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The Soul As the `Guiding Idea' of Psychology: Kant on Scientific Studies in History and Philosophy of Science xxx (2018) 1e12 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Studies in History and Philosophy of Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/shpsa The soul as the ‘guiding idea’ of psychology: Kant on scientific psychology, systematicity, and the idea of the soul Katharina T. Kraus a,b,*,1 a University of Notre Dame, Department of Philosophy, USA b Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, University College Freiburg, Germany article info Article history: Foundations of Natural Science, Kant considers three reasons against 2 Received 27 January 2017 psychology being a science properly so-called (see 4:471). Available online xxx Firstly, psychology cannot give a rich enough mathematical description of its subject matter, since mental states are only given Keywords: along one dimension, viz. time, but do not instantiate the Kant geometrical laws of three-dimensional space. Secondly, psycho- Psychology Idea of a Science logical examinations lack the objectivity that is required for a sci- Systematicity ence, since the mental states under investigation cannot be Idea of the Soul reproduced or experimentally manipulated in a subject- independent manner and may even change upon observation. Moreover, thirdly, psychology lacks a priori principles e such as the metaphysical foundations of Newtonian physics e that would provide an apodictically necessary basis from which psychological laws could be derived.3 According to the standard interpretation of 1. Introduction his critical remarks in the Foundations, these reasons induce Kant to accept, if anything, only a “natural history of the soul”, rather than a Whilst Kant’s fascination with the ground-breaking results of systematic body of psychological cognitions that could qualify as a Newtonian physics is well-known, his interests in the sciences science (4:471).4 extend far beyond that and include “natural” phenomena as diverse These three negative considerations, which cast doubts on as biological organisms, historical processes, social behaviour and psychology’s scientific status, have been shown e on grounds that mental deficiencies and illnesses. Yet for such phenomena it is far Kant himself could agree with e not to fully rule out an account of less clear how his conception of experience e that is, paradigmat- scientific psychology in a somewhat weaker sense of science.5 Two ically, empirical cognition of spatiotemporal, material objects that recent attempts to rescue (some parts of) psychology on Kantian move in space according to the Newtonian laws of motion e can be grounds have focused on its connection with Kant’s considerations applied; and hence, whether the theory of science that he derives regarding action-explanation. On the one hand, Patrick Frierson has from this conception can in fact ground such sciences as biology, reconstructed Kant’s empirical psychology in terms of an history, anthropology, and psychology. Kant’s critical comments on empirical psychology have often been taken to deny psychology a scientific status altogether. 2 All translations of Kant’s texts are according to the Cambridge Edition of the Empirical psychology e as it is conceived in Kant’s time e primarily Works of Immanuel Kant (Kant, 1992ff), if not stated otherwise. Reference to Kant’s aims at an account of mental phenomena such as perception, works follows the Prussian Academy edition (Kant, 1900ff.), giving volume and page, and in particular for the Critique of Pure Reason, the standard A/B-pagination cognition, desire, feeling, emotion, and intention for action. Due to for the Editions from 1781 and 1787, respectively. their special character, such as their non-spatiality and their pri- 3 This third issue is not explicitly mentioned, but the context in which the dis- vacy, it seems that mental states cannot be as easily cognized as cussion of psychology in the Foundations takes place indicates this issue as a physical states of material bodies and do not lend themselves to consequence of the first point. 4 Pollok (2001); Westphal (2004); Friedman (2013). scientific investigations in the same way. In the Metaphysical 5 See Frierson (2014), pp.1e52, Hatfield (2006); on mathematizability, see Nayak and Sotnak (1995), Kraus (2013). Sturm (2001, 2009) argues that these negative considerations are directed specifically against a purely introspectionist conception * University of Notre Dame, Department of Philosophy, USA. of psychology that was adopted by philosophers of the rationalist tradition such as E-mail address: [email protected]. Wolff (1732) and Baumgarten (1982/1739), but that they do not necessarily exclude 1 Postal Address: 100 Malloy Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556, U.S.A. other conceptions of psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.11.010 0039-3681/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Please cite this article in press as: Kraus, K. T., The soul as the ‘guiding idea’ of psychology: Kant on scientific