DRAFT for Public Comment – February 2010

National Recovery Plan for the Alpine Tree verreauxii alpina

Nick Clemann and Graeme R. Gillespie

Prepared by Nick Clemann (Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria) and Graeme R. Gillespie (Zoos Victoria).

Published by the Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) East Melbourne, month 2010.

© State of Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment 2010 This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by any process except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Authorised by the Victorian Government, 8 Nicholson Street, East Melbourne.

ISBN 1 74152 452 0

This is a Recovery Plan prepared under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, with the assistance of funding provided by the Australian Government Natural Heritage Trust. This Recovery Plan has been developed with the involvement and cooperation of a range of stakeholders, but individual stakeholders have not necessarily committed to undertaking specific actions. The attainment of objectives and the provision of funds may be subject to budgetary and other constraints affecting the parties involved. Proposed actions may be subject to modification over the life of the plan due to changes in knowledge.

Disclaimer This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence that may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.

An electronic version of this document is available on the Commonwealth Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts website www.environment.gov.au For more information contact the DSE Customer Service Centre 136 186

Citation: Clemann, N. and Gillespie, G.R. 2010. National Recovery Plan for the Alpine Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii alpina. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne.

Cover photograph: Alpine Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii alpina by Nick Clemann.

1 Table of Contents

Species Information...... 3 Description...... 3 ...... 3 Distribution ...... 4 Population Information...... 4 Habitat ...... 5 Decline and Threats ...... 5 Populations and areas under threat...... 8 Recovery Information ...... 9 Existing Conservation Measures...... 9 Overall Objective...... 9 Program Implementation and Evaluation ...... 9 Recovery Actions...... 10 Management Practices ...... 13 Affected Interests...... 13 Role and interests of indigenous people...... 14 Benefits to other species/ecological communities ...... 14 Social and economic impacts...... 15 Acknowledgments ...... 15 Bibliography ...... 16 Priority, Feasibility and Estimated Costs of Recovery Actions ...... 19

Figure 1. Distribution of the Alpine Tree Frog ...... 4

2 Summary

The Alpine Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii alpina is a small frog endemic to the high country of mainland south-eastern Australia, occurring in Victoria, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. In recent decades, it has suffered a substantial decline in range abundance, and is presumed extinct from many sites where it once occurred. Precise causes for the decline are not well known, but may include a range of factors such as disease, habitat destruction and disturbance, increased penetration of ultraviolet-B radiation and climate change. Of particular concern is the apparent decline of at least nine of the 27 frog taxa recorded from the highlands of south-eastern Australia (above 400 metres elevation) (Gillespie et al. 1995), indicating that threatening processes are sustained and widespread. In particular, that are endemic to this region, including the Alpine Tree Frog, have declined to an alarming degree (eg. Osborne et al. 1999), and several are the subjects of detailed conservation planning (Gillespie 2000; Osborne et al. 2001; Hollis 2003). The Alpine Tree Frog is listed as Vulnerable under the Australian Government Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, Threatened under the Victorian Government Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, and Endangered under the New South Wales Government Threatened Species and Communities Act 1995. This Recovery Plan summarises current knowledge of the Alpine Tree Frog, documents the research and management actions undertaken to date, and identifies the actions required and organisations responsible to ensure the ongoing viability of the taxon in the wild.

Species Information

Description The Alpine Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii alpina (Fry, 1915) is a small frog, growing to about 35 mm maximum length, with females growing slightly larger than males. Colouration is highly variable. The warty back and sides usually have a base colour of green and/or brown, overlain with dark brown to blackish blotches and stripes, and dark blotches in the groin. There are often two brown to blackish stripes along the vertebral line extending from the eyes to the cloaca, although the stripes may be broken into a series of irregular blotches. A brown or black stripe extends from the nostril through the eye to the shoulder, and there is usually a lighter stripe on the upper jaw. The underside is granular and pale cream. The finger and toe discs are small for a tree frog, only about as wide as the digits. The toes are half-webbed, while the fingers lack webbing. The tympanum (ear) is indistinct (description from Barker et al. 1995; Cogger 2000). Alpine Tree Frog tadpoles grow to about 43 mm, and are dark olive brown to blackish, covered with very fine iridophores. The underside has a dull coppery sheen over the abdomen and is mostly clear closer to the head, with a few gold clusters. The copper sheen continues up the side of the body to merge with dorsal pigment (Anstis 2002). The male advertisement call consists of a shorter pulsed introductory note, followed by a series of longer pulsed repeated notes (Littlejohn 1965, 1982), described as a pulsing “wirr-wirr-wirr”, deeper and with a slower pulse repetition rate than the call of Verraux's Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii verreauxii (Barker et al. 1995).

Taxonomy The Alpine Tree Frog is a high-altitude subspecies of Verreaux’s Tree Frog (or ). Broad hybridisation zones exist between the ranges of L. v. alpina and both L. v. verreauxii and the Southern Brown Tree Frog Litoria ewingii (Watson & Littlejohn 1985), making identification of these taxa in some parts of their range problematic. The clinal nature of the distribution of members of the L. ewingii and L. verreauxii complex in the northern part of its range mean that clear delineation of the Alpine Tree Frog in some areas is difficult and somewhat arbitrary (Smith et al. 2003; D. Hunter pers. comm.). The collection and analysis of systematic and geographic relationships of L. ewingii and subspecies of L. verreauxii to more precisely define the Alpine Tree Frog in these areas forms one the actions of this Recovery Plan.

