A Correction Course in Instructional Theory

We must look for those elements of learning theory that pertain to the events about which an instructor can do something. —Robert Gagné et al., Principles of Instructional Design

Goals

• Explore the instructional approaches of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. • Introduce the concepts of direct and discovery instruction. • Describe the instructional implications of memory, motivation, prior knowledge, and environment. • Provide examples of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Now that you have endured a crash course in learning theory, how do you begin to translate this information into practice? By this point you have probably determined that instructional approaches are numerous and the justifications for selecting them complex. Instead of memorizing every idea that exists, you can understand broad principles that encourage learning and, on the basis of the characteristics and needs of your audience, use these ideas to design effective messages and learning experiences. The trick is knowing enough about the elements of instruction—learner, content, context, and educator, categories I first discussed in chapter 2—to match theoretical approaches to your targets, technologies, and learning activities. Many library educators feel pressured to blend new technologies and activities into every session, believing that this is the only way to create dynamic instruction. Like learning styles, teaching styles are an expression of your aptitudes and preferences. Although it is important to challenge yourself to expand your knowledge and skill set as an educator, it is equally critical to reflect on your own interests and the resources that are available to you. Designing new learning objects and activities is a time-intensive process, and introducing different

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright elements into your repertoire risks backfire or can entail more work than you expected. David Cook and Ryan Sittler rightly argue that there is no right or wrong instructional approach, only approaches that are “useful or not so useful in

Booth, Char. Reflective Teaching, Effective Learning : Instructional Literacy for Library Educators, American Library Association Editions, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ucr/detail.action?docID=675848. Created from ucr on 2018-02-27 14:39:45. 50 PART I: Instructional Literacy

particular learning situations.” Developing a stronger cultural contexts. Understanding this conceptual shift sense of “practical pedagogy” can help you avoid the from repetition to organization to socialization helps creating off-the-mark experiences or taking on more demonstrate why some educators might favor one than you can handle.1 approach, depending on the scenario, objective, or learners in question. All provide potentially useful instructional prin- Principles of ciples, but each school of thought tends to mesh Instructional Theory more naturally with some applications than others. For example, behaviorist methods are successful in It is impossible to reach every student all of the time. fact- and competency-based learning (e.g., job train- Part of what is so daunting about designing instruc- ing), cognitivist instruction tends to translate well tion is that at any given moment there are participants to concepts and procedures (e.g., search strategies), who already know it all (or at least think they do), and constructivist approaches lend themselves more those who know a fair amount (and could probably readily to higher-order thinking (e.g., problem solving stand to know more), those who know next to noth- and critical analysis). To bring their practical implica- ing (or at least fear they do), and those who know tions into relief, Peggy Ertmer and Timothy Newby nothing at all (and are bored or frustrated out of their recommend asking a series of questions about each minds). This requires you to ask, How do I balance theoretical approach:3 my instructional message between the know-it-alls and 1. How does learning occur? the know-next-to-nothings while engaging the know- somethings and resuscitating the don’t-cares? There 2. What factors influence learning? are countless theoretical responses to this question, 3. What is the role of memory? but Dale Schunk identifies five common principles among them:2 4. How does transfer occur? • Learners progress through stages/phases. 5. What types of learning are best suited to • Material should be organized and presented in this theory? small steps. 6. What aspects of this theory are important • Learners require practice, feedback, and to instructional design? review. • Social models facilitate learning and motiva- 7. What teaching strategies facilitate learning? tion. Table 5.1 summarizes behaviorism, cognitivism, and • Motivational and contextual factors influence constructivism in response to these questions. learning. It is not necessarily desirable to choose one theo- In other words, people learn best when instruction retical model over another. As a library educator, you is incremental, organized, responsive, social, and are likely to work with diverse media and interact with engaging. audiences of differing skill levels and backgrounds. It will therefore be useful to incorporate best practices from each perspective in order to accommodate a Instructional Strategies range of learning needs and styles, a process known as from the Major differentiating instruction (see more on differentiation Schools of Learning in chapters 10 and 11). To assist you in the differentiation process, I summarize the core instructional In chapter 4, I described how the principal schools strategies of each school of thought in the next few of educational theory—behaviorism, cognitivism, sections. and constructivism—understand learning: Behav- iorist learning results from stimulus and response Behaviorist Instruction and is encouraged by repetition and reinforcement.

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright Cognitivist learning is the interpretation of sensory For the behaviorist practitioner, environments and information into mental structures that facilitate objects are designed to create conditions under which transfer and recall. Constructivist learning translates learning is predictable, interactive, structured, and experience into knowledge via social processes and reinforced. Instruction includes a clearly outlined set

of goals that are communicated to the learner, assess- • Reinforcement should happen often and at the ment strategies that demonstrate whether the targets appropriate time. were reached, an incremental approach that involves • Material should be presented in increments or repetition of key content, and consistent opportuni- small steps. ties for learner participation and instructor feedback. • Learners should be actors rather than passive Schunk elaborates on these characteristics:4 receivers.

