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Viktor E Frankl and Logotherapy

Viktor E Frankl and Logotherapy

CHAPTER 4: VIKTOR E. FRANKL AND

4.1. Introduction

The discussion of steps in the practice in the of living must begin with the question on the answer to which all practice depends: What is the goal of living? What is life’s for man? (Fromm, 1993, p. 1).

According to King and Nicol (1999), in contemporary society are now, “[m]ore than ever… experiencing a lack of meaning in their lives and an attendant of spiritual desolation” (p. 234). Accordingly, Frankl (see 1978, 1984, 2000) repeatedly argued that modern society is plagued by a new – one that, instead of affecting the , damages the human . As was indicated in Chapter 1, the primary objective of this chapter is to provide a discussion of ’s approach to overcoming this ‘spiritual desolation’ by means of logotherapy. To this end, four secondary objectives are to be achieved here.

1) A biographical overview of Viktor Frankl is to be provided, so as to impart insight into some of the contextual factors surrounding the development of logotherapy. 2) Logotherapy is to be conceptualised, where after its principles and foundations are to be discussed. Here, particular reference will be made to the three triads that form the basis of logotherapy (see Figure 4.1). 3) In addition, Frankl’s hypothesised consequences when such meaning is not found – that is, existential frustration, the existential vacuum, and noögenic neurosis – are to be discussed. 4) An overview is to be provided of some of the contexts in which logotherapy is applied, as well as of a number of logotherapeutic techniques.

As is apparent from the previous paragraph, the purpose of this chapter is purely to facilitate a clear understanding of the theoretical basis of logotherapy, as well as of its practical applications. Such an understanding is imperative for the purposes of Chapter 5, where a comprehensive explanation is provided regarding the potential applicability of logotherapy as an OD intervention. For this reason, then, no attempts will be made in the current chapter to either identify and elaborate on any possible connections between logotherapy and OD, or to discuss the potential implications of Frankl’s theory for OD theory and practice. As was previously mentioned, such discussions are found in Chapter 5.

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4.2. Frankl: Biographical notes

Viktor Emil Frankl was born on 26 March 1905 – the day on which Beethoven died – in to middle-class Jewish parents, Gabriel Frankl and Elsa Lion (Havenga Coetzer, 1997; Hoffman, 1995; Frankl, 2000b). The Frankls lived diagonally across the street from where , a former student and associate of and the Father of Psychology (or Adlerian ), resided for a while (Frankl, 2000b). At the age of three Frankl decided that he wanted to become a medical doctor, but he became drawn to in his teens. His eventual decision to pursue then allowed him to combine both these interests (Havenga Coetzer, 1997).

Being in Vienna, Frankl was soon exposed to psychoanalysis, and began corresponding with Freud while still in secondary school. At the age of 19 he published a paper in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis upon personal invitation of Freud himself (Frankl, 1978). However, Frankl (1984) became disenchanted with Freud’s attempts to reduce human behaviour to frustrated or hidden sexual impulses and was attracted to the of Alfred Adler (Hoffman, 1995). Subsequently, his second academic paper was published in 1925 in the International Journal of Individual Psychology (Frankl, 2000b). This not withstanding, his relationship with Adler deteriorated in 1927, after Frankl publicly announced that Individual Psychology should, amongst other things, overcome its ‘psychologism’. Not only was he expelled from the Society of Individual Psychology, but Adler never spoke to him again. In this way, Frankl suffered a similar fate as Adler had just a few years before, when he was expelled from Freud’s society (Frankl, 2000b).

Following his expulsion, Frankl’s focus shifted from theory to practice. He subsequently became involved in a number of endeavours, including youth counselling. By 1929 many of his ideas had taken form, and within a few years Frankl developed his own movement – logotherapy. This aptly became known as the ‘Third Viennese School of ’ (after Freud and Adler’s movements) (Fabry, 1997, Wong, 2000a). The birth of logotherapy was largely influenced by Frankl’s that the large-scale (psychological) depression during the 1930s was related to the high incidence of unemployment (Hoffman, 1995). In 1933 he termed this depression ‘unemployment neurosis’, claiming that it is caused by the that being unemployed translates into being useless, and, “hence … life being meaningless” (Frankl, 1978, pp. 25-26).

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In March 1938, invaded . Although he received an American immigrant visa in 1942, Frankl decided not to go to the US as he feared for the safety of his elderly parents (Frankl, 1984; Havenga Coetzer, 1997). Soon after, they were captured by the Nazis and Frankl spent the next three years in four camps – Auschwitz, Theresienstadt, Kaufering III, and Türkheim – as Jewish prisoner number 119 104 (Frankl, 2000b). His father, mother, brother and first wife died in such camps (Allport, in Frankl, 1984).

Frankl’s experiences in these camps had a major influence on his view of human nature (Das, 1998; Southwick, Gilmartin, McDonough & Morrissey, 2006). Although many of his ideas were formulated before his capture – he entered Auschwitz with a complete manuscript hidden in his overcoat, but this was confiscated by the Nazis – the cruel and dehumanising conditions of these camps provided him with the opportunity to test many of his theories, and eventually, with “the ultimate validation for logotherapy” (Hoffman, 1995, p. 19). It was here where he realised the utmost importance of meaning in people’s lives, as he found that having “something to live for was what enabled prisoners to hold on to the in circumstances that made death seem like a solution” (Shantall, 1989, p. 424). For Frankl (1984), this ‘something to live for’ was the re-creation of the confiscated manuscript; a manuscript which later became his The Doctor and the (1986). The Nazi death camps became like Frankl’s , and his main tenet – the potential meaningfulness of life under all circumstances – was “tested and reaffirmed in the of the gas chambers” (Havenga Coetzer, 1997, p. 13).

Upon liberation Frankl returned to Vienna, and was appointed as the head of the neurology department at the Vienna Polyclinic in 1946 (Havenga Coetzer, 1997). He reported his experiences in the Nazi camps in his From Death Camp to , which later became Man’s Search for Meaning (Washburn, 1998). This book is Frankl’s best-known work – it has sold more than nine million copies in 23 languages since its original publication, has run through 80 editions, and has been indicated as one of the ten most influential books in America by a Library of Congress survey (Havenga Coetzer, 1997; Washburn, 1998). In addition, Frankl published a vast number of other writings, which include more than 30 books, some of which were translated into more than 20 languages, amongst which are Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Afrikaans.