3 Distribution Historically, the Alpine Tree Frog was distributed across most of the high country of south- eastern Australia (Osborne et al. 1999) (Figure 1). Within this broader range, the frog has an inherently small and fragmented geographic distribution due to its restriction to discrete and isolated mountain peaks and plateaux within this area. Within Victoria, records of the Alpine Tree Frog extend from the vicinity of Tom Groggin near the Murray River in the north-east of the state, across the higher altitudes of the Great Dividing Range, to the vicinity of Erica in the south-west of the taxon’s range. The Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database contains 835 records of the Alpine Tree Frog (although many of these records are of numerous individuals). Over 90% of these records are specimens lodged at Museum Victoria between 1959 and 1982, while other records date from 1978–2001. In New South Wales, records of the Alpine Tree Frog extend from the Kosciusko region throughout much of the Snowy Mountains (Hunter et al. 1997; Osborne et al. 1999; Atlas of NSW Wildlife database). The Atlas of NSW Wildlife database contains 18 records of the subspecies (although several of these are records of multiple individuals) dating from 1985 to 1998. The Australian Museum in Sydney has 103 specimens of Alpine Tree Frog (including six specimens from Victoria) collected between 1889 and 1998, most of which were collected in the Kosciuszko National Park. Its occurrence in the Australian Capital Territory is uncertain.

Figure 1. Distribution of the Alpine Tree Frog (sources: Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database, Atlas of New South Wales Wildlife database, Museum Victoria, Australian Museum).

Population Information In Victoria, extant populations of Alpine Tree Frog occur on Mt Howitt, the greater Dargo and Dinner Plains and Davies Plain (Osborne et al. 1999; Clemann 2002; Steane 2003; Ecology Australia 1998, 2000, 2003; G. Gillespie pers. obs.; N. Watts pers. comm.), and may still persist on the upper slopes of Mt Bogong (Clemann 2002). The population occurring at Horsehair

4 Plain (east of Mt Hotham) in Victoria is important as it is a relatively large breeding population and is the only population in Victoria that has been monitored over several years (Ecology Australia 2003). Recent surveys in this area confirm the persistence of large numbers of Alpine Tree Frogs (N. Clemann pers. obs. November 2006). The most recent survey for the Alpine Tree Frog in NSW procured records of from one to more than 100 males and/or tadpoles from 33 sites at altitudes ranging from 1100–1760 m (D. Hunter, unpublished data). Thirty of these records occurred in the Kosciuszko National Park, two were from alpine resorts, and one record was from freehold land. Populations of L. verreauxii complex frogs in the subalpine zone in Namadgi National Park in the Australian Capital Territory need to be confirmed as L. v. alpina. Due to the precipitous decline of the Alpine Tree Frog throughout much of its range, all remaining populations of the taxon are important to survival of the species. A proposed recovery action is more precisely define remaining populations of Alpine Tree Frogs.

Habitat The Alpine Tree Frog is considered a habitat generalist, typical of all members of the L. ewingii complex. It has been found in a wide range of terrestrial habitats, including woodland, heath, grassland and herb fields at high montane, subalpine and alpine altitudes. Individuals have been found under flat rocks in streambeds or in rocky areas near streams, amongst litter and under logs (Green & Osborne 1994; Gillespie et al. 1995). The Alpine Tree Frog breeds in natural and artificial ponds, such as bogs, fens, streamside pools, stock dams and drainage channels. Where tadpoles have been found in streams it has typically been in backwaters or deep, slow-flowing pool sections of small alpine streams. During the breeding season, male Alpine Tree Frogs call while partially submerged at the edges of large pools in fen and wet grassland, and will occasionally call from the banks of waterbodies. Eggs are deposited in large jelly-like clumps around submerged vegetation (Anstis 2002). Tadpoles can be found in pools from November to January, and metamorphosis occurs in January and February (Lintermans & Osborne 2002). The Alpine Tree Frog’s use of non-breeding habitat and over-wintering refuges is largely unknown, as are dispersal routes between breeding and non-breeding habitat. Such features are probably critical for the persistence of this frog. It is presently not possible to determine the extent of habitat that is critical to the survival of the Alpine Tree Frog (see above). Actions detailed in this Recovery Plan will lead to a greater understanding of this habitat.

Decline and Threats

Concern surrounding the decline of in many parts of the world has been increasing for more than a decade. A notable aspect of this development is the apparent decline of numerous species from high elevations and/or seemingly undisturbed environments. The fauna of the highlands of south-eastern Australia exemplifies this trend, where nine of the 27 frog taxa recorded above 400 metres elevation were identified as being of particular conservation concern (Gillespie et al. 1995). In particular, frogs that are endemic to this region, including the Alpine Tree Frog, have declined to an alarming degree (eg. Osborne et al. 1999), and several are the subjects of detailed conservation planning (Gillespie 2000; Osborne et al. 2001; Hollis 2003). Since the mid-1980s, the Alpine Tree Frog has suffered a substantial decline in range and abundance, and is presumed extinct from many sites where it once occurred. It has all but disappeared from much of its former range, (Gillespie et al. 1995; Hunter et al. 1997; Osborne et al. 1999), and now persists only in a few small, highly fragmented areas in Victoria and Kosciuszko National Park in NSW. In Victoria, recent surveys have failed to detect Alpine Tree Frogs at areas where they were once abundant, including the Baw Baw plateau (G. Hollis pers. comm.), Lake Mountain, and the Bogong High Plains (Hunter et al. 1997; Osborne et al. 1999; Clemann 2002; Steane 2003). In NSW, recent surveys at 92 sites detected for Alpine Tree Frogs at only seven sites (five natural and two artificial ponds), all of which were in the Kosciuszko National Park (Osborne et al. 1999). The frog had disappeared from many areas at which it previously occurred, especially those at the upper altitudinal limit of its range. The Alpine Tree Frog was believed to be extinct in the ACT (Osborne & Hunter 1998). The Alpine Tree Frog is considered to be in immediate danger of extinction in New South Wales, and is highly threatened in Victoria (Osborne et al. 1999).

