A Correction Course in Instructional Theory

5 a Correction Course in Instructional theory We must look for those elements of learning theory that pertain to the events about which an instructor can do something. —Robert Gagné et al., Principles of Instructional Design goals • Explore the instructional approaches of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. • Introduce the concepts of direct and discovery instruction. • Describe the instructional implications of memory, motivation, prior knowledge, and environment. • Provide examples of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Now that you have endured a crash course in learning theory, how do you begin to translate this information into practice? By this point you have probably determined that instructional approaches are numerous and the justifications for selecting them complex. Instead of memorizing every idea that exists, you can understand broad principles that encourage learning and, on the basis of the characteristics and needs of your audience, use these ideas to design effective messages and learning experiences. The trick is knowing enough about the elements of instruction—learner, content, context, and educator, categories I first discussed in chapter 2—to match theoretical approaches to your targets, technologies, and learning activities. Many library educators feel pressured to blend new technologies and activities into every session, believing that this is the only way to create dynamic instruction. Like learning styles, teaching styles are an expression of your aptitudes and preferences. Although it is important to challenge yourself to expand your knowledge and skill set as an educator, it is equally critical to reflect on your own interests and the resources that are available to you. Designing new learning objects and activities is a time-intensive process, and introducing different Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. Association Editions. American Library Copyright © 2014. elements into your repertoire risks backfire or can entail more work than you expected. David Cook and Ryan Sittler rightly argue that there is no right or wrong instructional approach, only approaches that are “useful or not so useful in 49 Booth, Char. Reflective Teaching, Effective Learning : Instructional Literacy for Library Educators, American Library Association Editions, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ucr/detail.action?docID=675848. Created from ucr on 2018-02-27 14:39:45. 50 PART I: InstructionAL Literacy particular learning situations.” Developing a stronger cultural contexts. Understanding this conceptual shift sense of “practical pedagogy” can help you avoid the from repetition to organization to socialization helps creating off-the-mark experiences or taking on more demonstrate why some educators might favor one than you can handle.1 approach, depending on the scenario, objective, or learners in question. All provide potentially useful instructional prin- PrInCIPles oF ciples, but each school of thought tends to mesh InstruCtIonal theory more naturally with some applications than others. For example, behaviorist methods are successful in It is impossible to reach every student all of the time. fact- and competency-based learning (e.g., job train- Part of what is so daunting about designing instruc- ing), cognitivist instruction tends to translate well tion is that at any given moment there are participants to concepts and procedures (e.g., search strategies), who already know it all (or at least think they do), and constructivist approaches lend themselves more those who know a fair amount (and could probably readily to higher-order thinking (e.g., problem solving stand to know more), those who know next to noth- and critical analysis). To bring their practical implica- ing (or at least fear they do), and those who know tions into relief, Peggy Ertmer and Timothy Newby nothing at all (and are bored or frustrated out of their recommend asking a series of questions about each minds). This requires you to ask, How do I balance theoretical approach:3 my instructional message between the know-it-alls and 1. How does learning occur? the know-next-to-nothings while engaging the know- somethings and resuscitating the don’t-cares? There 2. What factors influence learning? are countless theoretical responses to this question, 3. What is the role of memory? but Dale Schunk identifies five common principles among them:2 4. How does transfer occur? • Learners progress through stages/phases. 5. What types of learning are best suited to • Material should be organized and presented in this theory? small steps. 6. What aspects of this theory are important • Learners require practice, feedback, and to instructional design? review. • Social models facilitate learning and motiva- 7. What teaching strategies facilitate learning? tion. Table 5.1 summarizes behaviorism, cognitivism, and • Motivational and contextual factors influence constructivism in response to these questions. learning. It is not necessarily desirable to choose one theo- In other words, people learn best when instruction retical model over another. As a library educator, you is incremental, organized, responsive, social, and are likely to work with diverse media and interact with engaging. audiences of differing skill levels and backgrounds. It will therefore be useful to incorporate best practices from each perspective in order to accommodate a InstruCtIonal strategIes range of learning needs and styles, a process known as FroM the Major differentiating instruction (see more on differentiation sChools oF learnIng in chapters 10 and 11). To assist you in the differentiation process, I summarize the core instructional In chapter 4, I described how the principal schools strategies of each school of thought in the next few of educational theory—behaviorism, cognitivism, sections. and constructivism—understand learning: Behav- iorist learning results from stimulus and response Behaviorist Instruction and is encouraged by repetition and reinforcement. Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. Association Editions. American Library Copyright © 2014. Cognitivist learning is the interpretation of sensory For the behaviorist practitioner, environments and information into mental structures that facilitate objects are designed to create conditions under which transfer and recall. Constructivist learning translates learning is predictable, interactive, structured, and experience into knowledge via social processes and reinforced. Instruction includes a clearly outlined set Booth, Char. Reflective Teaching, Effective Learning : Instructional Literacy for Library Educators, American Library Association Editions, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ucr/detail.action?docID=675848. Created from ucr on 2018-02-27 14:39:45. A Correction Course in Instructional Theory 51 of goals that are communicated to the learner, assess- • Reinforcement should happen often and at the ment strategies that demonstrate whether the targets appropriate time. were reached, an incremental approach that involves • Material should be presented in increments or repetition of key content, and consistent opportuni- small steps. ties for learner participation and instructor feedback. • Learners should be actors rather than passive Schunk elaborates on these characteristics:4 receivers. Table 5.1 Comparing Instructional theories BehavIorIst CognItIvIst ConstruCtIvIst How does learning • through guided • through mental • through experience, occur? behavioral change processes that result sociocultural influence, made evident by in the formation of and metacognition accurate answers/ concepts and schema consistent performance what factors • external (environment, • internal (cognitive • internal (emotional) influence learning? instructor) processes, readiness, • external (social, aptitude) environmental) what is the role • repetition and • short- and long-term • activated and of memory? reinforcement memory interact to influenced by facilitates facilitate schema meaningful learner memorization building experiences How does transfer • encouraged by • learners form mental • through perception occur? positive reinforcement, models in order to of personally learners make apply concepts and relevant context associations in the ideas to new scenarios and application of form of “correct” knowledge answers what types of learning • fact-based • concept-based • problem-based are best suited to • practical • procedural • collaborative this theory? what aspects • provide feedback to • present information • provide learners with are important to reinforce learning with targeted opportunities to instructional design? • provide opportunities efficiency in order to investigate content in for practice and stimulate memory authentic settings exchange and the formation of structured knowledge what teaching • instructor-centered • instructor-centered • learner-centered strategies facilitate • learner/instructor • strategic information • authentic simulation learning? interaction presentation • collaborative activity • information • targeted media use • hands-on practice Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. Association Editions. American Library Copyright © 2014. organization and • cognitive load • questioning repetition management techniques • learner scaffolding • critical inquiry Booth, Char. Reflective Teaching, Effective Learning : Instructional

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