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Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58

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Lithic industries with Palaeolithic elements in Northeast India

Manjil Hazarika a,b a Indian Archaeological Society, New Delhi 16, India b Himalayan Languages Project, Leiden University, The Netherlands article info abstract

Article history: Northeast India is one of the poorly documented areas archaeologically and hardly is considered in the Available online 20 October 2011 discussions on Indian prehistory. To date, no site has pushed back the antiquity of human presence in this region prior to Late Pleistocene. However, circumstantial evidence indicates its significance for early hominin dispersals during Early/Middle Pleistocene from Africa to Island Southeast Asia. The Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene shows an increase in the archaeological record of the Hoabinhian and Anyathian culture, which further demonstrates close affinities with the Southeast Asian record. This paper summarises the lithic industries of the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene in this region in connection with the adjoining areas of Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction hominids from Africa, to Island Southeast Asia and East Asia via the Indian subcontinent (Dennell, 2009) in the Early/Middle Pleistocene, The presence of Palaeolithic cultural material in Northeast India is and even was considered a partial barrier (Field and Lahr, 2006; Field a debated issue in Indian Prehistory. On the basis of tool typology, et al., 2007) to eastward migration during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) several assemblages have been placed within the context of ‘Palae- 4(71e59 ka). On the contrary, most scholars (Rightmire, 2001; olithic’ in this region. One of the main problems with these Palae- Mithen and Reed, 2002) depict a tentative route of the eastward olithic materials is that they occur in relatively younger deposits and movements of hominins from Africa to Island Southeast Asia through in most cases in association with axes/adzes of Neolithic origin and the Northeast Indian corridor. However, the importance of this pottery. The Garo Hills, Meghalaya, has yielded the largest number of region in this regard has never been discussed in detail. stone tools with Palaeolithic characteristics (Medhi, 1988), but The objective of the present paper is to review the evidence for without a well-understood chrono-stratigraphic context. Several Palaeolithic remains of NEI in relation to the adjoining areas of the early workers (Sharma, 1972; Sankalia, 1974) have analysed and Eastern Himalayas, especially Nepal, South China, Myanmar and divided these materials on the basis of typology into chronological Bangladesh. Bhutan has not yet yielded any convincing Palaeolithic sequences of Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods. site. Considering the archaeological record, cultural affinities/ However, Ghosh (1978) has contradicted these views and suggested connections with its surrounding areas will be examined in that these materials are not Palaeolithic, but just ‘Neolithic debitage’. a geographical perspective, bearing in mind that this region This area is often referred to as inaccessible during the Pleistocene connects a huge landmass of Asia, lying at the junction of South Asia, due to dense forests, hilly terrain, heavy rainfall and harsh climatic Southeast Asia and East Asia (Fig.1). Presently, the term NEI (roughly conditions, and so was interpreted as unfavourable for humans encompassing the areas between 22o-30oN and 89o-97oE) is used (Ghosh,1978; Misra, 2001). However, this region is considered one of to indicate the region covering the states of Assam, Arunachal Pra- the principal geographic corridors for faunal migrations between the desh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, and Tripura. Indian subcontinent and the rest of Asia (Hooijer, 1949; Tougard, The Brahmaputra valley is surrounded by several ranges such as the 2001; Chauhan, 2008; Nanda, 2008). Due to the lack of evidence eastern Himalayas on the north and east, the Patkai and Naga hills for early humans in Northeast India (henceforth NEI) prior to the Late on the northeast, and Mikir hills and Shillong plateau on the south. Pleistocene (Ramesh, 1989), this area has not figured in the theo- The Barak river valley forms the southern part of this region. retical discussions pertaining to early hominid dispersals. This region has been regarded as a geographical barrier for early dispersals of 2. Early hominin dispersals through NEI?

One of the major focuses of attention among palaeo-Anthro E-mail address: [email protected]. pologists and Prehistoric Archaeologists is the establishment of the

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M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 49

Fig. 1. Location of NEI and important localities bearing Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene sites.