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Up to 26 logotherapy institutes and societies have been established worldwide, including in Berkeley, California; San Diego and Vienna. In SA, the Viktor Frankl Foundation was established in 1986 (Shantall, 1989), and The Viktor Frankl Foundation of South Africa Journal has been in existence for approximately 15 years. The membership roll of this foundation includes, among others, Raymond Ackerman, Chairman and founder of Pick ‘n Pay Stores, Ltd, who has been a member “almost since the VFF’s ” (Havenga Coetzer, in Ackerman, 2001, p. 67). By 2000, Frankl and logotherapy had been the subjects of approximately 145 books, 154 dissertations and more than 1 400 scientific articles (Frankl, 2000b). Many of these articles appear in the International Forum for Logotherapy. In this regard, research indicates that from 1991 to 2001, the articles published in this journal included, amongst others, 63 related to research; 43 on application; 34 on methods, techniques and experimental data; 19 related to educational implications; 26 on clinical cases and personal histories; 14 on relationships to other therapies, and 11 on the relationship of logotherapy to other cultural fields. The authors of these articles include professionals from the US, Canada, Europe and Africa (Giovinco, 2001).

Some of the honours that were bestowed upon Frankl include: 29 honorary doctoral degrees from universities around the globe, including SA; the West German Grand Medal of Honour with Star, and the American Psychiatric ’s Oscar Pfizer Award. Although he travelled extensively, Frankl lived in Vienna with his second wife Eleonore from 1947 until he passed away on September 2, 1997 at the age of 92 (Greening, 1998; Havenga Coetzer, 1997).

4.3. Conceptualising logotherapy

Logotherapy is often categorised as a distinct branch of humanistic or existential psychology (see, for example, Gerdes, 1988; Louw & Edwards, 1993; Wong, 2000a). However, Frankl (1978) had directed a number of criticisms against both humanistic and existential psychology, “or at least what is called existentialism… [and] so-called humanism” (p. 11; emphasis in original). This suggests that Frankl did not approve of restricting logotherapy to such labels. Rather, he believed it should be treated as an autonomous school of psychology – ‘the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy’ (see Frankl, 1984; Southwick et al., 2006).

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The term ‘logotherapy’ is based on the Greek word ‘’, denoting meaning (Frankl, 1984). A literal translation of logotherapy, Frankl (1978) contended, would be ‘therapy through meaning’. This greatly contradicts more traditional conceptualisations of psychotherapy, where the individual would be provided with meaning through therapy. In explaining the assumptions behind logotherapy, Frankl was fond of referring to an aphorism by the existential : “He who has a why to live can bear with almost any how” (Allport, in Frankl, 1984, p. 12; emphasis in original). In other words, people “are prepared to endure hardship and to make sacrifices for the sake of a cause they have made their own” (Shantall, 1997, p. 58). This demonstrates earlier contentions that finding meaning (the ‘why’) in life will improve the individual’s quality of life, irrespective of the circumstances.

Affirmation of the above contentions is found in the beliefs of two leading figures in the , namely Hans Selye and . Selye, who is universally regarded as the founder of modern stress research (Rice, 1998) stated: “It’s not what happens that counts; it is how you take it” 1 (in Justice, 1999, p. 30). In other words, the meaning one attaches to circumstances, rather than the circumstances themselves, determines their impact. Antonovsky (1979), who was shown in Chapter 1 to have been an important role-player in the emergence of , echoed Selye’s viewpoint by stating:

If anything has been learned from the study of stressful life events, is that what is important for their consequences is the subjective perception of the meaning of the event rather than its objective character (p. 93).

William James, who is regarded as the father of American Functionalism and a pioneer in the field of (Brennan, 1998; Hergenhahn, 1997), believed that “the faith that life is worth living… generates the action that then makes life worth living” (Weick, 2001, p. 348). Thus, James was of the opinion that one’s life is made meaningful by an or – a view that is also central to logotherapy. This may become evident on discussing the principles and foundations underlying this Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy.

1 When considering this statement in the context of organisational change, it is apparent that logotherapy may also make a contribution to how individuals deal with the stress associated with such changes. Stress in the context of organisational change is discussed in Section 2.5.1.

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4.4. Logotherapy: principles and foundations

Frankl’s view of human beings is classified as a Schichthentheorie, or a layer theory. This view postulates that “reality is made up of various layers or levels of existence”, and although these layers may influence each other, they cannot be reduced to each other. This, then, constitutes the direct opposite of reductionist theories, which hold “that ‘higher’ phenomena can be explained on the basis of the which apply on ‘lower’ levels” (Meyer, 1997, pp. 39-40). Frankl distinguished between three ‘layers’ that define human beings, namely the physical, psychological and spiritual dimensions (Hutchinson & Chapman, 2005). Because the human physical dimension (one’s biochemical or organic composition) is very similar to, and the psychological dimension (needs, drives, , ) “differ[s] little from those of animals”, it is the spiritual dimension that makes the human being unique (Shantall, 1989, p. 426) and allows for “unique human experiences such as joy, guilt, and creative potential” (Hutchinson & Chapman, 2005, p. 146). Frankl made it clear that the term ‘spirit’ has no religious connotations – he used it purely to describe that “which is the essence of our humanness” (Fabry, 1997, p. 52). Logotherapy is then focused on this uniquely human dimension.

Logotherapy is based on three triads (Frankl, 1967, 1988), as is graphically represented in Figure 4.1 below. The first consists of the freedom of will, the will to meaning, and the . The latter – the meaning of life – encapsulates the second triad, which consists of creative, experiential and attitudinal values. Finally, attitudinal values are related to the third triad: meaningful attitudes towards the ‘’ – , guilt and transitoriness. Each of these triads is subsequently discussed.

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Freedom of will

Experiential values

Transitoriness Will to Meaning Found of existence meaning of life Through

Creative Attitudinal To overcome Tragic values values triad

Guilt Suffering

Threatened by

Figure 4.1. The three triads underlying logotherapy

4.4.1. The first triad

4.4.1.1. Freedom of will The concept of freedom of will is opposed to principles of , which hold that one’s being is determined by circumstances (Frankl, 1978, 1988). Although Frankl (1967) admitted to the limiting influence that certain conditions such as environmental and ethical constraints might have on the individual, he was not content with the idea that the individual “is merely a highly developed animal shaped by the forces of heredity and environment” (Shantall, 1989, p. 423). Similarly, Heidegger believed that although one has no choice regarding some of the circumstances that surround one (e.g. genetic, social and ethnic factors), these only determine the context in which one one’s freedom and defines one’s own existence (Hergenhahn, 1997). Frankl (1978) expressed his beliefs in this regard as follows:

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… as a professor in two fields, neurology and psychiatry, I am fully aware of the extent to which man is subject to biological, psychological and sociological conditions. But in addition to being a professor in two fields I am a survivor of four camps – concentration camps, that is, and as such I also bear witness to the unexpected extent to which man is capable of defying and braving the worst of conditions conceivable (p. 52).