5 The decline of the Alpine Tree Frog is perplexing. It has disappeared from both highly modified and pristine habitats, while populations persist in habitats with varying levels of disturbance. How these disturbances relate to habitat suitability and persistence of populations for the Alpine Tree Frog is not known. In Kosciuszko National Park in NSW and the Dargo and Dinner Plains regions of Victoria the frog still persists in a broad range of habitats. In the Victorian localities it has been found in waterbodies degraded by cattle grazing (Ecology Australia 2003), although it is not known whether such sites can support eggs and larvae. Similarly, on Horsehair Plain (Vic) the Alpine Tree Frog has been observed in wetlands that have been specifically constructed to replace farm dams drained during development (D. Quin pers. comm.). Several potentially threatening processes affecting the Alpine Tree Frog have been identified (Gillespie et al. 1995; Lintermans & Osborne 2002). Furthermore, potentially threatening processes identified for some other endemic high-altitude frogs, including the Corroboree frogs Corroboree species (Osborne et al. 2001) and the Baw baw Frog Philoria frosti (Hollis 2003) may also be pertinent for the Alpine Tree Frog. The amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochtrium dendrobatidis, has been strongly implicated in the decline of numerous upland frog species in Australia and overseas (Berger et al. 1998, 1999), and has been found in other frogs within and near the range of the Alpine Tree Frog (Berger et al. 1999; R. Speare, James Cook University, pers. comm). Amphibians such as the Alpine Tree Frog occupy terrestrial and aquatic habitats at different stages of their life cycles and have highly permeable skins. Climate change is likely to have a major impact on alpine environments and their flora and fauna, including the Alpine Tree Frog. Habitat disturbance is also a likely threat. Frogs in general are more sensitive to environmental toxins or to changes in patterns of temperature or rainfall than other vertebrate groups (Blaustein & Wake 1990, Vitt et al. 1990). There may be synergistic effects of disease, climate change and UV radiation in some high altitude amphibian populations. Species with limited and fragmented distributions may be particularly susceptible to extinction due to stochastic events such as wildfire. Main threatening process are discussed below: Disease The disease chytridiomycosis, caused by infection with the pathogen Amphibian Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been strongly implicated in declines of amphibians in several parts of the world (Berger et al. 1999), and may have caused the extinction of at least one Australian species (R. Speare pers. comm.). This waterborne pathogen may have been introduced to Australia last century from Africa. It infects the mouthparts of tadpoles (but does not seem to adversely affect this larval stage) and the skins of frogs, ultimately resulting in the death of many of the frogs that become infected. The pathogen appears to prefer cooler environments, and may survive in the environment for many months at low temperatures (Berger et al. 1999). Given the relatively cool and moist environment occupied by the Alpine Tree Frog, and the synchronous decline with other high altitude frog species (Osborne et al. 1999), it is highly likely that the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus significantly contributed to the initial decline of this species. A study involving screening Alpine Tree Frog populations for infection with the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus found that breeding populations of this species may have very high infection rates (AAHL 2006), despite these populations appearing to be relatively stable. Given the significance of the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus in the decline of many amphibian species in eastern Australia (Berger et al. 1999), determining the extent to which persisting populations of the Alpine Tree Frog are being regulated by this pathogen should be a high priority. Climate change A major impact of climate change in south-eastern Australia will be a predicted increase in temperatures, increased variability and decline in overall rainfall, with subsequent increasing dryness (Pittock 2003; Pook 2001). Mountain-dwelling species such as Alpine Tree Frog are especially at risk from climate change. The frog often occupies ephemeral water bodies, and is susceptible to premature drying of pools during dry seasons, as well as long term increases in drought frequency. Although drought has been flagged as a possible contributor to decline of the Alpine Tree Frog (Hunter et al. 1997), this factor has been discounted by Osborne et al. (1999), who note that the highest and wettest sites where this frog once occurred have been the first to be extirpated. Similarly, these authors note that drought conditions in the mid-1980s, when declines are