earliest human occupation in different areas. Moreover, emphasis is Acheulian and supported by paleontological material. If NEI acted given towards understanding the early human dispersal in the Old as a corridor for these dispersals and early hominid movements, World from Africa, the cradle of humankind. This issue emerged as there are ample possibilities for many unexplored sites dated to the ‘out of Africa’ model, implying early Homo species stepping foot Early/Middle Pleistocene. However, as Dennell (2009) suggested, if outside Africa and dispersing to different parts of the Old World. The the lower reaches of the Ganges-Brahmaputra River were difficult formulation of this popularly known model is based on the recent to cross, then the uplands along the Himalayan foothills might have evidence of early human presence in the form of hominin remains served as a route for human movement. After reviewing the themselves or traces of their cultural activities from different sites. biogeography of Middle Pleistocene hominins in mainland South- Recent data with numerical dates authenticates a human presence in east Asia, Marwick (2009) proposed the possibility of a coastal and the Early Pleistocene time outside Africa at Atapuerca (Carbonell waterways route, although not supported with archaeological data et al., 2005) in Spain, Pirro Nord in Italy (Arzarello et al., 2007), to date, for the initial migration of hominins into Southeast Asia Dmanisi in Georgia (Lordkipanidze et al., 2007), Ubeidiya (Tchernov, from West Asia along the coast of South Asia and Myanmar. This 1995) in Israel, Riwat, Pabbi Hills (Dennell et al., 1988) in Pakistan, also supports the importance of NEI in early human movements. Isampur (Paddayya et al., 2002)andAttirampakkam(Pappu et al., Chauhan (2010b) considers two routes of entry into the Indian 2011) in India, Java (Sémah et al., 2000; Simanjuntak et al., 2010)in Subcontinent and subsequent population movements from India; Indonesia, and Longuppo Cave (Wanpo et al., 1995) and in other sites Afghanistan and Pakistan to the northwest and Myanmar in the of China (See Weiwen and Pu, 2007). Lower Palaeolithic Acheulian northeast. He also predicts NEI as a greater potential area for Early artefacts are not yet recorded from NEI (Petraglia, 1998, 2006; Pleistocene sites, reflecting a major human and faunal corridor Mishra, 2006/2007; Chauhan, 2009, 2010a). Routes, dispersal between India and Southeast Asia, as recently put forward by patterns and colonisation of different regions of the Old World by Mishra et al. (2010). early hominins with different cultural traditions, in relation to the climatic and ecological factors responsible, are thoroughly discussed 3. The Garo Hills ‘dilemma’ in recent publications (see Fleagle et al., 2010; Norton and Braun, 2010, 2011, in press). To date, few attempts have been made to Nearly four decades (initiated in mid-1970s) of intermittent establish the earliest human occupation in NEI. Recently on the basis prehistoric investigations in Garo Hills, Meghalaya have revealed of circumstantial evidence, Hazarika (2008, 2011, in press)argues, the existence of several assemblages with Palaeolithic elements. this region, as it connects the Indian Subcontinent with the East and The archaeological record and the views expressed and conclusions Southeast Asian landmass, may have acted as a possible mid-point drawn by earlier workers are discussed sequentially. The details of from Africa to Southeast Asia through South Asia for the eastward the archaeological record are based entirely on the descriptions of dispersal of early hominids. the original investigators; hence this description is dependent on Many early Palaeolithic sites, occasionally associated with their interpretations and the terminologies adopted by them. skeletal remains, are found in neighbouring areas of Nepal Subsequently, discussion will focus on evaluation of the nature and (Corvinus, 2006), South China (Gao et al., 1997; Hou et al., 2000; contexts of the artefacts which are identified (or claimed) to be of Weiwen and Pu, 2007), Northern Thailand (Reynolds, 1990), Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic traditions, following Euro- Myanmar (Movius, 1944; Ba Maw, 1995; Ba Maw et al., 1998) dated pean nomenclature. Most of these artefacts were collected from to Early/Middle Pleistocene. Mishra et al. (2010) suggests close secondary depositional contexts and were placed in different connections between India and Java in the Lower and Middle cultural stages on typological grounds. Some of the industries were Pleistocene on the basis of Palaeolithic technology of Large Flake compared and correlated with the Indian as well as southeast Asian Author's personal copy