He further asserted his position by stating that although at least most people admit to continually making decisions that shape future events, even if that choice is to not make a decision:

… only two classes of people maintain that their will is not free: schizophrenic patients suffering from the delusion that their will is manipulated and their controlled by others, and alongside of them, deterministic (Frankl, in Shantall, 1989, p. 428).

Thus, like Heidegger, Frankl believed that the individual has freedom of will despite his or her circumstances. The ultimate freedom of will, then, is the freedom to choose one’s attitude towards circumstances (see discussion on attitudinal values, Section 4.4.2). Such freedom is made possible by the human capacity for -distancing or –detachment (Wong, 2000a), which involves the ability to “step away from ourselves, look at ourselves from the outside, oppose, and even laugh at ourselves” (Fabry, 1987, p. 137). Frankl (1988) explained that by detaching from oneself, one is capable of choosing one’s attitude towards oneself. This attitude then also constitutes the stand one takes towards negative conditions.

An important aspect concerning freedom of will is that “with freedom comes responsibility” (Wong, 2000a, p. 3). This belief is also a central tenet of existential philosophy (Hergenhahn, 1997). For example, Yalom (1980) postulated that freedom is an inescapable human condition – “we are free to be anything but unfree” (p. 8) – one that comes with great responsibility. Similarly, Sartre (1965) argued that “man is condemned to be free. Condemned, because he did not create himself, yet, in other respects [he] is free; because, once thrown into , he is responsible for everything he does” (pp. 40-41). In this regard, Frankl made an important distinction by separating responsibility from responsibleness. According to Fabry (1987), Frankl conceptualised responsibility as being imposed upon the individual by external institutions such as the family, churches, schools,

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guilds and other traditional authorities. In contrast, responsibleness is chosen by the individual – it involves his or her freedom to make decisions in attempting to fulfil the demands of specific situations (Wong, 2000a).

Frankl emphasised that a balance between freedom, responsibility and responsibleness is of critical importance, as “[r]esponsibility without freedom is tyranny” (Fabry, 1987, p. 121), and freedom “threatens to degenerate into arbitrariness unless it is balanced by responsibleness” (Frankl, 1978, p. 104). Such arbitrariness is believed to result in boredom, emptiness, and neurosis (see ‘existential frustration’, Section 4.4.4) (Fabry, 1987), which indicates that responsibleness is central to finding meaning in life. Frankl (1978) stressed the importance of this balance by recommending that “the statue of liberty on the East Coast be supplemented by a Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast” (p. 67).

4.4.1.2. The will to meaning As was indicated earlier, the will to meaning is seen as the individual’s primary motivation in life. Frankl (1978, p. 31) contended that “man is always reaching out for meaning, always setting out on his search for meaning”. Weber (2000) communicated a similar notion by stating that:

We humans are purpose seekers, more defined by our ability to pursue purpose in diverse ways than by almost any other human trait… Being purposive is our natural state, made evident by the unusual circumstances of being without purpose… Purpose acts as motor, fuel, and steering for the human vehicle (p. 221-222).

As substantiation, Frankl (1978, 1984) cited empirical studies where the majority of respondents indicated ‘finding a purpose and meaning in life’ as their primary goals. Furthermore, this concept of a will to meaning has been empirically corroborated and validated by a number of authors. These include Crumbaugh and Maholick, the authors of the Purpose-in-Life (PIL) test, as well as , who devised the Logo test (Frankl, 1967, 1978; Moomal, 1999).

Frankl’s postulation of the will to meaning as one’s primary motivation differs substantially from a number of classic theories of motivation, including those of Freud, Adler, and Maslow. Freud’s principle, or the ‘will to pleasure’ (Frankl, 1984) postulates that

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human behaviour is motivated by the need to gratify certain urges or fulfil certain drives, most notably those of sex and aggression (Weiten, 1992). Adler’s ‘striving for superiority’ (or ‘’, Frankl, 2000a), in turn, contends that a need to overcome feelings of inferiority developed in childhood, motivates people (Westen, 1996). Maslow proposed that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, consisting of two groups of lower-order needs (physiological and safety needs) and three groups of higher-order needs (social, ego and self- actualisation needs). As each lower order need is reasonably fulfilled, the individual is motivated by the next need in the hierarchy (Maslow, 1954; 1969; Newstrom & Davis, 1997; Weiten, 1992; Westen, 1996).

Frankl believed that subjective conditions (such as pleasure or self-actualisation) are unattainable if pursued directly. The reason for this is that direct pursuit results in these conditions becoming an object of attention, after which one loses the original reason for the pursuit. Subsequently, the state will not be reached. This phenomenon is called ‘hyperintention’ (Frankl, 1988). Rather than directly trying to attain these states, then, they must ensue as a side effect of reaching specific goals or finding meaning in a specific situation (Fabry, 1987; Frankl, 1988). Frankl (1992) further explained the importance of finding meaning before self-actualisation can be reached:

The question of self-actualisation cannot be separated from the question of meaning. Socrates knew this 2 500 years ago. Imagine if Socrates, instead of being a teacher, would have become a criminal – this, too, would have been self-actualization, realization of potential. You have to make choices. Making choices is a question of values, and that is a decision of conscience, whether you want to actualize this or that of your potentials, your decision for the what-for. And that makes sense only if your decision is in the direction of a meaning – there was more meaning in Socrates becoming Socrates than a criminal (p. 68).

Similarly, Adler’s conception of power is not an end in itself, but a means to accomplish something meaningful (Fabry, 1988). Figure 4.2 below serves to illustrate these contentions by indicating the relationship among these interrelated variables.

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Reason to Happiness End = Pleasure/self- be happy ensue meaning actualisation = effect

pursue

Will to meaning Means = power Pursuit of happiness

Figure 4.2. The will to meaning versus other theories of motivation (adapted from Frankl, 1988, pp. 34, 36)

The above contentions were partially verified by research conducted by Wong (1998). This researcher found in a survey regarding the characteristics of an ‘ideally meaningful life’ that ‘hedonic pursuit’, that is, fulfilling all one’s desires, is not considered as being critical to attaining such a mode of living. Furthermore, Maslow himself2 (cited in Frankl, 2000a, p. 86) provided support to Frankl’s theory by stating that the will to meaning is more than “an irreducible need”, and that it (and thus not self-actualisation) is “man’s primary concern”.

Wong (2000a) stated that the will to meaning is made possible by the unique human capacity of self-transcendence – “the height of human potential” (Southwick, 2006, p. 162). This involves the ability to transcend one’s immediate circumstances, or “to reach beyond yourself, towards other people to and towards causes to make your own” (Fabry, 1988, p. 6). Reed (in Kausch & Amer, 2007, p. 46) similarly described self-transcendence as “the experience of expanding to obtain an enhanced sense of life meaning or well-being”. This is another key concept in logotherapy, as is apparent from Frankl’s (2000a) contention that “human existence – at least as long as it has not been neurotically distorted – is always directed to something, or someone, other than itself” (p. 84). He further cited to support this proposition: “What one is, [one] has become through that cause that he has made his own” (in Frankl, 2000a, p. 84).