6 suggested to have occurred, were not beyond the climatic variations expected in Australian alpine regions. However, this is a complex issue; these areas are at the higher end of the subspecies’ altitudinal range and the frogs would breed later (December / January). Hence the larval period is through summer when the potential for early pool drying is at its greatest (D. Hunter pers. comm.). Within NSW the five natural ponds in which the Alpine Tree Frog is believed to persist are potentially subject to drying during drought years (NPWS 2002). At the time of writing south-eastern Australia is markedly affected by a prolonged drought. One consequence of climate change and/or extended periods of drought is an increase in frequency, extent and severity of wildfires. The extensive wildfires in south-eastern Australian in early 2003 burnt through most of the geographic range of the Alpine Tree Frog. Its immediate post-fire status and ability to utilise burnt habitat, as well as subsequent successional vegetation, is largely unknown, although adult and larval Alpine Tree Frogs have been observed at Horsehair Plain (Vic.) the summer after the fire (D. Quin pers. comm.), and the subspecies remains abundant in this area (N. Clemann pers. obs. November 2006). Massive wildfires are once again occurring in north-eastern Victoria at the time of writing, and it remains to be seen whether or not extant populations are affected by these fires. Ultraviolet-B radiation Increased penetration of ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B) due to anthropogenic depletion of the ozone layer (eg. Kerr & McElroy 1993) have been known for some time to have an adverse impact on amphibians (Blaustein et al. 1994, 1995, 1997). Furthermore, the risks to amphibian populations of increased UV-B radiation are likely to be more pronounced at higher elevation and southern latitudes (eg. Caldwell et al. 1980; Blumthaler et al. 1997). Shallow alpine lakes, pools and streams are likely to be particularly susceptible to penetration by UV-B radiation due to low amounts of dissolved organic carbon and exposure to high levels of UV-B radiation (Osborne et al. 2001). Enhanced UV-B may result in delayed metamorphosis and smaller size at metamorphosis in some taxa, with negative effects on later growth and development (Pahkala et al. 2003). Although the ecological significance of this mortality requires further investigation (Licht 2003), these results implicate ozone depletion and resultant increases in UV-B radiation in the decline of the Alpine Tree Frog (Broomhall et al. 2000), especially as declines of this taxon have been most pronounced at higher altitudes (Osborne et al. 1999). In artificial tank experiments, exposure of Alpine Tree Frog eggs and tadpoles to UV-B radiation caused greater levels of mortality than in the sympatric but non-declining Common Froglet Crinia signifera (Broomhall et al. 2000). Increases in altitude increased the incidence of death for both species. A subsequent study investigating the impact of UV-B on the Alpine Tree Frog in both natural pools and artificial dams across Kosciuszko National Park failed to detect a relationship between survivorship and exposure to UV-B radiation (D. Hunter pers comm.). Similarly, tadpole size and development also appeared unaffected by UV-B exposure in this experiment. Synergistic affects of several threatening processes may have caused the decline of some amphibian species in North America (Kiesecker et al. 2001). Reduced water levels at some oviposition sites, resulting from lower precipitation, caused high mortality of embryos by increasing their exposure to UV-B radiation (which is increasing due to ozone depletion) and, consequently, increasing embryo vulnerability to infection by pathogens. Warmer temperatures and precipitation anomalies associated with well-documented amphibian declines have been shown to be within the range of normal long-term climate variability (Alexander & Eischeid 2001), suggesting that these factors may indirectly contribute to these declines, but they are unlikely to be the direct cause of them. The relationship between environmental variables and amphibian die-offs, as well as the synergism between environmental variables and factors such as pollutants and pathogens, are complex (Carey et al. 2001), and a greater understanding of these issues is needed before firm conclusions are drawn. The ambiguous results of recent experimental work concerning the impact of UV-B on the Alpine Tree Frog, and the impracticality of managing this potentially threatening process mean that there will be no specific recovery actions concerning this process detailed in this Plan. Habitat disturbance

7 Grazing and trampling by cattle and feral horses Alpine regions of Victoria and New South Wales have been used for cattle grazing for many years (Carr 1962), and the deleterious impact on alpine vegetation has been noted (van Rees 1984). The last grazing leases were withdrawn from Kosciuszko National Park by 1972, and in the Alpine National Park in Victoria in 2006, although rehabilitation of the areas grazed in Kosciuszko National Park is still necessary (Scherrer & Pickering 2001). Feral horses occur across most of the range of the Alpine Tree Frog. Soil erosion and vegetation damage and disturbance in the alpine regions of Victoria caused by cattle grazing has been listed as a threatening process on the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. Feral horses and pigs cause considerable damage to Alpine Tree Frog habitat in Kosciuszko National Park (D. Hunter, University of Canberra, pers. comm.), and feral deer are also likely to cause damage to wetland habitats. Cattle and horses eat and trample vegetation, and cattle have a predilection for aquatic sedges in alpine environments, leading to severe damage of the margin of alpine wetlands (McDougall 1982). Cattle also enter water bodies to graze, so can damage calling sites for male frogs and egg deposition sites, and damage to Alpine Tree Frog breeding habitat has been suggested (Gillespie et al. 1995, Clemann 2002). However, the extent of any impact is unknown. In Victoria, cattle grazing occurred at sites where the Alpine Tree Frog still occurs, as well as sites where it has apparently been extirpated. Grazing and trampling is believed to damage the habitat of several threatened vertebrates, including the Alpine Water Skink (Coventry & Robertson 1980, Meredith et al. 2003), Alpine She-oak Skink (Clemann 2003) and Mountain Pygmy-possum (Mansergh et al. 1988). Construction and management of hydro-electric facilities The construction and management of hydro-electric facilities modifies the landscape in the immediate vicinity of the installation, and also affects downstream hydrology. These changes can impact frog populations in several ways. Impounding of streams can submerge tracts of habitat; altered flow regimes may change habitat suitability for some species; periodic water releases or flash flooding due to aqueduct overflows may drown or flush eggs, larvae and adults downstream; reduced flows in streams may allow a build-up of sediments and colonisation of water bodies by vegetation; mitigation of winter and spring flood events by dams is likely to reduce the maintenance of pond habitats on flood plains; and the positioning of aqueducts can result in the drying out of frog breeding sites (Bevitt et al. 1998). Such processes are likely to have affected populations of the Alpine Tree Frog. The Rocky Valley Storage dam on the Bogong High Plains inundated habitat once occupied by the frog. The Snowy Hydro impoundments such as Guthega and Tooma Dam in the Kosciuszko National Park are likely to have covered former Alpine Tree Frog breeding habitat (D. Hunter pers. comm.). However, these changes have been relatively localised and do not explain the broader decline of the Alpine Tree Frog. Ski resort development The historical range of the Alpine Tree Frog overlaps with several alpine resort areas, and the frog was once common at several of these sites. However, declines mean that it apparently no longer occurs at most resorts, with the exception of the Mt Hotham/Dinner Plain area. Likely threats from resort development include the direct destruction of habitat, modification of hydrological regimes, silting and pollution of waterbodies, and the creation of barriers to movement via the construction of roads, tracks and walls.

