CHAPTER IV
THE RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE CHAPTER - IV
THE RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE
1) INTRODUCTION;
One concern of the geography of religions is how the land provides a record of religious systems, their associated institutions, and the patterns of religiously conditioned behaviour. A fairly full inventory has been made of the more conspicuous landscape features associated with historic and contemporary religious systems, but there have been few attempts 1 to assess the intensity of religious impress on the land . The form and the density of sacred structure, use of the land in cemeteries and spatial assemblage of plants, trees and animals for religious purpose are among effects on the land of the 2 formally prescriptive traditional aspects of religious systems .
Data about religious fidelity are mostly qualitative and 3 impressionistic, often providing only superficial indices .
2) RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE;
Some examples of the religious transformation of landscape will be discussed here focussing on the differences among religious systems. The qualitative and quantitative data can be use^to estimate the patterns of religious adherance in Maharashtra
State. On the basis of this, one can consider two adherent religious landscapes in the study area. -63-
(A) Tribal Religious landscape and (B) Quasi-Universalizing Religious Landscape.
A) TRIBAL RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE:
As per the census of India 1971/ the tribal population was
2,954,249 souls which contributed 5.9 per cent of the total population of Maharashtra. Out of this total 63.12 per cent was found only in 26 tahsils of the State (Refer Fig. No. 4,1).
These tahsils are characterised by hilly terrain, forest and lack of communication facilities. Twelve tahsils contained over fifty percent tribal population each. Remaining 1,089,481 tribal population, which contributed only 36.87 per cent to total tribal population of the State, was scattered in remaining 173 tahsils of the State. No scheduled tribes were notified in the Buldhana,
Akola, Wardha, Nagpur and Bhandara districts from Nagpur division.
Bhil, Koli-Mahadeo, Gond, Varli, Kokna, Thakur, Kathodi, Gamit,
Koli-Malhar, Korku are the principal tribal communities in the study area. The tribal population is concentrated mainly in three areas : Northern part of Sahyadris, Satpuda mountains and hilly area of Chandrapur region.
The Sahyadris are oriented in north-south direction running v. more or less parallel to the Arabian sea coast in the west. Koli
Mahadeo, Varli, Kokna, Thakur and Katkari the tribal communities
occur in this region. More than fifty per cent tribal population to total tahsil population was found in the tahsils of
-64-
Surgana, Peint, Mokhada, Jawhar, Talsari, Nawapur and Dahanu in this region.
The Satpudas form a chain of mountains in the extreme north of Maharashtra. Main tribes of this region are that of Bhil,
Kokna, Gamit, Dubla, Dhanka and Korku. Akrani, Akkalkuwa, Height and Taloda are the tahsils where more than fifty per cent tribal population to total tahsil population is found.
Gonds, Korku, Kolam, Pardhan are found in hilly and forested areas of Vidarbha particularly in Sironcha tahsil (over fifty per cent tribal population to total tahsil population) of Chandrapur district in the east.
Though the tribals are Hinduised their religious practices are related to the nature of their physical environment that are different, as well as, older than that of Hindu religion. There fore, the tribal religion has been indicated as 'animism'. Details regarding origin of some aboriginal tribes and their religion are interesting, as noted below.
Racially, the tribal religious population is of Dravidian origin. The Andhas are greatly influenced by Telugu people who come from adjacent area of Andhra Pradesh. They appear to be a non-Aryan tribe of Andhra Pradesh from which they derive their names. The customs of Andhas point to an aboriginal origin but they are being rapidly Hinduised. Their concentration is mainly found in Kalaranuri and Kinwat, the tahsils of the Parbhani and -65-
Nanded districts respectively .
The Bhils believe in totemism. They have their own dialect known as Bhili or Bhilori, which contains a number of non-Aryan words and are much influenced by Marathi, Gujarathi and Marwari
dialects. The great majority of them have retained their aboriginal dialect. They are nature worshippers. They worship
Waghdeo i.e. tiger god, and Moon. The bulk of this tribal population is concentrated in the tahsils of Akrani, Akkalkuwa,
Taloda and Nawapur in Dhule district and Surgana and Peint in
Nasik district.
The Gond tribe has been regarded as the principal tribe of the Dravidian family. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamili, Canarese and Telugu and therefore, it is likely that they might have migrated from the south to
Maharashtra. In the study of spatial distribution of Gond population one finds that this tribe is concentrated in the tahsils of Sironcha and Gadhchiroli in Chandrapur district and
Rajura in Yeotrnal district.
According to legend, the Halbas migrated from Baster and
Chhattisgarh areas to the West and lived under the protection of h Gond king. They mainly occur in Gadchiroli and Sironcha tahsils
of Chandrapur district. Halbas were once animist but because of
the influence of local communities they started worshipping
Hindu gods and goddesses, side by side with their tribal deities. -66-
Prom the apperance of Katkaris and Koknas, their customs and their religion, it is observed that these tribes are aboriginal but much influenced by Hinduism. The tahsils of Mokhada, Jawhar, Talsari and Dahanu of Thane district have recorded highest percentage of Katkari and Kokna population to total population. A considerable number of these communities are also found in Karjat, Khalapur and Pen tahsils of Raigad
(KcAohed district.
Proximity to Bombay-Kalyan-Nasik industrial areas is the most important factor responsible for modernising the tribal
communities of Bhils, Katkaris, Warlis and Koknas. Many of them are employed in factories, government services and in domestic
jobs and that is how modern urban life and Hinduism have become
part of their life. This is also true about the Bhil population of Satpudas to some extent as they come in active contact of
city people at Dhule, Nandurbar and Jalgaon etc. Gonds of eastern
Maharashtra have also been substantially modified, during recent
times.
1) TRIBAL RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES:
It is found that the form of tribal gods, goddesses and worships are related to nature. The rounded stone is generally a
big pebble from a river or a product of exfoliation in basalt country. The other products used to represent gods and goddesses are animal tails, feathers of birds, carved pieces of wood, -67-
trees, animals etc. are of forest origin. They show the bearing
of natural environment on the form of gods, goddesses and objects of worship of simple ethnic religious groups.
