. Red Rock Waterfowl HMP. MT7-WHA-T19. Butte District Office, Butte, MT. Lima Reservoir averages 5,500 acres and 39.2 miles of shoreline. A dam at the western end of the Centennial Valley was built in 1875 but later washed out in a summer flood. The first Lima dam was built in 1902. The lake has since filled in significantly with sediment, and shoreline Joseph Trudeau 130 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Annotated Bibliography

bank erosion is contributing significantly to sedimentation. The Red Rock River travels 26.6 miles between Lower Red Rock Lake and Lima Reservoir and encompasses 11,800 acres of suitable waterfowl habitat. Waterfowl habitat assessments rated seven out of nine allotments along its course as in poor condition and downward trending, and adjacent upland areas were rated as fair to poor. Very little woody vegetation is found along its banks. Vegetation is dominated by sedge, rush, and bulrush communities on a floodplain that varies between 100-200 feet wide and is as much as one mile wide near the Price Lane Bridge. Water quality is impaired by sedimentation from upstream livestock operations and generally unstable soils. Habitat improvement projects proposed in the plan include seasonal closures of oil and gas leases, formulation of allotment management plans, dike construction, pothole blasting along Red Rock River, island creation, goose and raptor nesting structures, land acquisitions, fence installations, tree, shrub, and willow planting, erosion control, and food plot development. The reservoir is important habitat for up to 3,000 whistling swans, trumpeter swans, up to 10,000 Canada geese, peregrine falcons, eagles, 40,000-50,000 ducks, and more.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2002a. Relevance and Importance Evaluations of Area of Critical Environmental Concern Nominations. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT. 61pp. This report describes the evaluation of 63 Area of Critical Environmental Concern nominations based on the relevance of the area to the Field Office management area and the importance of the area in protecting stated resource values. Fourteen nominations were selected based on those attributes as Potential ACEC’s. The Centennial Mountain and Centennial Sandhills were selected as such but the Centennial Wetlands which includes Lima Reservoir and BLM administered wetland and river sections of the Red Rock River were not. Designation is made if the area requires special management as decided in the Resource Management Plan Environmental Impact Statement.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005a. Centennial Watershed Assessment Report. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005b. Centennial Watershed Assessment Executive Summary. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005c. Centennial Watershed Environmental Analysis. Report compiled by the Dillon Field Office. These three documents represent the inventory, analysis, and planning efforts by the Bureau of Land Management specifically in the Centennial Valley watershed. The BLM administers 83,102 acres of the ~350,000 acre watershed. Forty-one allotments totaling over 73,000 acres are leased to twenty-one individual ranches. Field inspections of upland, riparian, wetland, air, water, and biodiversity health, quality, and integrity were conducted. Qualitative and quantitative measurements described conditions. Overall forest health was rated as “Functioning at Risk” with a downward trend because of epidemic insect infestations and departures away from natural fire regimes. Almost half of all allotments did not meet BLM standards for rangeland health, and seven of those failures were attributed to livestock grazing impacts. The Environmental Assessment describes alternatives for improving health of upland and riparian systems, compares alternatives, and describes the affected environment. Numerous tables identify and describe concerns specific to individual allotments.

Joseph Trudeau 131 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Annotated Bibliography

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005f. Vegetation response and recovery on the Winslow Fire. Memorandum from Brian Hockett, Rangeland Management Specialist, Burned Area Emergency Recovery Team Lead, to Tim Bozorth, Dillon Field Manager, Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT. November 1, 2005. Internal memorandum summarizing vegetative response and recovery within the Winslow Fire area. Field observations took place over three days and the inspectors determined the burn to be a beneficial natural event that restarted the succesional process with only minor, short-term reductions in ecological integrity. Noxious weeds were treated.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2006. Record of Decision and Approved Dillon Resource Management Plan. Dillon Field Office, Dillon, MT. This document outlines the management goals and activities for 900,000 acres of BLM administered lands in southwest Montana. Discussed in it are the Centennial Mountains and Centennial Sandhills Areas of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC), fire management policies in the Gravelly and Centennial Fire Management Zones, the Centennial Mountains Special Recreation Management Area, as well as general topics such as grazing, mining, vegetation treatments, noxious weeds, and others.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000. Ecosystem plan: Upper Missouri, Yellowstone, and Upper Columbia River. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mountain-Prairie Region, Lakewood, CO. The overriding plan that guides the efforts of USFWS units in western Montana and Northern Wyoming, or the MOYOCO (MissOuri/YellOwstone/COlumbia Rivers) Ecosystem, outlines objectives the Service wishes to complete to protect and/or restore species and habitats. This list provides insights into what types of projects and activities the regional offices and refuges are charged with working on. Many opportunities exist to advance the implementation of these objectives. Furthermore, outstanding research ventures could be derived that could promote the completion of the tasks outlined. Also included is an appendix of all concern species in the MOYOCO Ecosystem and their respective ranks.