Populations and areas under threat The scale and rapidity of declines of the Alpine Tree Frog suggest that all extant populations are under threat. The apparent pattern of high altitude populations disappearing first (Osborne et al. 1999) suggests that extant populations at higher altitudes may be under more pressure than populations persisting at lower altitudes. Although there are insufficient data to adequately quantify or assess any of the threatening processes likely to be acting on the Alpine Tree Frog, certain populations are likely to be particularly at risk from certain processes. For example, populations persisting in areas still subject to cattle grazing in Victoria (such as those on the greater Dargo High Plains) are more at risk from habitat damage and destruction due to grazing than those in areas where cattle grazing is no longer permitted. Populations at the higher

8 altitudes are likely to be particularly susceptible to high mortality rates due to UV-B radiation, and perhaps Chytridiomycosis, which appears to be particularly destructive in higher, cooler environments. Populations on freehold land (such as Horsehair Plain) or in and around alpine resorts are most susceptible to loss or damage of habitat due to development and maintenance activities.

Recovery Information

Existing Conservation Measures The majority of work on the Alpine Tree Frog has involved surveys across the frog’s range, including the collection of many specimens for museums, prior to the frog being recognised as threatened. More recently, surveys have sought to establish the extant range of the Alpine Tree Frog (Gillespie et al. 1995; Hunter et al. 1997; Osborne et al. 1999; Ecology Australia 2000; Clemann 2002; Steane 2003). A population of Alpine Tree Frogs on Horsehair Plain in Victoria in an area subject to development for an airstrip and housing has been monitored since 1997 (Ecology Australia 1998). Thirty Alpine Tree Frogs were relocated from four waterbodies threatened with destruction and released at one site on Horsehair Plain and one site on the adjacent Racecourse Plain (Ecology Australia 1998), although the fate of the relocated frogs is unknown. The only quantitative work to address specific potential threats to the Alpine Tree Frog has been that of Broomhall et al. (2000) and unpublished work conducted by staff and students from the University of Canberra (D. Hunter pers. comm.).

Overall Objective The overall objective of this plan is to achieve down-listing of the Alpine Tree Frog from Vulnerable nationally to a lower threat category based on 2001 IUCN Red List criteria of population size and trends, extent of occurrence, and probability of extinction. Within the life span of this Recovery Plan, the Specific Objectives for recovery of the Alpine Tree Frog are to: 1. Determine the distribution and structure of Alpine Tree Frog populations. 2. Address known or predicted threats to the Alpine Tree Frog. 3. Ensure that land use activities will not impinge upon the survival of the Alpine Tree Frog. 4. Encourage community awareness and support for Alpine Tree Frog conservation.

Program Implementation and Evaluation The Recovery Plan will run for five years from the time of adoption of a Final Plan, and will be managed by the relevant nature conservation agency for each State/Territory. A Recovery Team for threatened alpine frogs in south-eastern Australia, consisting of scientists, land managers and field naturalists will be established to oversee recovery of threatened alpine frogs. Recovery Teams already exist for some threatened frog taxa, and many of the threatening processes and recovery actions that must be addressed by these teams are also relevant to the conservation of the Alpine Tree Frog. Consequently, effective consideration of the issues salient to the conservation of threatened frogs in south-eastern Australia is likely to be best served by a single Recovery Team. The Recovery Team has an important role in overseeing the implementation of recovery actions, evaluating their effectiveness, and planning and directing future actions. The Recovery Team will be responsible for annual assessments of progress towards recovery. This Recovery Plan will be reviewed within five years of the date of its adoption under the EPBC Act.

9 Recovery Actions Objective 1 Determine the distribution and structure of Alpine Tree Frog populations. Recovery Criterion: Clarification of the distribution, abundance, structure and taxonomic status of Alpine Tree Frog populations throughout its range. Action 1.1: Undertake a genetic and morphological analysis to determine the composition of Litoria verreauxii populations throughout the south-eastern highlands. The differentiation of the Alpine Tree Frog from closely related species and sub-species is relatively straightforward in Victoria. In this area Alpine Tree Frogs are restricted to plateaux atop the mountain ranges of the Great Divide, and sympatric taxa from the Litoria ewingii complex are easily distinguished by colour differences. However, within the Kosciuszko National Park there exists a cline in morphology and call characteristics from lowland populations of L. v. verreauxii to the Alpine Tree Frog sensu stricto at higher elevations (Smith et al. 2003). For the purposes of this Recovery Plan an arbitrary altitudinal cut-off of 1100 m has been adopted to delimit ‘Alpine Tree Frogs’ from those taxa at lower altitudes. Whilst this arbitrary cut-off will be useful for immediate implementation of recovery actions, clarification of the systematic and geographic relationships between the Alpine Tree Frog and related taxa across this clinal zone will enable more efficient and targeted management. Microsatellite screening will clarify gene flow on the altitudinal gradient and mitochondrial DNA sequencing will clarify the phylogenetic relationships between the Alpine Tree Frog and closely related taxa. Using toeclips collected from frogs along transects across the likely contact zones between subspecies, a metapopulational analysis of genetics will be undertaken by isolating microsatellites. Responsibility: Department of Sustainability & Environment Vic (DSE)

Action 1.2: Determine the distribution and abundance of Alpine Tree Frog populations. The extant geographic distribution of the Alpine Tree Frog is uncertain. Patterns of decline in relation to environmental factors such as habitat, disturbance processes and other potentially threatening processes are poorly understood. Furthermore, the impact of the large fire that occurred over most of the geographic range of the Alpine Tree Frog in early 2003 has not been assessed. Broad-scale surveys are required across the historic range of the taxon to establish current distribution and patterns of decline in relation to habitat, environmental gradients and disturbance processes. Data from such a survey could be modelled to assess the relative contributions of various environmental factors to the observed pattern of decline. Such surveys would also provide the basis for establishing appropriate population monitoring programs (see below). Given that detection of Alpine Tree Frogs can vary considerably within and between years (Ecology Australia 2003), continued surveys across the subspecies’ former range will be necessary in order to detect populations that may have been missed during previous surveys. Sites identified by Hunter et al. (1997) and Osborne et al. (1999) will require reconfirmation for the continued existence of Alpine Tree Frogs. The results of these surveys will be combined with historic data to establish a coordinated database containing distribution data and monitoring activities for use by the Recovery Team and each State or Territory agency. Responsibility: DSE, Parks Victoria (PV), Department of the Environment, Climate Change and Water NSW (DECCW)