Table 5.1 Comparing Instructional Theories

Behaviorist Cognitivist Constructivist

How does learning • through guided • through mental • through experience, occur? behavioral change processes that result sociocultural influence, made evident by in the formation of and metacognition accurate answers/ concepts and schema consistent performance What factors • external (environment, • internal (cognitive • internal (emotional) influence learning? instructor) processes, readiness, • external (social, aptitude) environmental) What is the role • repetition and • short- and long-term • activated and of memory? reinforcement memory interact to influenced by facilitates facilitate schema meaningful learner memorization building experiences How does transfer • encouraged by • learners form mental • through perception occur? positive reinforcement, models in order to of personally learners make apply concepts and relevant context associations in the ideas to new scenarios and application of form of “correct” knowledge answers What types of learning • fact-based • concept-based • problem-based are best suited to • practical • procedural • collaborative this theory?

What aspects • provide feedback to • present information • provide learners with are important to reinforce learning with targeted opportunities to instructional design? • provide opportunities efficiency in order to investigate content in for practice and stimulate memory authentic settings exchange and the formation of structured knowledge What teaching • instructor-centered • instructor-centered • learner-centered strategies facilitate • learner/instructor • strategic information • authentic simulation learning? interaction presentation • collaborative activity • information • targeted media use • hands-on practice

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright organization and • cognitive load • questioning repetition management techniques • learner scaffolding • critical inquiry

• Feedback should occur immediately after a reciprocal teaching, critical dialogue, and collabora- learner responds. tive learning. Scaffolding provides learner support, • Students should be allowed to pace themselves which can gradually be removed as knowledge is or move through content at different rates. gained.9 Takeaway: The most relevant tenets of constructiv- Takeaway: The most applicable tenets of behaviorist instruction involve (a) creating authentic interac- ist instruction are (a) clearly communicating learn- tions in which learning is clearly situated within its ing targets, (b) assessing learning and performance real-world application, (b) providing opportunities outcomes on the basis of these targets, (c) providing for active and peer-based communication, (c) a less opportunities for participation and self-guided prac- prominent and more supportive role for the instruc- tice, (d) taking an organized approach to content com- tor, and (d) fostering critical awareness of the social munication, and (e) offering consistent, productive and cultural factors affecting learning. input that guides knowledge-building.

Cognitivist Instruction Direct vs. Discovery Instruction For the cognitivist practitioner, educators are the conduit through which information is organized Strategies from each school of thought can be broadly and presented. Individuals build knowledge struc- divided into direct, wherein the educator or instruc- tures at the pace that their cognitive processes allow, tional object is the central force guiding the learning meaning that instructional content should flow in environment, and discovery, wherein the environment manageable chunks via different media to sustain of learning is actively shaped by participants (also attention, explained to learners in terms of their prior referred to as student-centered learning). The under- knowledge,5 and structured to encourage the efficient lying purpose of direct instructional techniques such transfer of information from working to long-term as lecture, demonstration, and narrated screencast is memory. Furthermore, learners benefit from develop- to present information efficiently and systematically, ing metacognitive self-awareness of how they process whereas the underlying purpose of discovery tech- and retrieve information. niques such as simulation and peer education is to Takeaway: Useful cognitivist instructional strate- invite learners to think for themselves.10 In direct gies include (a) capturing and maintaining learner instruction the educator takes center stage, whereas attention, (b) connecting learning material to exist- in discovery instruction the educator acts as a guide ing knowledge and needs, (c) separating content into or resource. Both approaches are integral to library units and modules, (d) pacing instruction to account education, where it is often critical to present material for information-processing capacity, and (e) promot- succinctly as well as provide opportunities for hands- ing metacognitive strategies. on practice during the same learning interaction.

Constructivist Instruction Characteristics of Direct Instruction

For the constructivist practitioner, learning is con- Most closely aligned with behaviorism and construc- textual and social. The interactions that occur dur- tivism, direct instruction presents information in an ing instruction are guided by the interplay of par- organized yet ideally interactive method that helps the ticipants and the beliefs and experiences they bring learner relate it to previous knowledge and perceive to the table—the “social-cultural environment” of future applications. Direct instruction methods have learning.6 Constructivist methods should align with also been referred to as meaningful reception learning learner outcomes, meaning that interactions are and expository teaching.11 Slavin lists a series of steps much less focused on the transmission and receipt characteristic of direct instruction lessons that are of information than on the creation of an environ- applicable to both virtual and face-to-face contexts:12 ment that is authentic and situated.7 The construc- 1. State learning objectives and orient students

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright tivist educator should “provide the conditions that stimulate thinking” and participate in the learning to the lesson: Tell students what they will experience alongside the student.8 Instruction com- be learning and what performance will be monly involves creative and exploratory assignments, expected of them.