Tribal communities in Maharashtra worship tribal and some times also Hindu gods and goddesses. The village dieties are found near the village boundary or in the fields or in the forest under a tree or open. The deity of tiger-god is generally
set up in the forest or on the boundary of the village. Chief object of worship is the tiger-god, who is supposed to look with peculiar favour upon them and very seldom harms them; and they are disinclined to shoot him. Then some sort of religious structures are built and some deities are installed on the margin of agricultural fields in memory of departed owner of the land or his relatives. The forest people are worshippers of such natural agencies as fire, rain and trees; animals like tiger, cow and snake. The trees and plants are such that they are of medicinal importance as 3aniyan tree, peepal, Umber and Tulsi etc. The temples of tribal community are small and simple due to their occurence in hilly and forested areas characterised by poor economic conditions (Refer Fig. No. 4.2).
Hirva, the family deity of Katkari, Kokna, Koli-Dhor, Koli-
Malhar and Thakar etc., is represented by a bunch of peacock feathers in which is inserted a silver 'tak'. Katkari, Bhils,
Dhanka, Gamits, Kokna, Kolam, Koli-Dhor Koli-Malhar and Thakar
are the tiger-god worshipping communities in Maharashtra. This
-68-
god is in the form of tiger carved on a piece of wood or stone. Kortad is the harvest god of Kokna and Thakur. Gaodevi is the Village deity of Kokna and Koli-Malhar, Mari-aai and Vetal are family deities of Kokna. Khatri is the ancestral god of Dhodia. Govaldev is the god of cattle of Garnit. Gond's Badadeo, Himai of Koli-Dhor, Supli and Vir (Refer Fig. No. 4.3 and 4.4), Jaitur and Bhivsen of Kolam and Mauli Kawar are other tribal gods and goddesses that are generally in the form of rounded stones, besmeared with sindoor.
Tribals have also other gods and goddesses which are in the different forms. Koli-Malhar's Narayendeo is represented by an image of a man carved on a brass plate. Brahma, the household deity of Dhodia is represented by three or four earthen horses fixed on a basket of clay. Pandhari, the goddess of Bhil and Garnit, is in the form of a dome made of clay in field. The Nagdeo is an image of a serpent carved on a stone and worshipped by Garnit. Rajavadu and Shiopatli of Garnit are in the form of wooden log or a wooden plank smeared with sindoor and on which are carved the images of the Sun and the moon. The Dulhadeo and the Pahadpat of Kawar are represented by an iron trident. Pardhan's Badadev is represented by the tail hairs of Nilgai set in a bamboo tube, covered with a red cloth and put inside an unused earthen pot. The Dhanka tribals do not have any image of a household deity in their houses. They only light a lamp on every festival and worship it. It would be clear that wood, bamboo,
(A)
r = tx\v^\\\\\\v.\\v\WN\> s>NVAVl l
(B)
(A)SUPLI AND(B)VIR GODDESS ES (Varlis, Thakurs and Koknas)
SOURCE: CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 (s. T.IN MAHARASHTRA)
FIG. U -4 -69-
pebbles etc. are from their natural surroundings as also the snake and tiger that the tribals worship.
2) RELIGIOUS SACRED TREES AND ANIMALS:
Since ritualism and ceremonialism have been imbedded in a variety of human cultures even before the dawn of universalizing religious systems, and have been expressed through precise rituals evolved through time by ethnic groups, they have become part and parcel of every religion. As a result of it many religions confer on certain trees, plants, and animals a measure of sanctity or special r'»tual functions .
SACRED TREES AND ANIMALS OF TRIBAL RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES:
Certain trees ana animals are sacred to Tribals in
Maharashtra. Umber (i-'icus glomerate Roxb), Mango, Salai, Mahua,
Teak, peepal U'icus religiosa L.), and Tulsi (plant) etc. are considered as sacred trees in tribal areas. The marriage booth of theWarli, the Kokna, the Thakur, the Kothodi, the Koli-
Malhar, and the Koli-Dhor requires to have a pole of Umber tree 7 on the ground of religious need . Marriage booth of Dubias and
Dhodias re-.ruire teak poles. The pole of Salai tree for marriage booth is considered as sacred by the Andh, the Kolam, the Pardhan, the Kalba, and the Gonds. The Raj-Gond and the Pardhan erect booth or. the occasion of devkaran (the festival) which rehires four poles of Anjani tree and its twigs at the too.
Tribal communities use mango and umber leaves tor preparing the -70-
buntings of the ceremonial booths. Gamit's brides and bridegrooms worship the Apta tree just after the marriage celebration is over. On the occasion of Poladi festival the
Bhil/s worship neighbouring forests. Tribals sow seven kinds of grain, and worship them till the ninth day while a week prior to Akhaja, the festival. Halbas generally plant 'Tulsi' in the courtyard of their houses. Mahuwa, Shivan and peepal trees are considered holy for the Thakurs.
The cow is held in highest reverence by Koli-Malhar and any person killing the animal is excommunicated from the tribe, as cow-killing is a taboo. Bullocks are worshipped on the occasion of Pola. They offer cooked food to the crow in the name of their ancester on pitar Amavasya. Tribals (Koli-Dhor) living in forest worship Waghya (tiger-god) and snake as found in
Surgana tahsil (Nasik district). Tribal communities worship
Waghya as the god of the cow herds and is believed to protect the cattle grazing in the forest. Thakurs do not consume the flesh of wild animals such as Rohi and Neelgai as they are from the category of cow which is their laxmi or goddess of wealth.
Killing monkey is a taboo to KatkariSjas they consider that the monkeys are the descendants of the god Hanumana.
Though the tribals mentioned above, have been able to retain the content of their religion (or animism), considerably under the changing conditions of socio-economic development and communication many of them are undergoing change, particularly -71-
the spread of education in their children and several
concessions granted to them by the Government have been
responsible for their modernization and subsequent assimilation in the main stream of the society. A beginning in this
direction has already started in Maharashtra. In, addition to these developmental measures, such other processes as deforesta tion, creation of new lakes in the mountainous areas at the cost of forest and the consequent outmigration of the tribal people to urban areas in search of jobs etc. are also responsible for disturbing the forest based tribal communities and their way of life. In other words, the tribal religious landscape is changing fast either due to their modernisation or is being totally destroyed due to developmental measures and the associated processes e.g. the formation of lakes in the western ghats has adversly affected local tribal population.
