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An Assessment of the Strength of Knots and Splices Used As Eye Terminations in a Sailing Environment

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An Assessment of the Strength of Knots and Splices Used As Eye Terminations in a Sailing Environment 9.1.1 Sports E77 McLaren 27/7/06 2:38 pm Page 1 An assessment of the strength of knots and splices used as eye terminations in a sailing environment K.A. Milne and A.J. McLaren Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Abstract Research into knots, splices and other methods of forming an eye termination has been limited, despite the fact that they are essential and strongly affect the performance of a rope. The aim of this study was to carry out a comprehensive initial assessment of the breaking strength of eye ter- minations commonly used in a sailing environment, thereby providing direction for further work in the field. Supports for use in a regular tensile testing machine were specially developed to allow indi- vidual testing of each sample and a realistic spread of statistical data to be obtained. Over 180 break tests were carried out on four knots (the bowline, double bowline, figure-of-eight loop and perfection loop) and two splices (three-strand eye splice and braid-on-braid splice). The factors affecting their strength were investigated. A statistical approach to the analysis of the results was adopted. The type of knot was found to have a significant effect on the strength. This same effect was seen in both types of rope construction (three-strand and braid-on-braid). Conclusions were also drawn as to the effect of splice length, eye size, manufacturer and rope diameter on the breaking strength of splices. Areas of development and further investigation were identified. Keywords: break, knot, rope, sailing, splice, strength Introduction such as guard rails which are present for reasons of safety. The running rigging is used to hoist and/or Ropes are widely exploited in sailing. Their use on control the sails. Halyards are used to hoist the sails yachts may be broadly divided into two categories, into position; sheets are attached to the sails and are namely the standing and running rigging. Standing used primarily to control the angle of the sails to the rigging consists of the structural components that boat’s centreline, and therefore the wind. The running support the mast and spars, together with equipment rigging will also generally include ropes that are used to control the position of moveable components of the Correspondence address: boat, which are used for fine adjustment of the sails. Dr. A.J. McLaren Many different methods have evolved that allow Department of Mechanical Engineering one rope to be attached to another, to a fixed point or University of Strathclyde to a sail. One common method is to create an eye with Glasgow UK a knot, or a splice, or by binding or stitching the end of Tel: +44 (0) 141 548 3104 the rope to the standing part with twine. This last E-mail: [email protected] method is called seizing. A knot is defined as ‘a way of 1 9.1.1 Sports E77 McLaren 27/7/06 2:38 pm Page 2 The strength of knots and splices K.A. Milne and A.J. McLaren joining or securing lengths of rope, thread, or other strand is discussed by Saitta et al. (1999). This is more strands by tying the material together or around of interest to the polymer scientist due to the micro- itself’. A splice is defined as a way ‘to join ends of ropes scopic scale of the fibres in question. Wu (1993) by intertwining strands’. Unlike knots, a specific splice considered friction and slippage between the strands is suitable only for a specific type of rope. of polymeric ropes, and made some observations con- The ropes used in sailing are similar in appearance cerning slippage in end terminations. to those utilised by climbers, but the materials used A particular method for forming an eye termination are different. Climbing ropes are designed to absorb might be selected because it is easy to form or release, shock loads in the event of a fall, and are of relatively because it holds securely, because it is compact and low stiffness. By contrast, sailing ropes need to have will slide over apparatus easily, or because it is consid- high stiffness to preserve precise control by minimis- ered relatively strong. The presence of the eye ing elastic extension. Whereas it is generally accepted termination can have a significant effect upon the that climbing ropes do not fail, either at a knot, or fatigue life of a line, its response under dynamic generally, unless loaded over an edge (Schubert, 2002; loading and its static breaking load. While much Bailie, 2000), sailing ropes are subject to failure, par- experimental and analytical work has been conducted ticularly near the ends where high degrees of wear and upon synthetic