2. Review prerequisites: Go over skills and Pecha Kucha or Lightning Talks: Organize a concepts needed to understand the con- series of rapid six-minute presentations on tent. emerging technologies. 3. Present new material: Give new informa- Direct instruction should not be misinterpreted tion using examples and demonstrating as a necessarily passive experience. Rather, it should concepts. involve questioning techniques and challenging con- 4. Conduct learning probes: Pose questions to versation to encourage critical thinking and assess assess learner understanding. student mastery. The “Who are we and what do we 5. Provide independent practice: Give learn- want?” exercise described in chapter 2 is an exam- ers opportunities to practice content and ple of direct instruction in which learners are highly skills. engaged and actively involved in metacognitive thinking. As the list suggests, the direct approach is also not 6. Assess performance or provide feedback: necessarily limited to “traditional” presentation styles. Review independent practice and provide Noninteractive podcasts, vodcasts, and videos all fall input. under the heading of direct instruction. The Pecha 7. Provide distributed practice and review: Kucha or Lightning Talk format, in which each pre- Illustrate future contexts for application senter is limited to twenty slides or images for twenty and review objectives. seconds apiece, is another fast-paced and unconven- tional direct application that can feature several topics Direct instruction is well suited to demonstra- quickly and efficiently, particularly useful demoing tions of functional, procedural, or factual knowl- emerging technologies. edge (e.g., showing how something works, describ- To identify local technology “experts” and foster a ing characteristics), and is highly useful when there community of learning at the UC Berkeley Library, is a need to present a great deal of content quickly colleagues and I organized an Emerging Technology and efficiently (sound familiar?)13 The following Lightning Talks forum that allowed staff to showcase examples from Reigeluth highlight everyday appli- diverse technologies from professional development cations of the direct instructional format, which perspectives. After the forum, attendees rated which I have updated and supplemented with library- topics they were interested in learning more about, specific examples:14 which helped us determine the technology training schedule the following semester. The forum was such a Demonstration: Highlight the useful features of success that it has become a regular event to showcase a website or database in a session or tutorial. local knowledge and generate participation in longer- Discussion: Gather a panel of experts at a staff format trainings. Audience feedback indicated direct development event to discuss digitization instruction at its best; in the words of one attendee, “I and e-book readers. really liked the short and sweet presentation format. Lecture: Discuss the information architecture Lots of information in easily comprehensible ways.” of search engines versus licensed library resources. Characteristics of Discovery Learning Socratic method: Present a scripted series of According to Schunk, instruction “becomes more questions to lead learners to a specific point. meaningful when students explore their learning envi- Drill and practice: Demonstrate a series of ronments rather than listen passively to teachers,” and search steps and ask learners to replicate it is this constructivist perspective that informs the them. discovery approach to learning.15 Discovery learning, Tutorial (noninteractive): Develop a web also referred to as problem-based or inquiry-based video that demonstrates how to install and learning, takes place when students form knowledge configure Zotero. by way of inquiry and direct experience.16 Because Guided discussion: Moderate a classroom

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright “aha moments” naturally occur during the problem- discussion on bias and authority. solving process, discovery instruction often involves Podcast/vodcast: Translate a typical research presenting learners with scenarios and questions session into a series of recorded episodes. and encouraging intuition and creativity. Discovery