Walsh, J.R.. 2005. Fire regimes and stand dynamics of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) communities in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. Seven high elevation whitebark pine sites in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were studied to determined fire regimes and provide insights into stand dynamics and development following disturbances. A site on Sawtell Mountain at the eastern end of the Centennial Mountains was included. This site had been mechanically treated in the 1999 and 2000 to eliminate competition between the pine and the shade tolerant subalpine fir. The site was found to have a mixed- severity fire regime and may have been maintained by periodic non-lethal understory fires, but fires dates were not calculated. The seven sites showed considerable variability in fire history and stand dynamics, illustrating the wide range of variability in whitebark pine ecosystems.

Wambolt, C. 2001. Montana sagebrush. In Frisina, M.R. and J.J. McCarthy, eds. Montana sagebrush bibliography. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Helena, MT. Wambolt briefly mentions the rare species subalpine sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata spiciformis) that is only found in the Centennial Valley and near Hebgen Lake. It is the only

Joseph Trudeau 132 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Annotated Bibliography

subspecies known to commonly root sprout. This short chapter is found within the bibliography of sagebrush literature prepared by the state agency. Included in this report is a key to big sagebrush species, and a thorough bibliography that may include more important thesis relevant to the Centennial Valley.

Wambolt, C.L., K.S. Walhof, and M.R. Frisina. 2001. Recovery of big sagebrush communities after burning in south-western Montana. Journal of Environmental Management 61:243-252. This study selected thirteen mountain big sage and Wyoming big sage sites in southwestern Montana that had been prescribed fire between 1964 and 1994. The site nearest the Centennial Valley was at Snowline, Montana 32 miles west of Lakeview. That site had a fire in 1985. Following eleven years of recovery, sage canopy cover had not increased past 0%, and perennial grass cover was less than on a paired control plot. Green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) was not reduced and horsebush (Tetradymia canescens) had higher cover on the burn site. Conclusions from analysis of all sites determined that it may take over 30 years for communities to recover after fire, and there was minimal perennial grass and forb production following prescribed fires so livestock forage improvements were not experienced with prescribed fire. Common notions that fire improves the range conditions should be re-evaluated.

Warren, J.M, S.A. Comeau, and G.M. Demher. 2004. Adaptive resource management plan for lower Red Rock Lake, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. Unpublished report by Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lima, MT. Approximately 10,000ha of the Refuge is composed of natural and created wetlands. Of that, Lower Red Rock Lake covers approximately 1032ha. Half of the area is water less than two meters deep and an equal area is emergent vegetation. The southwest portion is dominated by islands of bulrush (Scirpus spp.). In 1930 the State of Montana installed a wooden water control structure (WCS). In 1957 that was replaced by the Refuge with a new WCS. In 1987 that was replaced with a WCS that incorporated a head gate that allowed water levels to managed. In total, 2,300ha are currently affected by the water control structure. Interrupting the natural dynamics of rising and falling water levels may have had negative effects on the montane wetland ecosystem of the lake. Vegetation changes through time may be due to the raised level of the wetland complex. Historic records describe aquatic vegetation communities comprised of high amounts of Elodea canadensis (an important food source for trumpeter swans) and varying amounts of Mryiophyllum exalbescens and other species. Currently, Elodea canadensis cover is low and Mryiophyllum exalbescens is high. To improve habitat for birds, fish, and wildlife the Refuge is experimenting with fluctuating the lake level through spring and summer drawdowns. The objective is to increase the percent cover of Potamogeton and Elodea spp. within 10 years; two species that grow well in low water years. Water level fluctuations are the primary disturbance agent in natural wetlands. The WCS could be used to affect water levels and thereby produce desired resource values. The effects however are uncertain. Adaptive management will continue to allow the management to evolve with new information.

Warren, J.M. and M. O'Reilly. 2005. Hunting district 334 winter moose survey data analysis. Unpublished report by Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lima, MT., and Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks, Bozeman, MT.