2 Maslow, A.H. (1969). Comments on Dr. Frankl’s paper. In A.J. Sutich & M.A. Vich (Eds). Readings in . New York: The Free Press.

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Handy (1998) further provided support for Frankl’s argument by stating that “the great and most satisfying thing in life, I think, is a sense of purpose beyond oneself. If the purpose is only for yourself, it rapidly dissipates” (p. 32). Similarly, Fromm (1993) contended that one condition for attaining well-being3 is to “loosen the bars of [one’s] prison of narcissism4 and selfishness” (p. 120). Its role in psychological well-being has also been established – for example, Kausch and Amer (2007) maintained that the construct correlates positively with measures of quality of life and also found a negative correlation between self-transcendence and depression. Self-transcendence then enables one to reflect on the self and the world, which allows for a decision regarding whether one will succumb to or defy the limitations imposed by one’s physical and psychological nature (Shantall, 1989). This construct plays a crucial role in both the freedom of will and the will to meaning, and therefore also in finding meaning and the resulting happiness and self-actualisation.

A concept related to the will to meaning, and which further distinguishes Frankl’s theory from a of theories, is that of ‘noö-dynamics’. This is defined as “that kind of appropriate tension that holds [one] steadily orientated towards concrete values to be actualized, towards the meaning of [one’s] personal existence to be fulfilled” (Frankl, 1967, p. 68). Frankl (1984) regarded mental as dependent on a certain degree of tension – a tension between what one has already accomplished and what is still to be achieved, or the “gap between what one is and what one should become” (p. 127).

The concept of noö-dynamics reflects the pre-Socratic philosopher ’s belief that nothing can ever ‘be’, but that everything is constantly becoming (Allen, 1966; Smith, 1956; Stace, 1920), as well as Heidegger’s postulation that ‘to be’ involves existing, and existing involves constant and dynamic change (Hergenhahn, 1997). As may be evident, this theory largely contradicts the homeostasis principle – as preached by theorists such as Freud – which regards human behaviour as directed towards achieving equilibrium by discharging tension through satisfying needs, drives and (Frankl, 1967). Frankl (1984) regarded such a tensionless state as being detrimental to one’s , as a purpose to strive for will fulfil the meaning of one’s life (Das, 1998). This principle was affirmed by modern stress research, which indicates that individuals function optimally under moderate levels of

3 Fromm’s concept of well-being is represented by his ‘being’ mode of existence, as opposed to the pathological ‘having’ mode (see Section 4.4.4). A detailed account of these states can be found in Fromm (1976). 4 Fromm (1993) defined narcissism as “an orientation in which all one’s interest and passion are directed to one’s own person” (p. 117). This clearly represents an antithesis to the concept of self-transcendence.

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stress, known as eustress. In contrast, distress, which denotes both the absence of stress and the presence of excessive stress, has been shown to be harmful to the individual (Greenhaus et al., 2000). In this regard, Frankl (1992) argued:

Certain kinds of stress are not unhealthy, people even need stress – the tension between what they are and what they could be, between their actuality and their potential. This stress, correctly dosed, is psychologically healthy (p. 67).

Further support for the above contentions is found in the writings of Maslach, one of the primary researchers on burnout. Maslach and Leiter (1997) defined burnout (see Section 2.5.1.3 for a discussion of this concept) as “the index of the dislocation between what people are and what they have to do. It represents an erosion of values, dignity, spirit and will – an erosion of the human soul” (p. 17). This clearly not only reflects a number of concepts central to logotherapy (as well as existentialism and humanistic psychology), but also indicates the importance of appropriately dealing with the tensions inherent in noö-dynamics to prevent distress, which, upon consideration of the central arguments in this chapter, may be argued to constitute the poles of apathy/boredom and burnout on the same dimension.

4.4.1.3. The meaning of life As is apparent from the preceding discussions, the meaning of life is integrally related to the freedom of will and the accompanying responsibleness, as well as to the will to meaning. Frankl’s conception of meaning in life is subsequently addressed.

Frankl differentiated between specific and ultimate meaning, as well as between meaning and values. Ultimate, super, or supra meaning refers to an awareness that one is part of some form of order in the universe (Fabry, 1988), as is illustrated by religion or faith (Frankl, 2000a). Frankl (1988) stated that life’s ultimate meaning is incomprehensible – “we do not catch hold of it on intellectual grounds but on existential grounds, out of our whole being, i.e., through faith” (p. 145). Ultimate meaning cannot be found – it is something one constantly searches for. Nevertheless, one finds meaning in believing one is a “part of the web of life”, rather than believing that “life is chaotic and [that one is] a victim of its whims” (Fabry, 1988, p. 2).

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In contrast to ultimate meaning, specific meaning is experienced in particular moments or situations (Wong, 2000a). Frankl (1984) contended that this meaning varies from individual to individual, and situation to situation. Of great significance here is that such meaning can be simple – it does not have to be “grand and serious” (Weber, 2000, p. 231). According to Fabry (1988), one’s responsiveness to specific meaning may be increased by an awareness of ultimate meaning. Because ultimate meaning is hidden, logotherapy should be restricted to specific meaning, unless the client is overtly religious (Frankl, 1984). Nevertheless, Fabry (1988) points out that if one is aware of an ultimate meaning, this will make one more responsive to the meaning inherent in specific moments.

Finally, Frankl saw values as ‘meaning universals’ (Fabry, 1987). He believed that despite every individual’s search for meaning being highly personal and unique, situations do exist that are sufficiently similar to evoke similar responses from different individuals. Thus, values involve people finding certain universal meanings in certain situations. According to Ros, Schwartz and Surkiss (1999), examples of such values include power (or prestige), personal achievement, self-direction (or autonomy) and benevolence (enhancing the welfare of others) (see also Chapter 5, where these values are discussed in more detail).

The meaning of life, as Frankl depicts it, cannot be created. As was shown in Figure 4.1 Frankl conceptualised meaning in life as being found through three main routes – the second triad underlying logotherapy.

4.4.2. The second triad Frankl (see 1978, 1984, 1986) contended that meaning in life is primarily found by fulfilling three distinct categories of values. Firstly, meaning can be found by realising creative values (Frankl, 1967). This refers to making a creative contribution to life, such as when one expresses oneself in one’s work (Shantall, 1989). Support for this assumption is found in Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) belief that “is a central source of meaning in our lives” (p. 1), particularly as most things that define humanity result from creativity, and creative pursuits make people’s lives feel more complete (see also Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Similarly, Fromm believed that one way in which people transcend their natural existence is through creating (Viljoen, 1989), whereas Heidegger (in Gini & Sullivan, 1993) proclaimed that “you are your projects … a person that cannot point to achievements does not and cannot feel like a full person” (p. 137).