methods do not focus on right or wrong answers, application. Using discovery methods, a traditional but encourage deductive thinking and collabora- lecture-based university course might be replaced tion. Phillips and Soltis list core characteristics of this by an online, project-based format in which students approach:17 collaborate with peers at international institutions or build portfolios while interning with nonprofit • Students will be actively engaged with interest- or nongovernmental aid organizations. A librarian ing and relevant problems. might “embed” in this experience and facilitate dis- • They will be able to discuss with each other covery by helping students set up search alerts and and with the teacher. identify relevant Twitter and RSS feeds on topics of • They will be active inquirers rather than pas- interest, or by shadowing classroom chats and discus- sive. sion forums and suggesting interesting resources as a • They will have adequate time to reflect. form of real-time research assistance. Similarly, in a • They will have opportunities to test or evaluate staff training on a new website design or application the knowledge that they have constructed. interface, attendees could break up into groups tasked • They will reflect seriously about the construc- with becoming “expert” at the positives and negatives tions produced by other students and by the of a particular area of the site or tool, then designate teacher. a representative to critically share their discoveries. Discovery methods to some extent require participants to self-regulate, that is, to cultivate metacognitive awareness of their personal learning strategies, Instructing for and lends itself to evaluation and critical assessment Engagement of instructional topics.18 Reigeluth lists the following common discovery instruction methods, which I As we gain insight into the social and cultural forces have revised and supplemented with library-specific that shape learning and incorporate technological examples:19 advances into educational practice, the definition of instructional effectiveness is changing. Whereas • Interactive tutorial: Present learner-defined the role of the instructor was once to dominate the navigational options in a screencast on infor- classroom and communicate fixed content to a largely mation evaluation. passive audience, there is now a growing emphasis on • Open discussion: Allow attendees to brainstorm facilitating communities of learning and emphasiz- their own agenda in a webinar. ing the role of collaborative knowledge building and • Unconference/barcamp: Organize a nonhierar- stimulating analog as well as digital conversations. chical forum or discussion on attendee-defined Within this context it is tempting to view discovery topics. learning as the superior method of instruction, but • Seminar: Invite learners to develop a portfolio it is important to remember that there is nothing around a specific problem over a semester. inherently wrong with direct instructional methods • Group project: Invite groups in a podcasting such as lecture, demonstration, and guided discussion, workshop to produce and share a short piece provided that they are participatory, active, and used in class. in balance with discovery methods. • Role play: Ask staff in a public services training Think back to the discussion of the Learning Pyra- to act out a potential interaction. mid and engagement continuum in the last chapter. By • Apprenticeship: Mentor a new teaching librar- overgeneralizing about how people learn, it wrongly ian through direct instructional training. dismisses many “nonactive,” or direct, teaching meth- • Games: Create an online jeopardy game with ods that are essential to library instruction. According concepts in information fluency. to learning theorist K. Patricia Cross, “Passive learning • Case study: Create a real-life example of an is an oxymoron; there is no such thing.20 Your selec- information-based challenge for learners to tion of direct or discovery strategies can be aided by solve. considering what makes something active in a specific

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright The object of discovery instruction is to help learn- learning context, which begins with recognizing that ers interact authentically with concepts and content activity means different things to different people. A in order to form an independent judgment on its postdoctoral chemistry fellow listening to a lecture

by a Nobel Prize winner is likely to be highly engaged learning styles and better addressing the needs of all by this “passive” delivery method, whereas effective participants. visual design on a slide-based presentation can draw a nonspecialist audience into a largely nonparticipatory forum, such as the direct instruction TED talks refer- Learning Factors and enced in chapter 1. Active learning is about involving Instructional Methods and supporting participants in a learning experience by stimulating them to think critically, participate in The core aspects of learning I outlined in the pre- a dialogue, or share their knowledge with their peers, vious chapter—memory, motivation, environment, which can occur as readily in a guided demonstra- and prior knowledge—have distinct implications for tion as it can in an unconference. Engaged learning instruction. is active learning, no matter the delivery mechanism or level of direct peer-to-peer participation. The vital Memory characteristic to maintain is authenticity, the clear context of real-world application that connects learn- Memory is a factor of learning over which an instruc- ing targets to practical needs. Whether you are in tor has a great deal of influence, because the pace and a face-to-face, online, or hybrid instructional role, design of content and activities are guided heavily by your goal should be to blend direct and discovery your input. There are many strategies for maximiz- methods into an engaging learning environment that ing transfer from short-term to long-term memory allows learners to experience the “What’s in it for me?” and designing activities that help learners gain realis- principle. tic experience with instructional content to increase Conflating activity with participation can result recall. in the adoption of games or activities created solely for their own sake, without a primary focus on how Cognitive Load Management a specific group of learners might learn best. Paul The principle of cognitive load management can help Kirschner and colleagues challenge the notion that you streamline learning objects and create interac- independent discovery learning is inherently effective, tions that allow learners to identify salient details for arguing instead that direct methods and scaffolding themselves. Managing cognitive load is like pouring provide necessary learner support.21 As I stated at liquid into a funnel: information must be introduced the beginning of the chapter, effective instruction is gradually and with an eye to capacity, or you run the incremental, organized, responsive, social, and engag- risk that a learner will not be able to incorporate it. To ing. Instructor guidance is also important, even in take this metaphor a few steps further, the thicker the the most constructivist or learner-centered interac- liquid (the more complex the material), the slower you tion. You can and should experiment with ways to will want to pour, depending, of course, on the size of involve learners more directly in instruction, such as the funnel and the receptacle in question (the engage- incorporating response and quiz elements, facilitating ment, ability, and prior knowledge of the learner). discussion, allowing participants to suggest topics Think back to the SUCCESs acronym in chapter 1: and agendas, or creating group learning activities. Simple, Unexpected, Concrete, Credible, Emotional, The best way engage participants is to use a contextu- Story-based messages. Many elements of the SUC- ally relevant instructional design, provide supportive CESs approach are rooted in memory research, sim- guidance, encourage discussion or interaction, vary plicity first and foremost. Information processing the instructional methods you use at intervals, and theory states that the human brain has a finite capacity encourage critical and reflective thinking. to “handle” information, meaning that even the most Discovery-based approaches can be easily incor- complex subject should be explored in a manner that porated into direct instruction lessons and vice versa recognizes limitations. in a way that facilitates both of these goals; a face- Effective message design is crucial in managing to-face class could be given an exploratory group cognitive load, because engagement and attention assignment that allows them to experience discovery increase the likelihood that a learner will direct the