Joseph Trudeau 133 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Annotated Bibliography

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge provides the majority of wintering habitat for Shiras moose (Alces alces shirasi) in Hunting District 334. Riparian habitats associated with wetlands in the Centennial Valley support one of the largest and highest density populations of moose in the northern Rocky Mountains, although some moose summer on refuge lands and winter in Idaho. Wintering moose concentrate in along Red Rock Creek, O’Dell Creek, and the fen south and east of Upper Red Rock Lake and spend summers in the Centennial and Gravelly Mountains. The importance of this wintering habitat may be underscored by loss of riparian habitat in surrounding area since European settlement. Peak use of the refuge occurs in December and January, when snows are deepest in the high country. The total number of moose wintering on the refuge has increased significantly during the period 1966 (mean ~45) to 2004 (mean ~90) though dramatic variations occurred through that time. Interestingly, despite concerns about overbrowsing the data do not show an increase in browse intensity between 1960 and 1980 concurrent with increasing population.

Joseph Trudeau 134 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Top-Ten Must Reads

Top-Ten Must Reads

The following ten documents are essential reading in building an understanding of the Centennial Valley. They provide a variety of important information such as in-depth review of fisheries, reviews of significant ecosystems and natural processes, broad assessments of ecological health, and details on conservation planning.

Gillin, G. 2001. Literature review: Fisheries information for the Centennial Valley, Montana. Unpublished report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dillon, MT.

Greater Yellowstone Coalition. 1986. A model for information integration and management of the Centennial ecosystem. Greater Yellowstone Coalition, Bozeman, MT.

Jean, C., P. Hendricks, M. Jones, S. Cooper, and J. Carlson. 2002. Ecological communities on the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge: Inventory and review of aspen and wetland systems. Unpublished report to the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Jones, W.M. 2004. Ecologically significant wetlands in the Missouri headwaters: Jefferson, Lower Madison, Lower Gallatin, and Upper Red Rock River Watersheds. Unpublished report to the Montana Department of Environmental Quality. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Korb, N.T. 2005. Historical fire regimes and structures of Douglas-fir forests in the Centennial Valley of southwest Montana. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.

Korb, N., B. Martin, T. Swanson, M. Mantas, A. Pearson, R. Gazda, J. Warren, G. Boltz, S. Cooper, J. Brammer, S. Kujula, and P. Lesica. 2005. Centennial Valley Conservation Area Plan. Unpublished report by The Nature Conservancy, Montana. (Sections withheld)

Lesica, P. 2003. Conserving globally rare plants on lands administered by the Dillon Office of the Bureau of Land Management. Unpublished report to the Bureau of Land Management, Dillon Fiedl Office. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Lesica, P. and S.V. Cooper. 1997. Presettlement vegetation of southern Beaverhead County, Montana. Unpublished report to the State Office, Bureau of Land Management and Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT.

Povilits, T. and M.H. Mahr. 1998. Montana's Centennial Valley: Natural diversity hot spot and wildland corridor. Natural Areas Journal 18(2): 116-123.

USDI Bureau of Land Management. 2005c. Centennial Watershed Environmental Analysis. Report compiled by the Dillon Field Office.

Joseph Trudeau 135 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Un-retrieved Literature

Un-retrieved Literature

The following titles are important works that due to time constraints were unavailable or not located. Future effort should be directed at collecting these and the many more that surely exist and have not been identified

Schassberger, L.A. 1988. Effects of grazing on the habitat of Astragalus ceramicus var. apus in the sandhills of the Centennial Valley, Montana. M.S. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.

Paullin, D.G. 1973. The ecology of submerged aquatic macrophytes of Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.

Lewis, E. 1993. Seeking refuge: Changes needed so wildlife refuges don’t become islands. Greater Yellowstone Report 10(3):9.

Montagne, C. 1987. Erosion potentials in the Centennial Mountains, Southwestern Montana. Unpublished report, Department of Plant and Soil Science, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.

Page, R.D. 1976. The ecology of the trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator Richardson) on Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.

Mahr, M. 1997. Montane riparian areas: mesophytic continua in the Centennial Valley Ecosystem, Montana. M.S. Thesis, University of Vermont Field Naturalist Program, Burlington, VT.

Lowry, P.P. 1979. Vascular plants of the Centennial Mountains instant study area, Beaverhead County, MT and adjacent Clark and Fremont Counties, ID. Bureau of Land Management.