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In addition to creative values, meaning is also found by realising experiential values. This refers to one’s direct experiences of beauty and love, as well as any other things that are good, true and authentic (Das, 1998; Shantall, 1989; Wong, 2000a). Experiential values may also include relational factors such as developing and maintaining strong friendships and feeling part of a community5. This is of particular significance if one considers Fromm’s belief that despite one’s need for individuality, commitment to others and to society is essential to avoid loneliness and isolation (Viljoen, 1989).

Finally, one can find meaning by realising attitudinal values, i.e. the attitude one takes in facing a fate one cannot change (Frankl, 1986; Greenstein & Breitbart, 2000). Frankl (1967, p. 15) summarises these contentions as follows:

Life can be made meaningful in a threefold way: first, through what we give to life (in terms of our creative works); second, by what we take from the world (in terms of our experiencing values); and third, through the stand we take towards a fate we no longer can change (an incurable disease, an inoperable cancer, or the like).

Attitudinal values are of particular importance in situations where one cannot change an undesirable outcome. These situations are often caused by the final triad underlying logotherapy – known as the ‘tragic triad’.

4.4.3. The third triad – the tragic triad The tragic triad consists of suffering, guilt and the transitoriness of human existence (Frankl, 1984, 1988, 2000a) (see Figure 4.1). In the absence of the realisation of attitudinal values, these aspects of human existence may make a significant contribution to the experience of meaninglessness.

A survey of Frankl’s (1967, 1978, 1984, 1988, 2000a, 2000b) work suggests that suffering includes both physical and psychological distress. Although suffering may deprive one of much, it can never take away one’s freedom to choose one’s attitude towards such suffering. Because of this, suffering is viewed as an essential source of meaning: “To live is to suffer, to find meaning in life is to find meaning in suffering. If there is a purpose in life at all, there must be a purpose in suffering” (Frankl, in Shantall, 1989, p. 431). As soon as one finds

5 This point again illustrates the importance of social support networks in one’s life – see also Sections 2.5 and 5.2.4.

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meaning in suffering, then it ceases to be unbearable. An important distinction here, however, is that the suffering endured must be unavoidable – Frankl (1984) made it clear that enduring avoidable suffering is masochistic and holds no meaning.

Guilt, in turn, refers to the awareness of one’s fallibility (Frankl, 1984; Wong, 2000a). This is reminiscent of the concept of existential guilt, postulated by existential philosophers as arising when one denies the fulfilment of one’s potential (Rice, 1960) or fails to express personal freedom in decisions (Owen, 1994). Heidegger, for example, stated that guilt emerges when one fails to live an authentic life, that is, when one is unable to accept the finitude of life (Brennan, 1998; Hergenhahn, 1997). Such awareness of the transitoriness of human existence is the final element of the tragic triad (Frankl, 1988). Yalom (1980) proposed that death brings terror to the individual, as human beings are frightened of the notion of ‘non-being’. Similar to Heidegger, Frankl proposed that one must make peace with the inevitability of death, as this provides life with, rather than deprives life of, meaning. Only through the pressure brought about by one’s finite nature are the meanings inherent in situations fulfilled – if one was to be immortal, one would be “justified in postponing everything … postponing it in infinitum” (Frankl, 1990, p. 7). Thus, by finding meaning in the transitoriness of one’s existence, one also deals with one’s existential guilt, which helps one lead what Heidegger called ‘an authentic existence’. Frankl (2000b) explained this notion as follows:

What troubled me then – as it has throughout the most of my life – was not the of dying, but the question of whether the transitory nature of life might destroy its meaning. Eventually my struggle brought me the following answer: In some respects it is death itself that makes life meaningful. Most importantly, the transitoriness of life cannot destroy its meaning because nothing from the past is irretrievably lost. Everything is irrevocably stored. It is in the past that things are rescued and preserved from transitoriness. Whatever we have done, or created, whatever we have learned and experienced – all of this we have delivered into the past. There is no one, and nothing, that can undo it (p. 29).

It is therefore apparent that meaning is central to one’s existence; it is found through one’s freedom and responsibility/responsibleness, and is motivated by the will to meaning. However, often the will to meaning is frustrated, resulting in people being unable to find

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meaning in their lives. Frankl (1984, 1988) called this condition ‘existential frustration’. This concept is further addressed in the subsequent paragraphs.

4.4.4. Existential frustration, the existential vacuum and noögenic neurosis In logotherapy, the term ‘existential’ may be used to refer to three things, namely:

(1) existence itself, i.e., the specifically human mode of being; (2) the meaning of existence; and (3) the striving to find a concrete meaning in personal existence, that is to say, the will to meaning (Frankl, 1984, p. 123; emphasis in original).

With existential frustration, then, Frankl refers not only to the frustration of the will to meaning, but also of one’s existence or the meaning of one’s existence. According to Wong (2000a, p. 4), such frustration “is a universal human experience, because the will to meaning can be blocked by external circumstances and internal hindrances”.

Existential frustration may be attributed to a number of factors. Firstly, adaptation has resulted in people losing the instincts and drives that once directed their behaviour (Frankl, 1988). “Instinctual security is closed to us forever … we must find the direction of our lives by trying to find, from moment to moment, the meaning of our existence”. This was accomplished by relying on values “handed down” by tradition, “through human institutions such as family, church, school, and state” (Fabry, 1987, p. 94). However, changes in Western values have been evident over the past 50 years (Higgs, 2005). According to Frankl (1984), this has resulted in traditional values that used to guide one’s behaviour expeditiously declining, largely due to advances in science. Fabry (1987) emphasised that “the breakdown is spreading so fast that it has opened the greatest value gap between generations in history. Many traditional cornerstones are crumbling” (p. 96).

This crumbling of traditional values reflects what French sociologist Emile Durkheim called anomie, meaning ‘normlessness’ (see also Chapter 5) (Haralambos & Holborn, 1995). Durkheim held that anomie results when social controls and moral obligations fail to regulate the behaviour of individuals, resulting in individuals guiding their own behaviour rather than abiding by shared norms. This “break-down of normative control” then not only threatens social unity by eroding “a sense of duty and responsibility towards others”, but also manifests in phenomena such as “high rates, marital break-up and industrial conflict”

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(Haralambos & Holborn, 1995, p. 185). Although Durkheim observed these symptoms in the late 19th century, they are also evident in contemporary society. For example, Frankl (2000a) cites research indicating that suicide went from being the twenty-second highest leading cause of death among Americans, to the tenth in a relatively short time. This ranking is higher among younger people, with suicide being the third highest cause of death among teenagers aged 15-19, and the second highest among college students.