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright techniques within a primarily demonstration-oriented necessary amount of cognitive capacity toward com- direct instruction lesson. Mixing direct and discovery prehension. Defining what you want your audience techniques has the added effect of engaging different to understand helps you guide the presentation of

materials and avoid overload. The common adage the information is made, the better learners are able “Teach concepts, not tools” applies here; make sure to fold it into existing schemata. learners gain practical, transferable insight and skills Mental models are applicable in learning situations rather than, for example, exhaustive knowledge of that involve higher-order thinking, decision making, searching protocol in only one resource. In practice, and problem solving.23 Consider how presenting Twit- this might mean focusing less on the details of a data- ter within a hierarchy or schema of user-generated base interface (“click here, then click here” . . . ad nau- content might help different groups of learners build seam) than on broadening discussion to include what mental models around information exchange in social advantages an article database has in the first place, media. A concept map portraying social media in how learners might evaluate the items they find in political communication might be used to stimulate whatever database they happen to use, and where they undergraduates to discuss how, in grassroots protest, can go for additional help. Trust that if learners build Twitter’s short, efficient, community-focused messages a relevant authentic framework, they will discover and topical threads can be used with relative anonym- the finer points for themselves when the need arises. ity via mobile devices (figure 5.1). In the context of staff training, a similar map could help participants Mental Models understand Twitter as an instructor development tool Gestalt theory stresses that “organized material that can be used to share content, glean strategies, and improves memory because items are linked to each connect with potential collaborators somewhat more other systematically.”22 Presenting information in widely than Facebook, which tends to enable ongo- manageable, organized, and related pieces facilitates ing personal connections within more tightly defined the construction of mental models (schemata), struc- professional groups. tures that associate new content with prior knowledge and values. When learners “makes sense” of Chunking and Avoiding the Curse something unfamiliar, they situate it within existing The Curse of Knowledge (also discussed in chapter 1) knowledge structures. The acronym exercise from often tempts library educators to cram excessive detail the previous chapter provides an example. Most of us into our brief learning interactions and objects. One of already have a personal context for JFK or FBI (e.g., the more challenging aspects of effective instructional Dallas, Marilyn Monroe, J. Edgar Hoover), which we design is realizing that less is more, almost without use to manufacture imagery or cues to help us recall exception. By focusing on minutiae or providing so each acronym. The more contextual and relevant that much direct instruction that there is little time for