Joseph Trudeau 136 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Appendix A

Appendix A: Montana Natural Heritage Program Conservation Ranks This information adapted from Lesica (2003: Appendix A)

The international network of Natural Heritage Programs employs a standardized ranking system to denote global (range-wide) and state status. Species are assigned numeric ranks ranging from 1 to 5, reflecting the relative degree to which they are “at-risk”. Rank definitions are given below. A number of factors are considered in assigning ranks — the number, size and distribution of known “occurrences” or populations, population trends (if known), habitat sensitivity, and threat. Factors in a species’ life history that make it especially vulnerable are also considered (e.g., dependence on a specific pollinator).

GLOBAL RANK DEFINITIONS G1 Critically imperiled because of extreme rarity and/or other factors making it highly vulnerable to extinction

G2 Imperiled because of rarity and/or other factors making it vulnerable to extinction

G3 Vulnerable because of rarity or restricted range and/or other factors, even though it may be abundant at some of its locations

G4 Apparently secure, though it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially at the periphery

G5 Demonstrably secure, though it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially at the periphery

T1-5 Infraspecific Taxon (trinomial): The status of infraspecific taxa (subspecies or varieties) are indicated by a “T- rank” following the species’ global rank

STATE RANK DEFINITIONS S1 At high risk because of extremely limited and potentially declining numbers, extent and/or habitat, making it highly vulnerable to extirpation in the state

S2 At risk because of very limited and potentially declining numbers, extent and/or habitat, making it vulnerable to extirpation in the state

S3 Potentially at risk because of limited and potentially declining numbers, extent and/or habitat, even though it may be abundant in some areas

S4 Uncommon but not rare (although it may be rare in parts of its range), and usually widespread. Apparently not vulnerable in most of its range, but possibly cause for long-term concern

S5 Common, widespread, and abundant (although it may be rare in parts of its range). Not vulnerable in most of its range

COMBINATION RANKS G#G# or S#S# Range Rank: A numeric range rank (e.g., G2G3) used to indicate uncertainty about the exact status of a taxon

QUALIFIERS NR Not ranked

Q Questionable taxonomy that may reduce conservation priority: Distinctiveness of this entity as a taxon at the current level is questionable; resolution of this uncertainty may result in change from a species to a subspecies or hybrid, or inclusion of this taxon in another taxon, with the resulting taxon having a lower-priority (numerically higher) conservation status rank. Joseph Trudeau 137 Centennial Valley Environmental Review Appendix B

Appendix B: Sources of GIS data

Spatial data is available from a wide variety of sources. Every agency and organization with a presence in the Centennial Valley has created new data, maintained and edited existing data, or stored other data. Each entity has varying amounts of GIS data and it is stored and used in various ways. Generally, agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management are willing to share data if there is a specific research question or objective. Future GIS managers for the Lakeview Center should not hesitate to seek out data layers when specific projects require spatial data. It is likely that many layers exist already and there is little need to create new layers for most mapping applications. Also, conservation organizations such as The Nature Conservancy and the Greater Yellowstone Coalition have tremendous amounts of data that they may be willing to share. Additional data can be downloaded from the following sources.

Montana Natural Resources Information System The State of Montana houses a formal statewide data repository at the Montana State Library Natural Resources Information System. An incredible volume of data is available here primarily free of charge. Much of the data offered in this report was downloaded from this site. The web address is:

http://nris.mt.gov/gis/

Sagemap An ongoing project to accurately map and describe sagebrush ecosystems by the United States Geologic Survey has made GIS data available on their web site. Data is searchable by state and includes base maps, boundary layers, fire, geology, climate, wildlife, ownership, hydrology, land cover, soils topography, transportation, and utilities layers. This information is fairly accurate for Great Basin ecosystems but less so for Montana. The web address is:

http://sagemap.wr.usgs.gov/index.asp

Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative The international conservation initiative striving to link core ecosystems between northern Canada and Wyoming has generated a substantially spatial data library. Members of the Conservation Data Consortium have free access to the data collection. The web address is:

http://www.rockies.ca/framework/

Joseph Trudeau 138 Centennial Valley Environmental Review

Joe Trudeau lives in the Monadnock Region of New Hampshire where he has spent much of his 27 years. While studying in Arizona between 2002 and 2005 he fell into the company of a great many conservationists, one in particular who eventually led him to the Centennial Valley in 2007. Joe extends his deepest thanks to him for the opportunity to work in such a remarkable environment with so many good people.

We have much work to do, we who have chosen to be the change we wish to see in the world.

Joseph Trudeau 139 Centennial Valley Environmental Review