ropes, knowledge about eye termina- chafe are possible during extended use. In addition, tions is limited. Advice on how to create eye sailing ropes are subjected to high static loadings, terminations is generally based upon one-off tests or upon which considerable dynamic fluctuations are tradition. There is no definitive guide about which superimposed. These ropes are also prone to ultra knot to choose or how to form a splice in order to get violet attack due to prolonged exposure in the marine the highest splice efficiency, which is defined as the environment. ratio of the breaking strength with the eye to the rope A wealth of information has been published con- strength. cerning the suitability of the various methods of Limited mathematical modelling has been carried forming a loop termination. This information is out. Maddocks & Keller (1987) propound the available in books specifically dedicated to knots and mechanics of some simple hitches while Leech (2003) splices, e.g. Jarman (2000), Shaw (2004), and Pawson models the stresses in some commonly used splices. (2001). It may also be found in standard sailing However, such models are founded upon numerous textbooks (Cunliffe, 2000). Recent articles in the assumptions and, although they help to understand sailing press demonstrate the continuous development the mechanics involved, they do not provide accurate of ropes and splicing techniques (James, 2003; predictions of the breaking loads or the effect of Pawson, 2005). changing one of the huge number of variables, such as The published research on polymeric ropes is the maker of the eye (referred to hereafter as the man- somewhat limited. Manes (2002) has reviewed work ufacturer), rope type, eye size, length of the working carried out on the structure of ropes for rock climbing. end or the type of loading. This project has attempted Leech (2002) considers the hierarchical structure built to carry out an assessment of the static strength of up from individual strands, bundles, and sub-ropes, to knots and splices used in a sailing environment and the make the overall cable. He also considers the frictional factors that affect this strength. load transfer between the elements of the rope. Pan & The aim of this study was to carry out a compre- Brookstein (2002) have reviewed the recent work that hensive preliminary assessment of the static breaking has been carried out on the modelling of polymer strength of several common eye terminations. These ropes. included four knots – the bowline, double bowline, The theory of knots has stimulated some interest in perfection loop and figure-of-eight loop – and two the mathematics community. This is typified by the splices – the three-strand eye splice and the braid-on- Fields Medal winning work of Vaughan Jones, as braid splice. The effect of various factors upon the reviewed by King (1986). At a fundamental level, the breaking strength of the line was investigated and the effect of a knot on the strength of a single polymer practical relevance of the results discussed. 2 9.1.1 Sports E77 McLaren 27/7/06 2:38 pm Page 3 K.A. Milne and A.J. McLaren The strength of knots and splices Experimental procedure three-strand eye splice was manufactured from the pre-stretched rope while a braid-on-braid splice was This section describes the programme of experimental manufactured from the braid-on-braid rope. The eye work. First, the determination of the initial baseline size was defined as the inside length of the eye, strength of each rope type and diameter is described. measured with a flexible tape. The working end is the Secondly, the preparation of knots and the method by unloaded end of the rope. which eye splices were prepared, using the specific All knot and splice samples were finished in the method appropriate to each rope type, is discussed. same manner. A mark was made 1.3 m along the Thirdly, the apparatus used to test the loops is standing part of the rope, measuring from the crotch detailed. Finally, the procedure used to test the of the eye. The rope was whipped either side of the strength of the knots and splices, and the means by mark, cut and the end sealed by melting. which data were recorded, is reviewed. Knots Determination of rope strength The four knots investigated were the bowline, double Two different commercially available types of rope bowline, figure-of-eight loop and perfection loop, were used to make the knots and splices. Both rope shown in Fig. 1. Each sample was prepared with a types were manufactured by Liros Ropes Ltd 100 mm working end and a 150 mm internal eye size. (Germany). The first was a 16-plait braid-on-braid polyester rope, sold as the LIROS Top Cruising rope. Three-strand eye splice The second was a three-strand twisted pre-stretched polyester rope, sold as the LIROS Prestretch rope.
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