Figure 5.1 SOCIAL PROTEST MEDIA Schema of social protest media

blogging microblogging mashups social networks

long-form posts conversational satirical/muckracking peers/communities

commenting/linking character limits copyright issues organizing

citizen journalism real-time updates technical knowledge fundraising

discovery, we actively interfere with a learner’s abil- the flip side of this coin, prior experience or frustra- ity to construct meaningful skills and knowledge. tion with instructional content can also cause learn- Chunking, the breaking down of content into units, ers to dismiss the skill or resource in question as not is a strategy that encourages effective information worth the trouble, much like what I did at around the transfer.24 In the acronym exercise, twenty random time I hit high school math. We have likely all had characters were chunked into six familiar abbrevia- the experience of learning that a student in one of our tions, which reduced the bits of information compet- sessions has taken the same class four times already; ing for the cognitive space required to travel from it is a relative certainty that this student will not pay working to long-term memory. The idea is to organize rapt attention, even though the content I present may content into manageable pieces, which helps regulate be totally different from that in the previous classes. the structure of instruction and manage cognitive I think of this as the “been there, done that” syn- load. A chunk can be a lesson component, tutorial drome, which can crop up in any teaching situation. module, graphic section in a handout, and so forth Whenever possible, library education should identify (see chapters 10 and 11). One simple way to achieve concrete and immediate instances of information need this in more time-constrained situations is using the or frustration and help an audience perceive the per- rule of threes—a relatively arbitrary but surprisingly sonal, practical ability of the material being presented effective strategy of setting a maximum of three objec- to prevent such frustration from occurring. tives, three outcomes, three lessons, three units, three exercises, three examples, etc. in order to keep your Prerequisites for Learning planning and message in check. I find the that rule of A student cannot engage with instruction without at threes forces me to remember that the streamlined least cursory knowledge of its content, so it is par- ideas are the most memorable, while also imposing ticularly important to consider the prerequisites you a go-to structure for breaking a tutorial or workshop require of participants in an instructional interac- into more concise components. tion.26 At the outset of a teaching or learning design opportunity, ask two questions to determine what Prior Knowledge knowledge a learner should bring to the scenario: What knowledge do I assume learners have? What In any learning scenario, the prior knowledge of your knowledge do I require of learners in order for the mate- audience should be a key element of your planning. rial to be useful? Miss the mark on either of these, and Teaching and training librarians often assume that our chances are that participants will notice. Prerequisites audiences understand our terminology and processes, for learning allow you to avoid presenting content overloading participants with too much content in that is either too rudimentary or too advanced. By hopes of covering as many bases as possible. It is much anticipating what an instructional situation requires more effective to go lighter on content and heavier on to be comprehensible, you are better equipped to context—to help learners see how the subject, tech- strike a balance between challenge and accessibility. nique, or resource fits into the knowledge structure Determining prerequisites for learning is informed by they already have so that it becomes more mean- analyzing the needs and characteristics of your learn- ingful.25 It is crucial to reflect on what you assume ers (chapter 9) and supports the process of defining your audience knows and does not know and find a goals, objectives, and outcomes (chapter 10). You can productive and challenging balance between the two. use a variety of assessment measures during and after This often involves using the familiar to introduce the instruction to judge whether your prerequisites for unfamiliar, such as demonstrating research techniques learning were accurate (chapter 12). to undergraduates by beginning on their turf with Google, then moving to Wikipedia, and then on to The WIIFM Principle library-licensed content via proxy linking in Google In libraries, instruction is typically intended to give Scholar or using the “find this in a library” link in foundational discovery, information technology, Google Book Search to navigate to a local catalog. and critical thinking skills applicable in independent A learner who has been personally frustrated with search or research situations. The concepts we teach

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright libraries or research in the context of their day-to- should therefore connect directly to authentic infor- day experience might pay more attention to someone mation-needs and technology-use scenarios. Keep explaining how to prevent this type of frustration. On the WIIFM (“What’s in it for me”) principle in mind

to give your audience specific insight into how, when, • Require participants to watch the Common and why the information you present will be meaning- Craft tutorial on Twitter (www.commoncraft ful and useful to them.27 If you are trying to hammer .com/twitter) or other orientation module the idea of the permanence of information sharing on prior to attending to ensure that all share a social networking sites to a group of younger learn- level of understanding. ers, show how easy finding digital TMI (too much information: table dancing, keg stands, etc.) actually In this scenario, if your attendees have low prior is by asking the group to dig up an image of them- knowledge, immediate immersion and hands-on selves online they didn’t know existed, or by displaying practice may not be the best strategies to lead with. tame-ish examples to the group. To illustrate the risks A demonstration of microblogging followed by a dis- of plagiarism, demonstrate the tools instructors use to cussion of its potential applications in libraries (direct root it out by tracking down content from free-term- instruction) might be a more comfortable route than paper sites such as www.cheathouse.com or scholarly immediately jumping into the application (discovery papers using free plagiarism detectors such as those instruction). Using guided demonstration as a scaf- at www.plagiarismdetect.com, www.plagium.com, or folding technique eases participants into independent www.copytracker.org. practice and can build both confidence and interest. In this case, less experienced learners benefit from first Experience encountering direct instruction that provides back- The experience level of your audience can help you ground and then engaging in the discovery strategies consider the potential effectiveness of direct versus of creating accounts, following and messaging their discovery learning on the objectives and needs of a classmates, and learning Tweet semantics. given situation and determine how to strike a dif- ferentiated balance.28 For example, when you are Motivation teaching subject-specific resources, graduate students are more likely to be engaged by a lecture or Among the many factors affecting motivation are indi- demonstration of the full range of available databases viduals’ goals for the learning interaction, their percep- in a subject than undergraduates, who may be in the tions of its personal value, and expectations of their early stages of the research process and would benefit own performance. In chapter 4, I outlined two types more from exploring one interdisciplinary database of motivation—intrinsic (internal to the learner) and hands-on. Independent or collaborative immer- extrinsic (based on instructor-created incentives)—and sion is often an effective instructional technique noted that the nature of the content we tend to work for learners with low prior experience, but in some with means our learners are less likely to be highly technology-focused instances these attendees may intrinsically motivated. The better that learners under- have an actual or self-perceived barrier to understand what a learning object or experience will do for standing. In this dynamic that frequently arises in them in terms of attaining goals or completing tasks, staff trainings and other scenarios that involve adult the more they will perceive its intrinsic value. This may learners, it is important to make the subject acces- have more to do with conditions internal to a learner sible by introducing and demonstrating it thoroughly than the instructor, but there are still strategies you can as well as by gauging prior experience. Consider use to encourage it in a learning scenario: methods for establishing prior knowledge in advance of a staff training on microblogging or other form of Intrinsic Motivational Strategies social media: • Schedule the learning interaction to coincide • Publicize the session as tailored to either with an immediate need. novice or advanced users, depending on your • Consistently address audience self-interest target. using the WIIFM principle. • Require registration and reply to RSVPs with • Communicate using the language of partici- a few pre-assessment questions or criteria for pants. Don’t distance yourself with library- attendance. speak.