psychology, systematicity, and the idea of the soul, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.11.010 2 K.T. Kraus / Studies in History and Philosophy of Science xxx (2018) 1e12 introspection-based theoretical science that explains human This paper argues that e given Kant’s broader views of the thought and action by means of efficient-causal laws of nature. systematic sciences of nature that include both “proper” (e.g., Even though this reconstruction account concedes certain differ- physics) and “improper” natural sciences (e.g., chemistry and ences from the proper natural sciences due to the specific character biology) e psychology displays a sufficient degree of system- of psychology’s subject matter, it assumes that in psychology an aticity to qualify as a self-contained improper natural science, empirical object, viz. the empirical self, can be assumed to appear in which primarily concerns human mental life, rather than human inner sense and be cognized according to causal laws from the action.9 Instead of rebutting the commonly accepted methodo- perspective of theoretical cognition.6 logical critique, this paper focuses more constructively on the On the other hand, Thomas Sturm has argued that, in virtue of principles of systematicity that underlie a science and that fierce criticisms of psychology’s methodology, Kant fundamentally outline its subject matter, methods and purposes. Starting with transforms his conception of psychology by integrating it with the Kant’s general definition of science as a system unified “under more comprehensive science of the human being, viz. pragmatic one idea” (A832/B861), I argue that the transcendental idea of the anthropology. According to this transformation account, empirical soul, if understood appropriately, is that idea that is needed to psychology is no longer viewed as a theoretical science in its own turn our inner experience of mental states into a systematic body right, but rather certain empirical-psychological cognitions are of psychological cognition.10 Central to this interpretation is the seen as supplementary for a more comprehensive pragmatic sci- thesis that, firstly, the idea of the soul delineates the domain of ence e namely those psychological cognitions that are needed to empirical psychology by defining a projected whole that is account for human agency from the perspective of practical cogni- required for cognizing mental states e such states as are to be tion and with a view to its usefulness for improving human conduct examined in psychology. Secondly, the idea gives internal in the world. In consequence, psychological cognition is assumed to structure to psychology by pursuing the systematic unification of rely not primarily on methods of introspection, but on “external” psychological laws. In consequence, by approaching the object of observations of human actions in social settings and on a back- psychology from the perspective of the self-conscious subject, ground theory concerning rational and social aspects of human who e in virtue of being capable of inner experience e first being.7 constitutes the psychological reality to be grasped in the corre- Whilst I agree with the reconstruction account (against a sponding science, Kant’s conception of empirical psychology es- transformation account) that Kant’s conception of empirical psy- capes two major risks: it neither speculatively claims the chology deserves to be rescued as a theoretical science in its own existence of the soul as some sort of (empirical or noumenal) right, I think that this account lacks an adequate justification of substance, nor succumbs to a reductionist programme such as psychology’s domain and purpose. I side with the transformation materialism or behaviourism. account on the issue that a major (external) purpose of empirical First, I introduce the relevant roles that principles of sys- psychology is to supplement pragmatic anthropology; however, I tematicity play in Kant’s general theory of science (x1). Then I argue that it can serve this purpose only if it is recognized as a turn to the transcendental idea of the soul that is characterized systematic body of theoretical psychological cognition in its own as the “guiding thread of inner experience” (A672/B700) and right. My approach differs from most other accounts in that I do not discuss how it contributes to systematization at different levels: think that any such rescue attempt must aim to refute Kant’s at the level of inner experience (x2), and at the level of psycho- methodological worries about psychology in the Foundations and logical cognition (x3). Finally, I point out the specific, irreducible elsewhere. Rather, I think that the focus should be on an analysis of role of psychology within the system of sciences, despite certain scientific systematicity, which provides useful conceptual tools for qualificationsregardingitsscientific status (x4). such a rescue.8 2. Kant’s philosophy of science: systematicity and the guiding ideas of a science Kant argues that, in order for a set of cognitions to count as 6 e See Frierson, 2014, pp.9 34.
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