B) QUASI-UNIVERSALIZING RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE:
The present religious landscapes of the Maharashtra reflect not only local evolutions but also a multitude of influences carried by migration, diffusion, commerce and exchange. Behind most religious areas of today lies a long succession of different religions and religious developments. Hinduism, Jainism,
Buddhism, Islam and Christianity are the chronological religions diffused in Maharashtra during the past. Consequently, the human society has become a mosaic of several religious groups belonging to these religions. Hinduism is the dominant religion in this state. -72-
1) QUASI-UNIVERSALIZING RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES:
With respect to sacred structures Hindus, Muslims,
Christianians and Buddhists have their ov/n styles. The temples, mosques, churches and stupas are the sacred structures of various
religious groups indicated above. These places of worship or prayers conform to specific architectural styles according to the
religious and traditional needs of respective religious groups.
a) HINDU RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES:
The ancient Vedic-religion of Indo-European communities that
descended down into the Indus and the Gangetic valleys was
characterised by the worship of several gods, animals and trees.
The reference of temples and temple priests are first mentioned
in Hanu (Manusmruti), the sacred scripture of Hinduism .
Hindu temples have generally high pinnacles and spire :\oove it (Refer rhotographs Wos. 23-3 2). Layout of these temples must
include a large pool for the ritual baths of devotees. For a
generalized plan refer figure No. 4.5. Host of the Hindu temples
contain a Sabhamandapa, l-Jagarkhana, Deepamala and a holy garden
etc. The Sabhamandap~as are located adjoining the room in which 9 the deities are housed. They are used for bhajana, kxrtana ,
pravachana and, some times, as meeting places of the village
people. Internal design of the temple conforms to the needs of
worshipping on the one hand and performing kirtana in front of the
deity, on the other. ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICIPANTS IN KlRTANA
DEITY OF GOD
® ° © n CHILDREN ~f ® 0„0<3 © o J © 0o0oQ © © o O DA o §M«6 ^o J© o ©® OOO ©(H) fa o O ^© O O O ®^g o o ©^ o o s© © <§> (E?® o o o KIRTANKAR o WOMEN WOMEN
TAL-BEARERS
AFTER : GREER WILLIAM R. © : MEN
FIG.4-5 -73-
Figure No. 4.6 shows the plan of Viththela temple at
Pandharpur.- It is a more sizable structure to which additions have been made from time to time. Besides the main temple and a deepamalf etc., one finds a host of small temples dedicated to various gods and goddess^installed at various points around main
Viththal^ temple. Generally a tortoise carved in stone is observed at the entrance of the main outer hall (Sabhamandapa) symbolizing control on shadripoos (six enemies of man).
Such ensembles of small shrines dedicated to Ganesha,
Hanumana, Sarswati, Garud and Navagraha etc. symbolizing a parti cular belief are found in various Hindu temples e.g. at Alandi,
Dehu, Tryambakeshwar, Kolhapur, Amravati, Jejuri etc. This old trend of building temples accommodating several Hindu gods, goddesses and saints at one place is witnessed even during modern times as observed at "Muktidham" (Nasik) and Swargashram
(Rishikesh) (Refer Photograph No . 3 3) b) BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES !
The beginning of constructing Buddhist religious sacred structures commenced with the death of Buddha as stupas were built by his followers at distant places in the country, .••-soka the Great (B.C. 265-228), gave a great impetus to Buddhism by 1 P making it the religion of the state . Since his empire extended far and wide and had sway over large parts of Maharashtra, one finds several Buddhist stupas as at Ellora, Aianta, Karla, etc.
The most tvpical religious monument of Buddhism is a stupa To Rly. Stn.
Ganpati Mahalakshml ^^# Rfidhika Satvabhama Malta
Annapurna
Silver pillar
Vyankatesvar
Solakhandi (c. 1780) Kanhopatra Mandapa (c. Ki21) Inscribed slab (1275)
Vrndavan
Hanunian
Ganpati
Inscription (1618)
Nsimdev Payari
Cokha Samadhl
Vi^hoba's temple
at
Pandharpur
To the Bhima
AFTER: DELEURY G. A. FIG. Zv-6 -74-
(Chaitygriha) where the relics of Lord Buddha have been preserved and worshipped. The monument is carved in basalt and a number of such caves occur at these places(Refer Fig. No. 4.7). The Buddha
Vihara found in cave No.l (Refer Fig. No. 4.8) at Ajantdl houses aWimage of Lord Buddha at the one end. Typically it provides for small cells adjoining the pillared hall, for Buddhist monks. A large number of such caves occur at Ajanta and are internationally known for their grandeur and immaculate carving skills. The stupa built at Dadar Choupati preserving relics of Dr. B.R. Arnbedkar is very simple (Refer Photographs Nos. 3*t and 35) . c) ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES'.
Kasjd is the Islamic sacred structure used for prayer
(Refer Fig. No. 4.9) (Refer Photographs Nos. 36-3&) . It is a v rectangular open space enclosed by pillared cloisters on four sices with a fountain or tank in the centre for aolutions, a ceremony described as "the half of faith and key to prayer". To meet the demand for some focal point in the scheme, the cloisters on the Mecca side (in India on the west) of the courtyard are expanded and elaborated into a pillared hall or sanctuary, with a wall at the back containing a recess or alcove called a miharab indicating the direction for prayer. On the (\ rioht side of the mihrab stands the pulpit, while a portion of >\ the sanctuary is screened off into a compartment for women. An elevated platform from which the muezzin summons the faithful to prayer is also a necessity and usually takes the form of a high ^STUPA
ENTRANCE
Ellora: rock-cut apsidal chnitya-griha, plan
SOURCE.MITRA DE BALA., BUDDHIS T MONUMENTS. FIG. 4-7 BUDDHA-IMAGE
5 0 10 20 30 40 50 f ?&^ »-•••' i—i—i—i—L Ajanta : Cave 1, plan
SOURCE. MITRA DEBALA BUDOHIST MONUMENTS FIG. U%
-75-
tower or minaret. Generally a mosque houses a Madarsa (school for teaching Islams scriptures) and a travellers resting place d) CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES:
Church is the Christian sacred structure used for prayer
(Refer Photograph No.33) (Refer Fig. No.4.10). The plan generally includes a nave or hall in which the crowd gatheres; one or two side aisles flanking the nave and separated from it by a row of regularly spaced columns; an entrance vestibule at the west end of which is reserved for penitents and unbaptized believers; and apse of either semicircular or rectangular design, located at the east end of the church and reserved for the clergy; statue/ picture of Mary and Jesus Christ and other Saints, facing which prayers are offere« .,1d 2
As regards the architecture of religious structures some typical features are observed. The Hindu temples have a dome with a flag or a tri dent at the top. It is either a very simple structure or conforming to Hemadpaiithi style, as is found at
Nasik (Narosnankar) and Tryamdakeshv. ar. Modern R.C.C. construction is observed at I.uktidham temple (Nasik Road). The Islamic religious structure is characterised by four minarettes at the four corners of the building. The christian churches generally conform to Gothic architecture, as they have been Duilt by
.Europeans e.g. Churches at Bandra (Bombay), 1-une, and Bassein.