Action 1.3: Determine the population demographics of the Alpine Tree Frog The nature of the decline of the Alpine Tree Frog is poorly understood. This lack of understanding is compounded by a paucity of knowledge of population demography of the taxon or related species in the L. ewingii complex. Consequently, what may constitute ‘natural’ changes / fluctuations in populations are not known; and extant populations may be continuing to decline. Information on the population dynamics of the taxon is therefore required to: (i) ascertain whether or not populations are continuing to decline; (ii) identify which life stages are critical sources of mortality and therefore potentially limiting population recovery; and (iii) examine relationships between population dynamics and environmental factors (e.g. climate).

10 Such information will assist identification of key threatening processes and their effect on populations. This information can be best gathered from appropriate population monitoring. A population monitoring program is also essential for ascertaining the response of populations to any management and conservation actions. The selection of monitoring sites is contingent upon the previous Actions. Ideally several populations would be selected across the existing geographic range of the species, incorporating different management regimes and existing monitoring sites on Horsehair Plain and in Kosciuszko National Park. Responsibility: DSE, PV, DECCW

Objective 2 Address known or predicted threats to the Alpine Tree Frog. Recovery Criterion: Threats to the Alpine Tree Frog are identified and remedial measures are developed and implemented. Action 2.1: Determine the extent and impact of chytrid fungus disease Disease caused by Amphibian Chytrid Fungus (chytridiomycosis) is an EPBC Act-listed Key Threatening Process, and a national Threat Abatement Plan has been prepared (DEH 2006) that outlines key actions to mitigate the impact of this disease. Chytridiomycosis has been implicated in the decline of alpine amphibian species (Hollis 2003; Osborne et al. 2001), some of which occur in sympatry with the Alpine Tree Frog. Therefore, actions addressing chytridiomycosis identified in this plan are viewed as part of a broader program of research and investigation into the role and mitigation of disease in amphibian declines, with particular emphasis on the Australian Alps. As with other declining frog species, the relationship between the prevalence of chytrid fungus, associated disease and population declines is not known. As there are other threatening processes potentially critical to the viability of Alpine Tree Frog populations, it is necessary to establish the relative importance of chytridiomycosis and its ability to significantly adversely affect populations. Although high infection rates have been observed in Alpine Tree Frog populations, this does not necessarily mean that the pathogen is the primary cause of population declines. In order to assess this, the prevalence of chytrid fungus in Alpine Tree Frog populations will be monitored in conjunction with the population monitoring program (Action 4). All individuals captured during monitoring will be swabbed and the presence of chytrids assessed using polymerase chain reaction techniques developed by the Health Laboratories, CSIRO. These techniques enable high probability of detection of chytrids on individual frogs. This allows infection rates in populations to be monitored spatially and temporally in conjunction with environmental variables, and also allows population responses to the fungus to be assessed. A laboratory experiment will be undertaken to investigate the relative susceptibilities of each of the alpine frogs (L. v. alpina, Crinia signifera, Geocrinia victoriana, Limnodynastes dumerilii, Pseudophryne corroboree and Pseudophryne pengilleyi). This will include: (1) relative susceptibility to initial infection; and (2) relative developmental rates of the disease and survival threshold for each species. Captive raised specimens will be individually housed, infected with a standard infective dose of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and sampled for the presence and prevalence of B. dendrobatidis throughout the experiment. Experimental design will follow that developed by Ardipradja (2001). This action will provide data on intra- and inter-specific variation in behavioural and physiological resistance to B. dendrobatidis. It will also provide valuable data for interpreting Australian alpine amphibian declines. This action will be undertaken by the Amphibian Research Centre (ARC) in collaboration with the James Cook University, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine (JCU, SPHTM, Townsville), with support from leading veterinarians and chytrid experts including: Dr Lee Berger and Dr Alex Hyatt (Australian Animal Health Laboratories, CSIRO) and Associate Professor Richard Speare (JCU SPHTM). This action is technically feasible, and the likelihood of success is high. Responsibility: Amphibian Research Centre, DSE, PV, DECCW

11 Action 2.2: Investigate the impact of climate change Climate change is a potential threat to the Alpine Tree Frog, particularly because populations are geographically isolated and restricted to alpine and montane environments. Climate changes, either due to long-term changes through enhanced greenhouse effects, or other shorter-term natural environmental fluctuations, may have contributed to the recent decline observed in Alpine Tree Frog populations. Bennett et al. (1991) predicted that the bioclimate of the Alpine Tree Frog would dramatically contract with rises in temperature. Climate change has also been implicated as being responsible, in part, for the decline in the Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) (Osborne 1990), also an alpine species with a restricted distribution. Recently, more sensitive models have been developed for modelling the effects of climate change (Chilcott et al. 2003, Thuiller 2003). These models can assess correlations between recent climate fluctuations and changes to the distribution of the Alpine Tree Frog. This action will compare recent changes in the distribution of the taxon, determined from comparison of historic and current distribution (Action 3), with predicted distribution changes according to bioclimatic geographic models. Responsibility: DSE