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright • Send a survey to participants prior to leading • Make the practical, beneficial outcomes of the training. instruction accessible/perceptible. • Informally poll attendees at the beginning of • Make a personal connection that helps audi- the session. ences engage with you.

Timing is always an essential component of intrin- into a real-time or asynchronous learning object or sic motivation, and you should try to position instruc- interaction tion at the point closest to practical need. Schedule course-related instruction so that it coincides with an Extrinsic Motivational Strategies, Virtual assignment; place digital learning objects prominently • Provide proof of completion for credit at the and widely on a website so that they are easy to access end of an interaction. when a need arises. In asynchronous contexts such • Add interactive elements such as polls and as screencast tutorials, web-based courses, or FAQ/ quizzes. help pages, placing learning objects as near potential • Indicate learner progress (50 percent complete, sources of frustration as possible enables them to offer etc.) throughout. “just-in-time” help where intrinsic learner motivation • Stimulate community-building and collabora- is naturally high. For example, a series of online tutori- tion using social media. als on search strategies could be clearly linked from • Use elements of good visual design to increase the catalog’s help or “no results found” pages. Martin learner attention (see chapter 11). Covington also recommends taking a transparent atti- tude toward “sharing with students the motivational rationale around which their course was created”—in Environment other words, invoking the WIIFM principle from the instructor perspective.29 Affective factors shape the environment of learning, Library-related instruction does not necessarily and developing your ability to create a positive dynamic inspire intrinsic motivation in all learners, mean- in all types of interactions is key. An instructor’s role in ing that library educators are regularly called to shaping the learning environment is influenced by her address extrinsic motivation through incentivization. or his personal relationship to teaching, expectations of Common extrinsic motivational strategies include student learning, and own motivation to create a posi- requiring attendance for a course grade, developing tive learning experience. A confident and enthusiastic an engaging or humorous delivery style to heighten instructional persona increases learner engagement (see personal investment in a workshop, speaking to the chapter 11).30 Instructional tone is largely dependent on WIIFM principle, providing positive reinforcement the intrinsic motivation of the facilitator, and those who for correct answers, using instructional games, or are perceived as interested in the interaction are more distributing prizes for participation. effective at capturing and sustaining attention. In the brief interactions typical to library instruction, a personal Extrinsic Motivational Strategies, Face-to-Face tone can help you establish rapport with students more • Demonstrate interest in learner progress. quickly. In classroom or synchronous online scenarios • Provide positive feedback and reinforcement. as well as asynchronous digital forums and social media • Offer incentives such as extra or service credit interactions, it is also essential that students feel safe in for attendance. expressing opinions and asking questions. Humanism is a • Integrate learning games or opportunities for constructivist approach that stresses the holistic support of students, that is, the emotional and mental as well as playful competition. 31 • behavioral. Schunk lists four guidelines that can assist Structure collaborative/paired work and 32 reporting aloud into class activities. you in fostering a humanist learning environment: • In synchronous online and mobile learning situa- Show positive regard for students. • tions like a live webinar, many of these strategies can Separate students from their actions. • be readily incorporated, whereas in asynchronous Encourage personal growth by providing stu- virtual instruction, the question of extrinsic motiva- dents with choices and opportunities. • tion is more complex. Classroom strategies such as Facilitate learning by providing resources and providing immediate rewards for participation may encouragement. not work so easily in this context, but some can be The use of neutral and inclusive language and bal-

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright successfully translated to the online environment (e.g., anced subjects in sample searches prevents you from feedback elements or a graded quiz in an online tuto- alienating specific groups or appearing insensitive or rial). Depending on the character of the interaction, biased. In participatory online learning situations or consider how you might work motivational incentives classroom discussions, you can establish ground rules