Finally, existential frustration is aggravated by the multiplicity and variety of value orientations in contemporary societies, as this makes commitment to any particular of values troublesome (Das, 1998). This is particularly problematic when people are caught between conflicting values, such as “the virtue of virginity versus the approval of one’s peers; the value of making a career as an employee versus the value of independence”, or “the value of a well-paying, though meaningless, job versus the value of following one’s calling to become an artist” (Fabry, 1987, p. 32). In sum, then, existential frustration is largely caused and maintained because there are no instincts to tell one what to do and no traditions or values to tell one what one ought to do (Frankl, 1984). Fabry (1997) expressed these assumptions in an imaginary dialogue between Frankl and Freud. Here, Frankl is explaining to Freud why meaninglessness, and not suppressed sexuality, is the dominant contemporary human dilemma:

…when you lived in Vienna, meaning was no problem. People lived in a closed society, everybody had his place, meaning was given from above. Father knew best, and all those father figures – teachers, preachers, kings – knew best, too. They had rules, commandments and laws to tell people what was meaningful. No problem there. The problem was sex. It was repressed and caused neuroses. Today … sex is not repressed. Meaning is repressed. Or ignored. Or doubted. We live in an open society, an affluent society. We seek , riches, power, prestige. Nobody tells us what meaning is. We have many choices and have to find the meaningful choices ourselves (pp. 53-54).

As is seen in this quote, the loss of instincts and values forces the individual to make his or her own decisions. According to existential theorists, as well as Fromm (1941, 1993), this freedom results in great anxiety, as each individual is responsible for the outcome of such decisions (Hergenhahn, 1997). Frankl (1984) contended that often people do not know what they wish to do, and as a result, they attempt to attain a guide for their behaviour so as to

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escape this tension and meaninglessness. These individuals may then fall prey to conformism (doing what others do) or totalitarianism (doing as told) (Frankl, 1969, 1984).

In addition to these issues, Frankl identified a number of universal experiences which characterise human existence that may threaten meaning (Das, 1998). These experiences are suffering, guilt and the transitoriness of life – indicated earlier as constituting the tragic triad (see Section 4.4.3) (Frankl, 1967). These experiences touch the lives of every individual, causing them to question the meaning of a life that encompasses such agonising events (Das, 1998).

The result of this inability to find meaning – existential frustration – is what Frankl called the ‘existential vacuum’ (Wong, 2000a). This phenomenon is characterised by the will to pleasure or the will to power being dominant in the person’s life (Shantall, 1989), as in the case of single-minded pursuits of sensory pleasures. In other words, individuals try to compensate for their lack of meaning by surrendering to their will to power, as manifested in workaholism or an obsessive striving for money, or their will to pleasure, which is embodied in mostly sexual compulsion (Dollarhide, 1997). Moreover, the existential vacuum “affects life satisfaction and fulfillment; this condition hinders the internalization and constructive response to stressors” (Hutchinson & Chapman, 2005, p. 148). This is akin to what Fromm (1976, 1993) called a ‘having’ orientation, where one is focused on owning things (property, people, status and so forth), as opposed to a ‘being’ orientation, which resembles a focus on meaning in life. Existential frustration, then, most often manifests in feelings of inner emptiness (Frankl, 1984; Fabry, 1987), states of boredom and apathy (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1967; Das, 1998, Frankl, 1984), and unquestioning conformity to the most dominant social trends (Das, 1998).

The above symptoms of existential frustration may have devastating consequences for the individual. For example, existential saw self-alienation and the accompanying guilt, apathy and despair as resulting from the acceptance of socially dictated values above those acquired personally. Similarly, humanistic psychologist believed that when one suppresses one’s inner feelings in favour of socially dictated norms (so as to fulfil conditions of worth and obtain positive regard) the person becomes progressively more incongruous, which often results in mental disorders (Hergenhahn, 1997). Das (1998) further pointed out that problems in finding meaning often lead to dilemmas with

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identity formation. This, in turn, is related to personality and dissociative disorders as well as depression, obsessive-compulsive behaviours and eating disorders. Research also found that a lack of meaning is associated with stress and substance abuse, as well as various as measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). These include , psychopathic deviation and social introversion (Moomal, 1999). Finally, Morgan (1997) reiterated the notion of conformity as being dangerous to the individual, but also indicated the individual’s potential to escape this trap by stating that:

People often get trapped by cultural beliefs and social practices [resulting in the loss of] ideas, attitudes, assumptions, and other social constructions that are ultimately the structure and experience of their daily realities. But, despite this, they always have the potential to break into new modes of and understanding. This, I believe, can be a fundamental source of individual and social change (p. 275).

The above findings demonstrate that meaning is central to successful functioning, and suggest that the attainment of meaning is associated with positive mental health status, whereas meaninglessness is associated with pathological outcomes. Frankl (1967) contended that the existential vacuum in itself is not pathological, but rather “an existential despair” or “spiritual distress” (p. 70). However, if prolonged, this vacuum may eventuate in a neurotic disorder for which Frankl coined the term ‘noögenic neurosis’. Neurosis refers to a psychological disorder primarily characterised by anxiety, which manifests in direct and indirect ways (Plug, Louw, Gouws & Meyer, 1997). The type of neurosis that results from an existential vacuum is named noögenic neurosis, as it has its origins in the ‘noölogical’ (from the Greek noös, meaning ‘’) dimension of human existence (Frankl, 1978, 1984). This, Frankl (1967, 1988) contended, differs from psychogenic neurosis, which would by definition emerge from psychological causes (Plug et al., 1997, p. 300). Thus, although noögenic neurosis often results in a variety of psychological disturbances, it is regarded not as a psychological disorder, but as a frustration of the fundamental human need to find meaning in life. Frankl often referred to this as a sickness of the human spirit (Fabry, 1997).

The primary symptoms of noögenic neurosis, or as Frankl (2000a, p. 95) called it, the “Abyss Experience” – as antithesis to the ‘Peak Experience’ made famous by Maslow – include a feeling that one has nothing to live for, and the inability to find purpose in life. In addition, individuals often experience a continuous inability to believe in the genuineness, importance

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or value of anything they are busy with or will be busy with in future; they live an unplanned existence, and often have very fatalistic attitudes towards life (Das, 1998; Shantall, 1989). Frankl (1992) further argued that noögenic neurosis also manifests in the so-called “triad of mass neurosis” (p. 69) – aggression, addiction and depression. As illustration, he cited “a man on the street” answering his question “[I]s the new generation mad?”. He replied: “Of course, they are. They take dope, they kill each other, and they kill themselves” (Frankl, 1992, p. 69).