The roofs of the oanctuary and the side Chapels are high arched roofs of finely curved stcne in ornamented compartments. These
-76- architectural forms help in identifying religious structures from a distance. Modern churches conform to R.C.C. designs end different shapes, these days.
2) SACRED PLANTS, TREES AND ANIMALS OF QUASI-UNIVERSALIZING
RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES: a) SACRED PLANTS AND TREES:
Tree worship was common among ancient people in India. The
Tulsi leaves are traditionally offered to Lord Vishnu while worshipping the god and is therefore, grown in the homes of devotees of Vishnu (Vaishnavas) and in the campus of Vishnu a temples. In the same wav Bel leves are considered to be ausoicious in Shiva worship and therefore, it is grown in Shiva temples and homes of Shaivas (devotees of Shiva). Hindu married ladies traditionally worship Banyan tree on the Vata pournima day to commemorate the mythological story of Satyawana and Savitri. Apta leaves are required to be distributed among friends and relatives d as a mark of love and respect on the Dasar restival dav in Hindu families on the ground of an old tradition in which 'gold' was distributed, it is said during the past.
Two types of grasses i.e. Tub and Darbhayhave been considered sacred since vedic time and they are required in worshipping and rituals. Dub is used in Ganesha worship, specially.
Banana stems with leaves and the mango tree leaves are considered ausoicious and are required in almost every Hindu -77-
ritual. Lotus has became the seat and attribute of several
divinities viz. Brahma, Vishnu and Ganesha in India since long
and, therefore, it is needed in worshipping these gods.
The trees, plants, grasses etc. indicated above have medicinal value and they have been used in indigenous system of medicines (Ayurveda) through several millennia. It is therefore, quite possible that in order to protect these trees and plants in the interest of the society they have been considered sacred under the garb of religion, in course of time.
Buddhists revere the £>eepal tree (Bodhi Vriksha or Bo-tree) as Lord Buddha attained the highest stage of enlightenment under this tree. Buddha is commonly represented sitting in the lotus blossom, as it is pure one born into the impure world, in religious contemplation. b) SACRED ANIMALS;
The bull cult that played an important role in ancient India, is still alive today in this country- that has agricultural economy. Therefore, bull and cow have been invaluable to the rural community in agricultural operations and as source of milk, respectively. Here the bull is sacred as it is vehicle of Lord
Shiva. There- is no temple of Shiva within which the Nandi, the holy bull (chiseled in stone), usually smaller than life size,
is not installed (kef er Photograph No. 40) . Gov; has been sacred
to Indian society as a whole and therefore, is revered and fed
even today. -78-
The bas figure of tortoise carved in piece stone is
generally installed on the flooring of the main hall. The
tortoise has control over it's limbs and head and can withdraw
these parts at will. It, therefore, symbolises the need for man to have control over Kama, Krodha, Lobha, Moha, i-iada and
Matsar - the six enemies . Cobra is useful to the farmers as it
consumes rats, mice and rodents. They are, therefore, worshipped by Hindus on Naga Panchami day.
3) SACRED COLOURS:
Most religions favour a particular colour that is especially distinctive and characteristic ana which is bound up with certain 13 sacred places (Place of Pilgrimage) and ceremonial periods
Structures painted in particular colour or religious flags and banners having a particular colour convey a definite meaning.
Many of the Hindu gods and goddesses are smeared with sinuoor
(red colour). Red colour flowers are offered to god Ganesha on religious ground. Brown and white coloured cow is recognised more auspicious by Hindu communities and therefore, is venerated.
Saffron flags are installed on the top of Hindu temples and banner by Varkaries of Pandharpur as mark of holiness. The preference for saffron colour (basanti colour) is symbolic of the hue of rising sun in the tropical country for whose agricultural success, solar heat and light are indispensable. 'White colour is considered dj to be auspicious for performing rituals. The religious propagandists have to use saffron coloured robes on religious ground. Haldi 79-
powder (yellow colour) and kumkum (red colour) are invariably used in Hindu rituals and ceremonies as a product of worship. Haldi andukumkum marks on the forehead indicate virgin or married status of Hindu women. For widows it is a taboo. The haldi has medicinal value and thus, it has found a place in Hindu rituals.
White colour is preferred by Buddhists as it symbolizes purity. The buddhist sacred structures as stupas, chaityas etc. therefore, are painted in white colour. The landscape upon which Islam is stamped is strongly marked by white colour e.g. white turbans as a badge of the faithful, the white garments of pilgrims to Mecca, white gravestones and snow-white mosques with ^inarets. The Islam was born in hot tropical desert of West Asia, where green colour,moon and the stars are more pleasing to individuals. Naturally these indicators have found a place in Islamic flag. The masjids are coloured in white as a mark of purity and the flags hoisted on the religious structures are green in colour with a crescent and a star within it. Green coloured bedsheets are used in Islamic rituals. Generally speaking. Christians have preference for white colour on religious ground.
4) C£R£MONIAL SOUNDS AND MUSIC:
All religions having on orderly form of general or at least simultaneous worship employ in greater or lesser degree certain -80-
characteristic ceremonial sounds, not only during religious services themselves, but also in the periodic announcement of the beginning and of religious services. The call to prayer sounded regularly five times every day from all minarets is characteristic of all Moslem settlements or sectors within the
Islamxc realm
Varkaris of Pandharpur consider singing bhajana as a auspicious part of their holy tour to Pandharpur. The Kirtana is a medium for propagating religious and moral thoughts that are conveyed through sermons and songs supported by several musical instruments.
5) SACRED DIRECTIONS:
Auspicious directions also belong to the essence of what is ceremonial and influential in the landscape. The culturally determined ceremonial directions with more historical religious sanctity play a great, in fact by far the greatest, role
Since east is considered to be more auspicious direction, houses of the Hindu people and/or their entrances are generally facing east (Purwarbhimukh). However, west and north facing houses also are not uncommon. The various Hindu temples also conform to these preferences on the ground of tradition. The movement of the devotees along the holy round is invariably clock-wise. South is considered to be inauspicious direction as it belongs to Yama, the god of death. The corpse of Varli^Kokna, Koli-Malhar,
Koli-Dhor, Fardhi, Raj-Gond, Kolam and Halba are placed on the -81-
pyre or in the pit with its head to the south at cemetery 1 f\ ground . Dublas, Dhodias and Bhils place their corpse on the pyre or in the pit with its head to north and feet to the south. The Gaita-Gonds place the corpse in the grave pit on its back, face upwards, with head to the east and legs to the west.