that encourage respectful dialogue. It is also impor- differences in how you make a face-to-face session tant to remember that teaching spaces have unique “active” for each of these four groups? environmental characteristics. If you have several 2. How might you be able to affect the intrinsic options for live instruction, you can develop a sense motivation of the different participant groups in the of which scenario or audience fits which type of space. above reflection point? Whenever possible in a face-to-face context, famil- iarize yourself with the room and its characteristics, Notes from teaching technology to lighting to background noise, so that you are more comfortable and able to 1. David Cook and Ryan Sittler (eds.), Practical Pedagogy anticipate problems. Post the contact information of for Library Instructors: 17 Innovative Strategies to Improve Student Learning (Chicago: Association of College and offices or individuals who can help you troubleshoot Research Libraries, 2008), 3. technical issues in the moment, and always consider 2. Dale Schunk, Learning Theories: An Educational ways you might salvage the situation should total Perspective (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/ meltdown occur. Prentice Hall, 2008), 22. 3. Peggy Ertmer and Timothy Newby, “Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Summary Features from an Instructional Design Perspective,” Performance Improvement Quarterly 6, no. 4 (1993): • Effective instruction tends to be incremental, 50–70. organized, responsive, social, and engaging. 4. Schunk, Learning Theories,64. 5. D avid Ausubel, The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal • Behaviorist instruction involves learning tar- Learning (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1963). gets, assessment, learner participation, orga- 6. D ennis Phillips and Jonas Soltis, Perspectives on Learning, nized content communication, and consistent, 4th ed. (New York: Teacher’s College Press, 2004), 53. productive reinforcement. 7. Schunk, Learning Theories,240. • Cognitivist instruction involves capturing 8. J ohn Dewey, Democracy in Education (New York, MacMillan, 1958), 168. learner attention, using advance organizers, 9. R oger Bruning, Cognitive Psychology and Instruction separating content into units and modules, pac- (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice ing instruction, and promoting metacognition. Hall, 2004). See also Sadhana Puntambekar and Roland • Constructivist instruction involves authentic Hubscher, “Tools for Scaffolding Students in a Complex interactions, learning situated within its real- Learning Environment: What Have We Gained and What Have We Missed?” Educational Psychologist 40 (2005): world application, active and peer-based com- 1–12. munication, a supportive role for the instruc- 10. C ook and Sittler, Practical Pedagogy, 2008; Robert Slavin, tor, and critical awareness of the social and Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 8th ed. cultural factors affecting learning. (Boston: Pearson, 2006), 245–248. • In direct instruction the educator is respon- 11. D avid Ausubel, Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968). sible for guiding the learning interaction, 12. S lavin, Educational Psychology, 210. whereas in discovery or student-centered 13. Cook and Sittler, Practical Pedagogy, 7. instruction learning is shaped by participants. 14. C harles Reigeluth, Instructional-Design Theories and • It is important to define prerequisites for Models (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1983), 22. learning at the outset of an interaction. 15. S chunk, Learning Theories,282. • 16. J erome Bruner, “The Act of Discovery,” Harvard Learners can be engaged via intrinsic and Educational Review 31 (1961): 21–32. extrinsic motivational strategies. 17. P hillips and Soltis, Perspectives on Learning, 52. 18. Slavin, Educational Psychology, 248. 19. R eigeluth, Instructional-Design, 22. Reflection Points 20. Patricia Cross, “Opening Windows on Learning,” League for Innovation in the Community College, June 1998, 21. 1. Imagine that you have been given the task of 21. P aul Kirschner, John Sweller, and Richard Clark, “Why introducing a completely redesigned online catalog Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: in an academic library to library staff, graduate stu- An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based

Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright dents, faculty, and undergraduates, all of whom have Teaching,” Educational Psychologist 41 (2006): 75–86. different levels of experience with the old catalog and 22. S chunk, Learning Theories,155. discovery interfaces in general. Will there also be

23. Ruth Clark and Chopeta Lyons, Graphics for Learning: Guide to the Tools and Techniques (Chicago: American Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Library Association, 2007). Visuals in Training Materials (San Francisco: Pfeiffer, 28. Schunk, Learning Theories, 207. 2004), 125. 29. M artin Covington, “Self-Worth Theory Goes to College: 24. Linda Lohr, Creating Graphics for Learning and Do Our Motivation Theories Motivate?” in D. M. Performance (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2008), 51. McInerney and S. Van Etten, Big Theories Revisited, See also Clark and Lyons, Graphics, 118. Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and 25. David Ausubel, “The Facilitation of Meaningful Verbal Learning 4 (Greenwich, CT: Information Age, 2004), 93. Learning in the Classroom,” Educational Psychologist 12 30. J ames Stronge, Qualities of Effective Teachers, 2nd ed. (1977): 162–178. (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and 26. Benjamin Bloom, Human Characteristics in School Curriculum Development, 2007), 28–29. Learning (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976). 31. B ernard Weiner, Human Motivation: Metaphors, 27. Carl Rogers and H. Jerome Freiberg, Freedom to Learn Theories, and Research (Newbury Park, CA: SAGE, 1992). (New York: Merrill, 1994); Steven Bell and John Shank, 32. S chunk, Learning Theories, 465.

Academic Librarianship by Design: A Blended Librarian’s Copyright © 2014. American Library Association Editions. All rights reserved. rights All Editions. Association Library American 2014. © Copyright