As is the case with the will to meaning, noögenic neurosis has also been empirically investigated. Crumbaugh developed the PIL-test to differentiate noögenic neurosis from psychogenic neurosis, and found that the former does exist apart from conventional neuroses (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1967). This then lends empirical support to Frankl’s concepts of noögenic neurosis and the existential vacuum. Furthermore, positive correlations have been found between meaning or purpose in life and, amongst others, SOC (see Chapter 1), sociability, social participation, ego resiliency, internal locus of control, acceptance of death, satisfaction with self, and satisfaction with life (Moomal, 1999).

Similarly, Wong (1998) found that meaning in life correlates positively with measures of both physical and psychological well-being. This author further also reported a strong negative correlation between the personal meaning profile (PMP), an instrument that measures meaning based on a prototypical structure of meaning seeking (see Chapter 6), and Beck’s depression scale, whereas O’Connor and Chamberlain (1996) reported on empirical research which indicates that lack of meaning relates to , lowered well- being, substance abuse and suicidal ideation; and to neuroticism, anxiety, and anomia. These correlations then indicate that individuals who lack meaning may also experience deficiencies in various other areas of their lives. This is corroborated by ’s belief that meaninglessness constrains the fullness of life and therefore is equivalent to an illness (Das, 1998).

Frankl (1984) contended that because the antecedents of noögenic neurosis are not psychological, this condition is not to be addressed by psychotherapy. Rather, logotherapy is to be applied when a person is “caught in the existential despair over the apparent meaninglessness of his life” (Frankl, 1969, p. 99). “It goes without saying that in all of those

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cases where neurotic symptoms can be traced back to existential frustration, logotherapy is indicated as the appropriate psychotherapeutic method of treatment” (Frankl, 1967, p. 51).

4.5. Applied logotherapy and logotherapeutic techniques

Frankl (1988) warns that logotherapy is not a panacea, but a means of analysis which assists individuals in finding meaning in their lives. The assignment of logotherapy is thus to help individuals discover the “hidden logos” of their existence. The analytical process used is aimed at making one aware of what one longs for in “the depth of [one’s] being” (Frankl, 1984, p. 125). A critical element here is that it is not the goal of logotherapy to provide the individual with meaning (Frankl, 1988, 1992) – “meaning can not be given, it has to be discovered” (Frankl, 1992, p. 70) – rather, the logotherapist serves as a facilitator who assists individuals in discovering meaning: “The task of logotherapists is to make clear to [individuals] that meaning exists, under all circumstances, to the last breath, and help them find it through demonstrating various meaning possibilities” (Frankl, 1992, p. 70). Finding meaning thus remains the responsibility of the individual. The ultimate outcome of finding such meaning, then, is a state of maturity or optimal development. The characteristics of this state are summarised in Table 4.1 below.

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Table 4.1. Characteristics of optimal development (that ensue from finding meaning) (adapted from Malan, 1997; Shantall, 1989). • By making self-detachment possible, optimal • For the mature person work is a vocation, an development allows realistic, objective and opportunity to make a significant critical perception of oneself and one’s contribution to life, and thus a source of circumstances meaning • The mature person’s actions are self- • The optimally developed person is open to determined, and not dictated by external and appreciates the good, the beautiful and factors the genuine. This includes art, music, nature, • Optimal development makes humour possible. and any other new experiences The mature person laughs at him/ herself and • The mature person respects and appreciates his/her weaknesses and problems others’ uniqueness, which precludes any • The mature person is able to transcend the self, prejudice or discrimination that is, not be turned in on the self • The mature individual is directed towards the • Optimal development allows one to accept the future and its possibilities of meanings. tragic aspects of life and thereby find meaning • Death never threatens those who are living a in suffering full life

Individuals are assisted in their search for meaning by means of a four-step logotherapeutic process (Das, 1998; Fabry, 1987). The first step is aimed at helping individuals to distance themselves from their problems and symptoms. The most frequently used technique here is dereflection (see discussion below). Fabry (1987, p. 132) explains this initial step as follows:

The resources of their noëtic dimension are tapped, the defiant power of their spirit is aroused, making them aware that they are not identical with their , obsessions, inferiority complexes, depressions, and emotional outbursts. They see that they are not helpless victims of their biological, psychological, or sociological fate; do not have to remain the way they are; and can stand in any situation. The logotherapist removes the structure of dependency patients have built up in their attempt to explain the symptoms to themselves and that, through negative feedback, drive them even more deeply into their conviction that these symptoms are inescapable traps.

The second step is attitude modulation, aimed at helping individuals to view their situation from a different perspective (Das, 1998). Because individuals now realise that they exist

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separate from their symptoms, they are now “open to new attitudes toward themselves and their lives” (Fabry, 1987, p. 132). This step is critical, as the ability to choose one’s attitude towards a situation constitutes one’s “ultimate freedom” (Allport, in Frankl, 1984, p. 12), and plays a central role in finding meaning in life. Of critical importance here is that such new attitudes cannot be enforced by the logotherapist – he or she can only explore desirable directions with the individual and direct the session accordingly. Only in emergency situations, where there is no time to lead the individual through distancing from symptoms and choosing a different attitude (e.g. in cases where the individual is threatening suicide), can the logotherapist suggest new attitudes “to tip the scale towards life and meaning” (Fabry, 1987, p. 133). If such situations do occur, the logotherapist must be sure to keep the arguments within the individual’s frame of reference, and not his or her own.

The third step in the logotherapeutic process involves creating openness to new meanings (Das, 1998). At this stage, symptoms have usually disappeared or become manageable, and the attitude modulation-step has helped the individual accept the situation. This change in attitude then provides positive feedback, which helps the individual to be open to and find new meaning in the situation (Fabry, 1987). The final step is ‘prophylaxis’, which is aimed at assuring the individual’s “mental health for the future” by discussing, enriching and extending all “meaning potentials of their lives and their particular situation” (Fabry, 1987, p. 134). Furthermore, individuals are guided towards meaning by helping them make new commitments and pursue new goals (Das, 1998), and their hierarchy of values is elucidated to ensure fortification against the possibility of existential frustration in the future (Fabry, 1987).

The basic technique used in logotherapy is the Socratic dialogue. Here, the therapist attempts to make individuals aware of their own resources before helping them to learn how to utilise these resources to connect with many other sources of meaning (Das, 1998; Frankl, 1978) by probing the individual’s “unconscious spirit” (Fabry, 1988, p. 25). According to Fabry (1987), this ‘self-discovery discourse’ is useful throughout all four steps in the logotherapeutic process discussed above to help individuals “to get in touch with their noëtic unconscious and become aware of their true evaluation of themselves and their potentials, their preferred directions, and their deepest meaning orientation” (p. 135).