6) DENSITY OF RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES:
The density of the religious sacred structures is deter mined by physical and historical factors. Generally speaking, the number of religious structures is less in hilly and forested areas and drier areas where density of population is low and economic progress is relatively less. On the contrary, one finds a large number of religious structures, many of them quite big and decorated one, in fertile areas and modern cities where people are more prosperous. The significance of history lies in the fact that important religious places occur along ancient and mediaeval trade routes. The occurrence of significant temples at Pandharpur, Kolhapur, Tui^japur, Jejuri, Nasik,
Paithan, Amravati etc. can be explained on this ground. The toposheets covering Kolhapur, Ahmadnagar, Aurangabad, Nagpur cities and their environs have been chosen as they represent fertile river valley, drier and historical area, historical capital and infertile tract, historical capital and economically less developed area, respectively. -8 2-
The table given below furnishes the details of observations.
It would be clear from the details that density of Hindu religious structures is relatively high in and around Kolhapur and Nagpur. This can be explained on the ground that both areas have fertile tract and Kolhapur and Nagpur cities are prospering.
These places were ruled by Hindu prices who patronised several important Hindu temples, during the past. The density of Hindu religious structures is somewhat less in an^around Ahmadnagar and Aurangabad. This is because the environs of Aurangabad cicy are agriculturally less productive. On the contrary Islamic religious structures are found in and around Ahmadnagar and
Aurangabad areas as these places were seats of Muslim power during the mediaeval period. All these places are located along ancient and/or mediaeval highways. Due to the comparatively meager Christian population, there are negligible churches in anc around o-f these cities.
DENSITY OF RELIGIOUS SACRED STRUCTURES
(Density per 100 sq. Kilometers of Area)
Toposheet No. Hindu Islamic Christian
1) Kolhapur No. 47 -y- 14 I Negligible
2) Ahmadnagar No. -T-A- *2 3 Negligible M 3) Aurangabad No. —F— 7 2 Negligible 4) Nagpur No. —r— 13 Negligible Negligible -83-
7) DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS AT SOME CITIES!
The cities of Kolhapur, Ahmadnagar, Aurangabad, Nagpur, Bombay and Nasik have the distinction of having a large number of religious institutions of the Hindus, Muslims and Christians. These institutions are so distributed that they serve the various religious groups in the cities as discussed below. a) KOLHAPUR:
A study of the spatial distribution of the Hindu religious institutions reveals that though they are widely distributed in 17 the city, one finds a large number of them in the old city area This can be explained on the following grounds (Refer Fig. No. 4.11).
The temples like those of Uttereshwar, Kholkhandoba, Mahalaxmi etc. are associated with the old centres of develop ment of the city. These temples were sited on or near the summits of the low mounds where these centres developed.
The location of shrines near the water bodies in the city, such as those Rankala, Padmala, Koti and Firangai lakes and also those along the ghats of the Panchaganga river is in keeping with the Hindu tradition. The confluence of two streams is a still another favoured spot for the location of a shrine. The shrines that are located along course of the Panchaganga river are mostly found near the ford of the river. The location of the KOLHAPUR
2KMS
FIG. 411 -84-
humble shrine at Bavda is near a pool. There is also temple
near Rajaram tank. It does not mean that there are no shrines
elsewhere in the city. There is a comparatively large number
of shrines in the old fort area, particularly around the Ambabai
temple. The temple of Bhavani is near the old palace. A passing
reference may be made to the fact that some temples are
located near the sites of the gates of the old fort. Moreover, one also in the proximity of old gardens or groves. What strikes one immediately from the map is that there are a few shrines
only to the east of the Jiti stream, particularly in the modern
colonies of Shahupuri, Rajarampuri etc.
The masjids of the Muslims are so located that they are
near the localities where this religious group is present in considerable number. The presence of masjids near Ferris Market
and near the old Shanwar gate that are in old fort area, can be
explained in this way. The Baboojamal masjid, located near the
Saraswati Talkis along Tarabai road, is not far away from the
Ambabai temple. It shows that this masjid was constructed by the
Muslim rulers near the old seat of power. The location of a masjid at 3agal chowk, is not far away from the Jiti stream. And the one found in Sadar Bazar, is in the Muslim locality.
And lastly, the churches of the Christians in the city are
also typically located. The old church near the Ferris Market
was constructed not only close to the Shanwar gate but also not
far away from the main road to the British Residency area. -85-
This is the only church which is at the heart of the city.
Then, one finds a church on the Brahmapuri high river bank, the oldest centre of development of the city. There is a Church in the Residency area, that was the seat of the British
Resident at Kolhapur. The Christians residing at the Residency area, New Shahupuri, Brahmapuri etc. are well served by these institutions. b) AHMADNAGAR:
A study of the spatial distribution of the Muslim mosques, tombs and shrines reveals that they are widely distributed in and around the Ahmadnagar city. This can be explained on the following grounds (Refer Fig. No. 4.12).
The mosques like Makka, Kali, Khan Zaman, Nyamatkhan,
Shan Tihar, Chohin, Badshahi, Juma, Faradkhan, Soneri,
Sarjekhan, Tora Bibi, Kamani and Husain etc. are located in the city area. Among these some mosques are close to the sites of old palaces.
The location of mosques viz. Sayed Hatti and Shah Sawar
Ghazi is on the bank of Sina river near the Nepti gate and on the right bank of the same river opposite the Nepti gate, respectively. Eight kilometers east of the city on the Shah 18 Dongar (hill), stands the tomb of Salabatkhan II
The shrine of Hazarat Abdur Rahman Chishti and Adhai Ghumat
(tomb) and Haji Hamad's mosque are along Aurangabad and Malegaon AHM.ADNAGAR
School Co rive nt • ,0 * .±t«3
Cemetaj;P a~7.i a r$ a. FOR] "Bhinga r
AHMADNAGAR
V»*n « ?* rtt
Ke d gaon _=_- oOare vad i A
t"/Vl _,ji Burudgaon
E> a w a k o d i ii
?*Hs -Sb P I ft /. • 1 ? -86- road, respectively, to the north of the city, within the distance of one and a half kilometre. The tomb known as Char Sanak's tomb is near the Police lines towards the same direction. The Bagh Rauza or the Garden of the shrine, near Nalegaon gate and Damdi mosque, near the fort, are the important Muslim religious objects towards the northeast of the city. And the mosque of Agha Eahized Dhakhni and tomb of Bhava Bangali are near the Jhende gate and the Bengali gate, respectively, outside the city. Many of the Muslim mosques are in ruined condition which were built during the sixteenth century A.D. when the power of the Nizamshahi dynasty was at its height. The chief Muslim burying ground is to the north of the city, on the bank of river Sina, near the Nepti gate close to the old city wall.