Objective 3 Ensure that land use activities will not impinge upon the survival of the Alpine Tree Frog Recovery Criterion: Extant populations of Alpine Tree Frogs are not threatened by current or proposed land use. Action 3.1: Prepare prescriptions for habitat management. Appropriate management of the habitat of the Alpine Tree Frog is likely to be an important factor in the continued persistence of the species. Current knowledge of the habitat use and, consequently, the management of the habitat of the Alpine Tree Frog is incomplete. However, at many sites populations of this species are under imminent threat from a range of processes. Consequently, conservation measures cannot be delayed until research findings are available. Urgent management will need to be driven by the best available knowledge, implemented immediately, and refined based upon monitoring of the results of that management and other research. Habitat management prescriptions for the Alpine Tree Frog will remain dynamic; as our knowledge of the interactions between the frog and its habitat are improved, prescriptions will be refined. In the first instance and in the absence of any other guidelines, the following interim points should apply at all sites:  Retain terrestrial habitat elements – rocks, logs, dense vegetation, other shelter sites;

 Establish mechanisms for prevention of access of pollutants to the waterbody. Additionally, opportunities should be taken where possible by water, sewage and road authorities to construct or enhance carefully located waterbodies that are of strategic importance for the maintenance of local populations. The impact on the habitat of the Alpine Tree Frog of weeds, pest and silting due to roads and other infrastructure is unknown, but the management of these issues remains a high priority for land management agencies throughout the distribution of the Alpine Tree Frog, and will provide in-kind support for this recovery action. Careful, targeted control of pest plants and animals within the habitat of the subspecies will be undertaken following consultation with frog biologists so that the impact on the frogs is negligible. The costs presented below represent the preparation of documentation of habitat management prescriptions. The scale and cost of remedial habitat management is currently unknown. Responsibility: DSE, PV, DECCW

12 Objective 4 Undertake community education and communication to support Alpine Tree Frog conservation. Recovery Criterion: Community support for, and involvement in, the recovery program for the Alpine Tree Frog is evident. Action 4.1: Identify opportunities for community involvement in the conservation of the Alpine Tree Frog From simply increasing public awareness and sympathy, through to public involvement in activities such as monitoring, habitat management and weed control, public interest and involvement will augment conservation efforts for the Alpine Tree Frog. In order to encourage and facilitate this interest and involvement, an information brochure will be developed detailing the identification, biology and plight of the Alpine Tree Frog, as well as information on the subspecies’ habitat, and protocols for recording observations of this frog. Brochures will also contain contact details for those wishing to contribute to research and management activities. These brochures will be made available to the public through offices of land management agencies in each state and territory in which the Alpine Tree Frog occurs. Responsibility: DSE, PV, DECCW

Management Practices

Management practices required for the conservation of the Alpine Tree Frog  Management of each mountain or plateau as a separate, functional ‘population’.  Habitat retention and legal protection of sites where possible, especially on public land.  Liaison with land managers, including private land holders, to secure sympathetic management of the species and its habitat.  Searches of known and potential habitat to determine current distribution and size of populations.  Investigation of biology and ecology, especially causes of decline, factors potentially limiting recruitment, and the use of non-breeding habitat  Investigation of the relationships between Alpine Tree Frog and associated habitat, and its response to environmental processes.  Demographic censusing to gather life history information and to monitor the success of management actions.  Ex situ measures including captive husbandry.  Community participation in recovery actions.

Affected Interests In Victoria, the Department of Sustainability and Environment has ultimate responsibility for the management of threatened species, and is the primary agency involved in threatened species’ management on public and private land, with the exception of the parks and reserves system. Parks Victoria (PV) manages the parks and reserves system (including national, state and metropolitan parks, marine national parks, many significant cultural assets and Melbourne’s bays and waterways). As a large proportion of the Alpine Tree Frog’s Victorian distribution occurs in the Alpine National Park, PV has management responsibilities to this taxon within their estate. PV will be involved in planning of monitoring and recovery actions and will contribute to this Recovery Plan via the facilitation of access to sites for these purposes. The Alpine Tree Frog also occurs within the boundaries of alpine resorts in Victoria and NSW. In Victoria each resort is managed by a Resort Management Board and co-ordination is effected through an Alpine Resorts Co-ordinating Council, which reports to the Minister for Environment. The Boards have a series of functions related to the operating, promotion and provision of services within resorts, and are obliged to carry out these functions in an environmentally sound manner. In NSW, the ski resorts occur within the Kosciuszko National Park, and environmental

13 issues are regulated by the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act Amendment (Ski Resort Areas) Act 2001. The Alpine Tree Frog occurs on freehold land at places such as Horsehair Plain (near Dinner Plain in the Victorian High Country; Ecology Australia 1998, 2000, 2003) and the Snowy Plains east of Mt Jagungal in NSW (W. Osborne pers. comm.), necessitating the involvement of private individuals. Under the EPBC Act, these individuals have a responsibility to ensure that development on their properties do not harm the Alpine Tree Frog, and any such developments commencing since the inception of the Act will trigger a referral. These private individuals can facilitate monitoring and recovery actions for the Alpine Tree Frog by permitting access to breeding sites or other potential habitat on their land, consulting with agencies and individuals involved in these activities, and ensuring that their activities do not negatively impact the taxon or its habitat on or near their properties. The Alpine Tree Frog has been recorded in areas within the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme, operated and maintained by Snowy Hydro Limited (located mostly in the Kosciuszko National Park). Snowy Hydro is already involved with DECCW in developing and implementing programs to protect threatened species including the Mountain Pygmy Possum Burramys parvus, the Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri and the Southern Corroboree Frog Pseudophryne corroboree, and this relationship will continue for the Alpine Tree Frog.

Role and Interests of Indigenous People Indigenous communities on whose traditional lands the Alpine Tree Frog occurs have been advised, through the relevant regional indigenous facilitator, of this draft Recovery Plan, and invited to comment and be involved in the implementation of the Recovery Plan.