As the name of this technique suggests, the Socratic dialogue is based on the dialogue style used by Socrates in his philosophical discussions. Fabry (1987) contended that Socrates did

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not believe in providing his students with answers, but rather attempted to make them conscious of knowledge they already had within them. Stace (1920, p. 128) explained this dialogue style as follows:

[Socrates] never monopolised the conversation… it was the other party who did most of the talking, [with] Socrates only interposing questions and comments, and yet remaining always master of the conversation, and directing it into fruitful channels. The conversations proceeded chiefly by the method of question and answer, Socrates by acute questions educing, bringing to birth, the thoughts of his partner, correcting, refuting, or developing them.

Fabry (1988) provided a comprehensive discussion of how the Socratic dialogue is utilised by the logotherapist. A prerequisite for the success of this technique is that one is relaxed – the presence of excitement, nervousness, fear or despondency can constrain access to one’s spiritual resources. In such cases, the logotherapist should utilise relaxations techniques before proceeding.

Once the individual is put in the correct frame of mind, the dialogue is initiated by questions surrounding five guideposts to investigate the areas in which meaning is most likely to be found. These five guideposts, namely self-discovery; choice; uniqueness; responsibility, and self-transcendence, are summarised in Table 4.2 below. If one lies relatively high on these dimensions, meaning may be found more easily. The aim of these questions, then, is to help individuals “by finding something that is meaningful to them” (Fabry, 1988, p. 12). Throughout the questioning process, it is essential that the logotherapist be attentive to ‘logohints’ (Fabry, 1988). These are aspects such as words, phrases and tone of voice that indicate that something is potentially meaningful to the individual, but is stored on the unconscious level. Thus, through careful listening, the logotherapist can identify these potential sources of meaning, bring them to the conscious level, and direct the dialogue accordingly.

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Table 4.2. Guideposts to assisting the individual in finding meaning during the Socratic dialogue (adapted from Fabry, 1988, p. 10). Guidepost Explanation Self-discovery Finding meaning is facilitated by accurate self-knowledge – knowing the self ‘behind the masks’ Choice The availability of choices increases the availability of meaning Uniqueness Meaning is often found in situations where no one can replace the individual Responsibility Meaning is found when responsibility is accepted in situations where there is freedom of choice, and when one does not accept responsibility where a fate is unchangeable Self- Meaning results from reaching beyond one’s own egocentric needs and goals transcendence towards others

Five specific techniques are available to the logotherapist to assist the individual in identifying potential sources of meaning during the Socratic dialogue (Fabry, 1988). 1) The therapist can help the individual recall meaningful experiences in the past. This will help him or her realise that he or she has had positive experiences, and thereby lay the foundation for future meaningful experiences. 2) can be interpreted to identify “repressed hopes, goals, and meanings” (Fabry, 1988, p. 18). 3) Fantasies can be elicited. 4) The logotherapist can discuss the experiences of the individual’s role models, as these may serve as inspiration, and 5) the therapist can help the individual to recall a peak experience that showed him or her that life has meaning (Fabry, 1988). Through this unique style of questioning, the logotherapist “facilitates the client’s discovery of meaning, freedom and responsibility” (Wong, 2000a, p. 6).

Two other techniques central to applied logotherapy are dereflection and . The former involves diverting one’s attention from one’s immediate situation (e.g. “to other people or meaningful goals”, Southwick et al., 2006, p. 163) in order to address hyperreflection. According to Frankl (1978; 1984), hyperreflection occurs when an exorbitant fear that a situation may occur, based on the occurrence of a symptom of such a situation, may bring about exactly that which is feared. In logotherapeutic terms, one would contend that anticipatory anxiety evokes the feared situation, e.g. when someone blushes in front of a crowd, due to the fear that this may happen. This condition is apparent from

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research showing that the fear that a panic attack might occur is often the very cause of such an attack (Barlow & Durand, 1999).

In the second technique, paradoxical intention, one’s attitude towards a feared situation is reversed in such a way that the fear is replaced by a paradoxical wish (Frankl, 1984). Thus, individuals are persuaded “to expose themselves to their own worries” (Hutchinson & Chapman, 2005, p. 148). Applied to the above example, paradoxical intention would involve the person with an excessive fear of blushing to actually wish to blush as much as he or she can. Such a wish diminishes the anxiety experienced over the feared situation and decreases the probability that the feared situation will occur (Frankl, 1978). This technique rests on the capacity for self-detachment (Wong, 2000a). Frankl (1967, p. 162) summarises these two techniques as follows:

By means of paradoxical intention, the patient ridicules his symptoms rather than trying either to run away from them (phobias) or to fight them (obsessive compulsions). Through de-reflection, the patient is enabled to ignore his neurosis by his attention away from himself. He is directed to a life full of potential meanings and values that have a specific appeal to his personal potentialities.

The logotherapeutic techniques discussed in the preceding paragraphs have been applied in a variety of contexts by logotherapists and non-logotherapists alike. Frankl (1978, 1984) cited various instances where untrained individuals applied these techniques to eradicate anxiety that was caused by a number of factors (for example, perspiring in public or stuttering). In a clinical setting, dereflection and paradoxical intention, often supplemented by Socratic dialogue, have been applied to address obsessive-compulsive disorder, suicidal tendencies, endogenous depression and even symptoms of (Frankl, 1967, 1986). Furthermore, research by Greenstein and Breitbart (2000) indicated that logotherapy not only contributes to individuals coping with terminal illnesses like cancer, but also increases the quality of their lives, whereas Southwick et al. (2006) described how logotherapy can be applied to assist post-combat individuals with PTSD, and Poggenpoel (1997) argued that logotherapy is an effective way of assisting individuals in coping with crises. Finally, Malan (1997) postulated that logotherapeutic principles should be taught to young people, as these ‘purpose-in-life-skills’ can make a critical contribution to their development towards mature (see Table 4.1).

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4.6. Conclusion

The primary objective of Chapter 4 was to provide a discussion of the psychological school of founded by Viktor Frankl, namely logotherapy. This objective was achieved by means of addressing a number of secondary objectives. Firstly, some biographical notes regarding Viktor Frankl were provided so as to sketch the background to the development of logotherapy. This was followed by a conceptualisation of logotherapy, where it was shown that it is most often considered a separate branch of humanistic/existential psychology, aimed at helping individuals find meaning in life. Next, the principles and foundations of logotherapy were addressed by means of a discussion of not only the three triads underlying it, but also of the consequences of not finding meaning in life (existential frustration, the existential vacuum and noögenic neurosis).

Finally, it was indicated that logotherapy has been successfully applied in addressing a variety of issues in numerous contexts. Furthermore, it was shown that these applications seem to have produced significant results, which lends credence not only to logotherapy in practice, but also to the underlying theory. The subsequent chapter, then, serves as the foundation for the argument that logotherapy can also be applied in the organisational context, and that such an application will constitute an OD intervention.

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