The Hindu temples are lesser in number than that of Muslim's mosques, in the city area. The Hindu shrines are scattered around the city mostly its tributary streams. The Hindu burning ground is on the right bank of the Sina, to the west of the Nepti and Nalegaon gates. Except Mahars, Mangs, Chambhars and Bhangis the same burning ground is used by all Hindu castes. The Mahars and Mangs have two different burning grounds on the left bank of the Sina, one is south-west of the Nepti gate and the other is south west of the Nalegaon gate. The Bhangis burry their dead to the south of the Nepti gate beyond the river, and Vadars, all of whom live within cantonment limits, bury their dead to the east of the cantonment. -87-
The S.P.G. Mission and the American Mission are in the north and south-eastern part of the city, respectively. One Christian church is located near convent school and another to the south-east of the fort. There are two Christian burial grounds, one north-west of the Delhi gate used by native Christians and the other is a walled enclosure, nicely laid out and planted with trees, to the north of the fort, used by Europeans. c) AURANGABAD:
Malik Amber (1546-1626 A.D.), the minister of Murtaza Nizam
Shah II established himself at Khirki, modern Aurangabad and 19 erected a number of buildings and mosques . Aurangabad was the capital of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor, for long and therefore, masjids are found in remarkable number in this city (Refer Fig.
No. 4.13).
With respect to spatial distribution of Muslim religious structures one finds that they are located along the banks of river, along main roads and in palace. Baba Musafir Dargah and
Panchakki and Bibika Makbara are found along the bank of kham river. Jamma masjid occurs in Killa Arrak, the palace of
Aurangazeb. The mausoleum of pir Ismail is along the Harsul road, outside the Delhi gate. The kali and Shaha Ganj mosques are the most conspicuous ones in the city. The Kali masjid occurs in
Juna Bazar area while shaha Ganj masjid is located at the great market square of the city. The Chauk masjid and Lai masjid are FIG. 4-13 -88- th e other important masjids in the city. The old burial ground of the city nobles is located beyond the Delhi gate, whereas at a short distance from the Paithan gate there is a curious group of about fifty Armenian tombs.
A temple dedicated to Khadkeshwar in Chalukyan style is supposed to be the oldest temple in the city. The temple dedicated to Karanpura Devi (Bhavani) and other minor Hindu temples are in the cantonment area of the Aurangabad city. What strikes one immediately from the map is that there are many Hindu temples around the Aurangabad city, which are located along the roads, along the streams, on the hilltop and at the foot of the hills. There are two clusters of temples, one along the Jalgaon road, between Delhi gate and Harsul, and the other along the Jalna road, east of the Baijipura. One temple stands on the Sambhaji hill and many other shrines are scattered at the foot of the same hill in the north-west of the city. Some Hindu shrines are also found along the bank of tributary stream of Kham river west of Aurangabad city.
There are three groups of Buddhist caves in the precipitous scarp of the hill to the north of city scattered over a distance of two kilometres.
The city contains two Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant, church in the cantonment area. -89-
d) NAGPUR;
The location of religious structures in this late mediaeval city is related to historical and physical factors. The large number of Hindu temples occur in the portion of the city to the east of main railway line i.e. in old city area (Refer Fig. No.
4.14). A large number of them occurs in Shukarwari, Nimak Ganj,
Itwarl and Hansapuri areas. They occur close to Raja's palace, near a lake and on the bank of Nag river. Hindu temples are also found on the top of low water divides in the southern sector of the city.
The Muslim mosques are mainly located close to the old Gond fort and Juma Talav. Some mosques are also found in Hansapuri area where a large number of Muslim population is concentrated.
The Christian churches are located in the old British residency area. e) BOMBAY:
Mumbadevi temple, originally located at the site of V.T., now shifted to Kalbadevi road is the most important temple of 20 the city . Other important temples dedicated to Valkeshwar and Babulnath are located on Malabar hill. Bhuleshwar and Madhobagh are places where the temples are modern in architecture and design. Another place of religious significance in the city is the temple of Mahalaxmi at the southern terminus of Hornby Vellard. ^/ FIG.4U -90-
Th ere are 465 temples in Bombay. Local small temples will be found in many old localities of the city (Refer Fig. 4.15).
DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS (1956)
Ward Temples Mosques Dargahas Churches
A 18 9 11 -
B 22 21 14 -
C 127 30 20 3
D 97 7 - 7
E 71 33 18 7 F 69 12 11 6
G 61 11 12 8
465 123 86 31
(Source : Dixit K.R. (1961), "The city of Bombay - A study in Urban Geography", Ph.D. Thesis, University of Poona, Pune-7)
Preceding table shows that scores of smaller mosques and dargahas numbering over 200 are scattered all over the city. B, C and E wards (Boribunder, Mandvi, Kharatalao^Kumbharwada, Market, Dhobitalab, Dongri and Mazagaon) of the corporation have greater concentration of mosques and dargahas. The Muslim population of these wards commands a fairly large percentage of the total population.