Biodiversity Benefits The Recovery Plan includes a number of potential biodiversity benefits for other species and vegetation communities in the alpine bioregion. Principally, this will be through the protection and management of habitat. The adoption of broad-scale management techniques and collection of baseline data will also benefit a number of other species occurring in association with the Alpine Tree Frog. Monitoring of frogs via call census is generally applicable to other frogs that call at the same time and place, enabling the collection of data on syntopic species. Actions to conserve the habitat of the Alpine Tree Frog will benefit other alpine and sub-alpine fauna and flora within and around the habitat of this frog. The Alpine Bog Community, Caltha introloba Herbland Community and the Fen (Bog Pool) Community are listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. Conservation of aquatic habitats in alpine areas is likely to be beneficial to these communities. In NSW, other threatened alpine frogs include the Northern Corroboree Frog Pseudophryne pengilleyi and Southern Corroboree Frog. Both of these species are likely to benefit from improved understanding and management of alpine habitats, and wider understanding of the issues relevant to managing threatened alpine taxa and threatening processes is likely to engender support for conservation measures. The Alpine Water Skink Eulamprus kosciuskoi is listed as a threatened taxon under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, and has been the subject of an Action Statement (Meredith et al. 2003). It is dependent upon wet heath and stream/bog habitats in alpine areas. Amongst the list of Australian amphibians that have been reported to be in decline, a notable sub-group is those species from high elevations and/or seemingly undisturbed environments (Osborne et al. 1999, Hollis 2003). Research, monitoring and management actions identified in this Recovery Plan will assist with gathering knowledge and refining techniques that will contribute to the efforts of amphibian biologists working toward the conservation of other high- elevation amphibian taxa. Conservation of the Alpine Tree Frog will also play an important role in public education as threatened fauna have the potential to act as ‘flagship species’ for highlighting broader nature conservation and biodiversity issues, such as disease, climate change, grazing and habitat degradation.

14 Social and Economic Impacts The implementation of this Recovery Plan is unlikely to cause significant adverse social and economic impacts. Most of the known range of the Alpine Tree Frog is within the Alpine and Kosciuszko National Parks, and conservation of the frog is likely to enhance the biodiversity values and conservation objectives of these reserves. However, some populations persist on freehold land, where social and economic considerations are pertinent. Conservation of the habitat of the Alpine Tree Frog may necessitate limiting or withdrawing activities that conflict with conservation objectives in some areas. Examples of this may include withdrawing cattle grazing or reducing stock densities in some areas, or restrictions on development on private property or in alpine resorts. Such measures will have some social and economic impacts. Thus, the elimination of cattle grazing from certain areas may benefit several threatened fauna species and sensitive alpine vegetation. Cattle grazing within Kosciusko National Park (NSW) was terminated in 1969, and the Victorian Government announced the termination of cattle grazing in the Alpine National Park in 2006, so implementation of this Recovery Plan will not cause any additional economic impact. The conservation of the Alpine Tree Frog within alpine resorts may have negative social and economic impacts if recreational development is curtailed. Responsible management of alpine resorts may require increased short-term costs to ensure that any new developments within the alpine resorts are set up to adequately cope with all impacts and wastes. For example, it may be more expensive to plan, provide and maintain high quality board-walks, tracks and roads that avoid sensitive habitat. However, these costs may be greatly exceeded by the costs of developments that allow degradation of natural areas and require high restoration expenses in the future, if indeed the degradation is reversible. There are considerable positive benefits in protecting Alpine Tree Frog habitats. The protection of these areas will augment intrinsic natural values enjoyed by recreationalists such as birdwatchers, photographers, artists and walkers. These benefits complement the management aims of the relevant national parks, and visitors pursuing these activities provide year-round economic benefits for the local districts.

Acknowledgments

We thank the following people for making valuable contributions to this Recovery Plan: Martin Batt, Barbara Baxter, Greg Hollis, Glen Johnson, Ron Kelly, Ricky Morris, Michael Scroggie, Steve Smith and Gary Backhouse – Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria. Dianne Bray and Jane Melville – Museum Victoria John Coventry – Emeritus Curator, Museum Victoria Dave Hunter, Susan Davis and Rod Pietsch – Department of the Environment and Climate Change, NSW Will Osborne – University of Canberra Alex Hyatt – CSIRO Murray Littlejohn –University of Melbourne Brian Malone – La Trobe University Gerry Marantelli – Amphibian Research Centre Emma Moysey and Darren Quin – Ecology Australia Pty Ltd Peter Robertson – Wildlife Profiles Pty Ltd Ross Sadlier – Australian Museum Rick Speare – James Cook University Tania Stellini – Aboriginal Affairs Victoria Sarah Way – formerly Ecology Australia Pty Ltd

15 Bibliography

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18 Priority, Feasibility and Estimated Costs of Recovery Actions

Action Description Priority Feasibility Responsibility Cost estimate

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total

1 Population distribution, structure

1.1 Genetic & morphological analysis H 90% DECCW, DSE $0 $50,000 $0 $0 $0 $50,000

1.2 Distribution & abundance H 100% DSE, PV, DECCW $40,000 $40,000 $30,000 $20,000 $0 $130,000

1.3 Population demographics H 100% DSE, PV, DECCW $50,000 $50,000 $50,000 $50,000 $50,000 $250,000

2 Threats

2.1 Chytrid fungus H 90% ARC, DSE, PV, $50,000 $40,000 $0 $0 $0 $90,000 DECCW

2.2 Climate change M 75% DSE $0 $0 $80,000 $0 $0 $80,000

3 Land use management

3.1 Habitat management prescriptions H 90% DSE, PV, DECCW $0 $15,000 $0 $0 $0 $15,000

4 Education, communication

4.1 Community extension L 100% DSE, PV, DECCW $0 $15,000 $0 $0 $0 $15,000

TOTALS $140,000 $210,000 $160,000 $70,000 $50,000 $630,000

19