Besides temples and mosques, there are more than 3 0 main churches in Bombay where weekly prayers on Sunday are common. BOMBAY
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS
/ T T \
/ T T / TC / rrTT ( T W^ C C M N C T M M T \ / \ / M \ / C ^ I C ^^_^~^
) C M/ T JT T T M ( C TC CT M I T M T
T TL «>1 v/ \ CV' -TT) T = Temples \ C M f M = Mosques C = Churches / C / / / N. B.-- Dots represent mosques / c >/ in enclosed zone-land temples in zone-2. 1 0 1 2 3 KM AFTER DR. K.R. DIKSHIT , 1961 FIG. 4-15 -91- The largest number of churches is in ' G' ward which comprises of a sizeable Christian population. Byculla and Mazagaon have also each more than half a dozen churches appearing in the D and E wards. f) NASIK : The distribution of the religious institutions can be explained on following grounds at Nasik. The core area i.e. old Nasik, contains several old Hindu religious structures on the banks of the Godavari river (Refer Fig. No. 4.16). Here the landscape is dominated by the ghats on the river front, by the temples on the either sides and in the midstream by the 'Kunds' 21 of great sanctity in the Godavari bed . Another ancient nucleus of Hindu religious structures is found to the north of river at Panchvati. The residential extension (which is almost close to old Nasik) towards west is traditionally known as Navapura. It is the creation of the Maratha rule. The residential community is predominantly Hindu and therefore, the large number of Hindu temples are observed in this area. To the south of old Nasik and downstreams of the Godavari and a little detached from it lies the Kazipura area, where large number of Muslim religious institutions are found in the midst of predominantly Muslim locality. NASIK CITY N.B.-YEAR AND SCALE NOT AVAILABLE LEGEND T - TEMPLES • - SACRED POOLS (KUNDS) • - BATHING GHATS M - MOSQUES C - CHURCH SOURCE : KULKARNl K.M.,"URBAN STRUCTURE AND INTERACTION^' CONCEPT PUBLICATION, NEW- OELHI, 1981 FIG. 4-16 -92- Soon after the conquest, the British extended the urban area of Nasik towards the comparatively wider and healthier expanse in the west, and endowed it with the typical office buildings, residential structures and, of course, Anglican churches. 8) CEMETERY: The allocation of space needed for the Christian and Muslim institution of burial in a community ground distinguishes these religions from the Hindus and Buddhists, where the deads are cremated 22 . Cemetery, literally a sleeping place, is the name applied by the early Christians to the place set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally outside the walls and disconnected with churches. The practice of interment in churches or churchyards was unknown in the early centuries of the Christian era. The term cemetery has, therefore, been appropria tely applied in modern times to the burial grounds, generally extramural that have been substituted for the-over crowded 23 churchyards in populous parishes Hindu crematories are generally outside the village and along a river or a stream. Each Hindu caste has its seperate crematory for cremation. Mahars, the Hindu lower caste, have cemeteries close to their localities, mostly to the east of the village. They cremate, as well as, bury their deads. Though the Mahars embraced Buddhism in 1956 A.D., the burial grounds are at the same locations. -93- Muslim deads are buried in their community graveyards. Muslim and other community people pray to the grave of various martyr saints. It is believed that prayers at the grave of martyrs were very efficacious in averting ailment and misfortunes 9) RELIGIOUS IMPACT ON PLACE NAMES AND NAMES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS: Place names (toponyms) having religious associations usually record a particular historic opportunity for a religious system to fix itself in place and time; some toponyms, however, 25 may refer to a prior local sanctity . The study of such place names is chiefly concerned with places named after religious saints, Gods and important persons that are more common in Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. Sanctity occurs in place names, usually of hills (Mahadev, Trymbakeshwar, Mahabaleshwar, Bhimashankar, Maheshmal, Chatushshringi, Parvati etc.), saddles (Ganeshkhiad, Mangi Tungi etc.), hot springs (Unabdev, Sanabdev, Ganeshpuri, Wajreshwari etc.) and rivers (Krishna, Bhima, Chandrabhaga, Savitri, Vasisthi etc.), all commonly recognized as hierophanies i.e. manifestations of sacred, in Maharashtra. Certain plants and animals that constitute the local natural ecosystem are preserved, as well as, worshipped on religious grounds and many place names of villages, cities etc. are given after these trees and creatures, as well as, gods and goddesses. -94- Th e name 'Bombay' is derived from Mumbadevi, the patron goddess of the Koli (fishermen) folk, the oldest inhabitants of Bombay. Konkan region is known as "Parshuram Bhumi" (land of Parshurama). LIST OF PLACE NAMES Ghodeshwar, Nandigaon, Nandeshwar, Nag_athana, Nagtirthwadi, Undirkheda, Pushpanagar, Anjani, Amba# Umbargaon, Kanheri, Kamalapur, P_impalgaon/ Wadgaon, Ambikapur, Anjanadevi, Kanha, Krishnapur, Khadkeshwar, Ganeshpur, Ambaghat, Parli Vaijnath, Mahalaxmi, Wajreshwari, Ganpati Pule, Gopalpur, Gorakhpur, Govindpur/ Chandrapur, Changdev, Chandeshwar, Jagannathpur, Takali Kanhoba, TuljCapur, Thopteshwar, Dattapur, Durgapur, Narayanpur, Nilkanth, Parmeshwar Pimpri, Parshurampur, Pandav Umbra, Pandhari, Pimpalkhuta Mahadev, Pimpal Bhairav, Pimpla devi, Pralhadpur, Bhavani, Bhairav, Bhairaywadi, Machchindra Kheda, Malharpur, Mahadeypur, Mukundnagar, Kalha devi, Rama Kund, Rama Krishnapur, Ramtek, Rameshwar, Laxmidevi Peta, Laxmi Prasad, Walmikpur, Valhur, Viththalgaon, Vishvanath, Vishnupur, Shani, Shankarpur, Shambhu Sawargaon, Shiypuri, Saptshshringl, Savitri, Shiddheshwar, Sitapur, Sitaram Peth, Someshwar, Harigram, Harishchandra Kota, Hanuman Takli etc. NAMES OP EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 1) Siddharth College of Arts and Science, Anand Bhavan, Bombay. 2) St. Xavier's Institute of Education, Bombay. -95- 3) St. Teresa's Institute of Education, Bombay. 4) Dayanand Swami College of Law, Latur, Dist. Osmanabad. 5) Milind College of Science, Nagasenvana, Aurangabad. 6) Saint Dnyaneshwar Mahavidyalaya, Soegaon, Distt. Aurangabad. 7) Saint Janabai Education Society's Arts and Commerce College, Gangakhed, Distt. Parbhani. 8) Shree Saraswati Bhavan Education Society's College of Science, Aurangabad. 9) Tuljabhavani Mahavidyalaya, Tuljapur. 's 10) Shree Swami Vevekanand Shikshan SansthaACollege of Education, Osmanabad. 11 Shree Ramanand Teerth Mahavidyalaya, Ambejogai, Distt. Beed. 12 The Ramkrishna Paramhansa Mahavidyalaya, Osmanabad. 13 Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya, Ambejogai, Distt. Beed. 14 Guru Nanak College of Science, Ballarpur, Distt. Chandrapur. 15 Jagadamba Mahavidyalaya, Achalpur, Distt. Amravati. 16 Samarth Arts Mahavidyalaya and Lakhanili Kocholiya Commerce Mahavidyala, Washim, Distt. Akola. 17 Shree Pandharinath Arts and Commerce College, Narkhed. 18 Shree Saint Gadge Manaraj Mahavidyalaya, Murtizapur. 19 Shree Vyanktesh Arts and Commerce College, Deulgaon Raja. 20 Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Nagpur. 21 Visveswara Regional Engineering College, Nagpur. 22 Indrayani Mahavidyalaya, Talegaon Dhabhade, Distt. Pune. 23 Shree Dnyaneshwar Mahavidyalaya, Newasa, Distt. Ahmadnagar. 24 St. Vincent College, Pune. -96- 25) St. Mira's College for Girls, Pune. 26) Mahavir Kahavidyalaya, Kolhapur. 27) Sangameshwar College, Sholapur. 28) Shree Dutta Mahavidyalaya, Kurundwadi, Distt. Kolhapur etc. 10) RELIGIOUS PROHIBITIONS: Some religious prohibitions, i.e. food and work taboos, are observed by people on religious grounds. a) FOOD TABOOS: Religions have taboos on the cosumption of certain foods and animals. There is taboo on eating certain animals and birds in tribal communities. Thakers do not consume the flesh of birds such as Vulture, crow, bhoty and benetha. Similarly, wild animals such as Rohi and Neel are taboo, as they think that they form the category of cow which is their Laxmi or goddess of whealth. IKoli-Mahadeo do not consume birds like hola, crow, salunki etc. for reasons of unholiness . Before the festival like Nava, Dasara, Sakad Chaut (Bhadrapad vad 4) etc. tribals do not consume the new crop. Hindus do not prefer to use new vegetables i.e. onion and brinjal etc. before offering it to Khandoba in the month of Kartika. The Hindu religious vratas i.e. Vata Savitri, Ekadashi, Haritalika, Rashipanchami, Mahashivaratri etc. are observed as days of fasting by Hindu population. Some particular grains, green vegetables, fruits and tubers only are -97- used in cooiing meals, on these days. Onion and garlic are taboo during the period of four monsoon months from Ashadhi Ekadasi to Kartiki Ekadasi (i.e. Chaturmas). Buddhists observe fast on Ashtami and Pournima days. Muslims keep fast from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramzan. All luxuries and also such habits as smoking, chewing tabacco and snuffing are avoided during this month. Eighty two per cent of the state population (Hindu) do not prefer to take non-vegetarian food during the month of Shravana on religious ground. Entire population (except Muslim, whose share is only 8.40 per cent) abstain from beef. The Mohammedan population do not consume pork on religious ground. Brahmans were strictly vegetarian segment of the population till recently. However, due to westernization/modernization their food habits are changing and, as a result of it, they consume non-vegetarian food, as well. b) WORK TABOOS; Some religions prohibit work on certain occasions i.e. on the days of festivals. Hindu, the quasi-universalizing system, employed a sacred calendar which contained an array of feast days having a pronounced work taboo character. These are as follows : Naga Panchami, Pola, Ganesh Chaturthi, Diwali and so on. In tribal -98- societies certain days of festivals, viz. Sakar Chouth, Vaghdeo, Divaso, Bhavaicha san, Mothadev, Gao Bandhani etc. are observed as days of work taboo. The Seventh Day Advantist Christian population observes work taboo on Saturday, whereas, other Christians do not work on Sundays, generally. The orthodox Hindu population observes work taboo on the new moon and full moon days. They consider Saturday and Amavasya (new moonday) as inauspicious days and do not commence any new work on these days. Jain religion professes ahimsa i.e. taboo on killing animals, insects and even micro organisms. Since ploughing and other agricultural operations lead to killing of organisms, therefore, large segment of Jain population has adopted non- agricultural professions and trading, manufacturing etc. since long, on religious grounds. The various aspects of formal religious expression discussed in this section have been further elaborated in the following chapter. 99 REFERENCES 1. Sopher D.E. (1967), "Geography of Religions", Prentice Hall Inc., Eglewood cliffs, N.J., p. 24. 2. Ibid. p. 24. 3. Ibid. p. 107. 4. Gare G.M. and Aphale H.B. (1982) "The tribes of Maharashtra", Director of tribal Research and Training Institute, Pune. The author has drawn profusely on this source for this section. 5. Ibid. 6. Sopher, D.E. (1967) op. cit. p. 32. 7. Gare G.M. and Aphale M.B. (1982), op. cit. 8. Yakub Hasan (1925), "Temples, Churches and Mosques", G.A. Neteson and Co., Publisher, Madras, p. 33. 9. The "bhajana" is characterised by songs sung by an indivi dual or a group of devotees in praise of god or goddess, supported by musical instruments, in traditional ways. The "Kirtana" is characterised by religious discourse interspersed by complementary songs and narratives of mythological episodes. The main objective of this form is moral and religious education of the society. The "Pravachana" is a religiolis discourse, concerning human values and ideals. -100- Yakub Hasan.(1925), op. cit. p. 33. TV7691 Brown Percy (1975), "Indian Architecture (Islamic Period)" D.B. Taraporevala Sons and CO. Pvt. Ltd., 210 Dr. Dadabhai Naoroji Road, Bombay, p. 3. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica in 30 volumes, Micropaedia Volume II, Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, Chicago, London, p. 921. Wegner, Philip L. (1971) "Readings in Cultural Geography", The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, p. 99. Ibid. pp. 103-4. Ibid. pp. 105. Gare CM. and Aphale M.B. (1982) op. cit. Malshe P.T. (1974), "Kolhapur - A study in Urban Geography", Ph.D. Thesis Pub. by University of Poona, Pune-7, p. 127 Ahmadnagar District Gazetteer, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, 1977. TV 769 I Aurangabad District Gazetteer, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, 1977. Dixit K.R. (1961), "The City of Bombay - A study in Urban Geography", Thesis submitted for the Ph.D. Degree in Geography, Poona University, pp. 281-285. Kulkarni K.M. (1981), "Urban structure and Interaction : A study of Nasik City - Region", Concept Publication Company, New Delhi, pp. 24-3 0. -101- Sopher David E. (1967), op. cit. p. 32. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica in 30 volumes, Vol. II. Op. cit. p. 676. Nazai Khalia Ahmad (1961), "Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the thirteenth Century, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, p. 300. Sopher D.E. (1967), op. cit., p. 33. Gare G.M. and Aphale M.B. (1982) op. cit.