50 M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 traditions. Such comparisons made during the 1970s and 1980s come from erosional surface of the river terraces, and hence the need further scrutiny, considering the present day archaeological stratigraphic position is not understood. data with good chrono-stratigraphic control. As these artefacts are Series IV: This is represented by microliths such as points, mostly surface collections and the chronology is not yet well scrapers, borers, blades, bladelets and arrowheads made on fine understood, the issue of the presence of Palaeolithic artefacts grained dolerite. remains as a ‘dilemma’ in the prehistory of NEI. The contradictory According to Sharma (1975), the Stone Age artefacts bear simi- view, regarding these artefacts as simply ‘Neolithic debitage’ larities with the Early, Middle and Late Stone Age complexes of (Ghosh, 1978), has also created an enigmatic situation which has India. Moreover, the handaxe tradition of Garo Hills has a close continued to influence the conceptual and theoretical discussions. parallel with the Padjitanian of Java. He argues for developmental stages within the artefacts from Early Palaeolithic to Neolithic 4. Lithic industries from the Garo Hills stages. Surface collections as well as the artefacts recovered during the Sharma (1974) in his field explorations in the Rongram and excavation at the site of Michimagiri (25330N, 9017’E) (Sharma Simsang river valleys of the Garo Hills located several Stone Age and Roy, 1985) during March 1976, show homogeneity in nature sites at Rongram Alagiri, Chitra Abri, Selbalgiri, Michimagiri, Watri indicating the same industrial tradition. The raw material is fine Abri, Waramgiri, Chibragiri and Rombhagiri in an undulating area grained blackish dolerite which is heavily weathered with a reddish of 500e800 m asl. A trial trench at the site of Selbalgiri, located on brown patina. Besides the prepared core technique as a dominant a terrace of the Rongram River, was undertaken. Typologically, the technique, a hinged fracture technique was also used for prepara- artefacts found in the trench are categorized into four distinct tion of the artefacts. Typologically, the artefacts reveal at least three industries: (i) a flake and blade industry, (ii) a microlithic industry, industrial traditions: Levallois flake tradition as the dominant one, (iii) a chipped stone axe industry, and (iv) a ground and polished blade production, and Acheulian tradition. The artefacts include stone industry associated with a crude handmade pottery. side-scrapers, end-scrapers, borers, and utilised Levallois flakes, Furthermore, he observed some roughly flaked discoid tools and points, blades, micro- lunates and leaf shaped points. The excava- stone axes ‘‘showing Lower Palaeolithic tool tradition”. The site of tors concluded with an argument that, in the absence of a similar Waramgiri has well exposed dolerite dykes which were utilised as assemblage in Southeast Asia and as the Garo Hills, the material raw material for making artefacts from the “Lower Palaeolithic” to does not differ significantly from those found in mainland Indian the end of the Neolithic. The artefacts occur in the eroded surface sites, and an Indian origin of the Michimagiri artefacts can be and in mint condition in a yellowish silt layer. A few handaxes, postulated. scrapers and points showing “Mousterian” characteristics were Sharma and Roy (1985) discovered Stone Age artefacts in-situ at excavated from the silt layer. Ground and polished stone and two sites (NBG-A and NBG-B) at Nangwalbibra at the confluence of pottery were not found at Waramgiri. Flake and blade industries are the Simsang and Rongu rivers during 1977 and 1978. The site of found at both Michimagiri and Watri Abri. The frequency of blades NBG-A has yielded choppers, chopping tools and flakes of dolerite is greater at Watri Abri. in a cemented gravel deposit. The site of NBG-B produced scrapers, Sharma (1974) noted that: points, flakes and cores of chert, without pebble tools, and except for the chert artefacts, other materials are found in stratified 1. Both pebble tool and chopper elements in association with the context. Some of their significant observations are: handaxe facies of crudely flaked “Abbevillian” and late Acheulian types are present in this industry. (i) The handaxe-cleaver tradition is not present at the site of 2. Elements of “Levalloisian-Mousterian” tradition are present in Nangwalbibra, from which it differs with other sites of the the flake tools. The tools include usual types of scrapers and Central Garo Hills. points, and tanged points of “Aterian” type, and “Mousterian” (ii) The possibilities of typological and technological similarities types of flakes with thick blunt backs. between Nangwalbibra pebble tools and those of Soanian of 3. The Blade industry also shows good development. Northwestern India cannot be denied. 4. Lesser development of the microliths is attributed to the unsuitability of dolerite as raw material for the preparation of Sharma (1986) proposed the Nangwalbibra (NBG-A) pebble microliths. choppers to be identical with Soanian of Northwestern India. Some 5. Another significant observation is the presence of Hoabinhian flake tools made on chert at NBG-B show characteristics of the Late cultural elements, a stone axe industry dominantly found in Soan and Middle Palaeolithic flake tool industry. Southeast Asia, based on the production of unifacially flaked Typo-technological study of stone tool industries by Sonowal axes from flattish oval pebbles. (1987) established the presence of a blade flake tool tradition in the Garo Hills. The site of Michimagiri (III) (Sharma, 1985; Sonowal Sharma (1975) studied the archaeological remains of Meghalaya and Sharma, 1986)at25300- 25450 N; 90150- 90300 Eatan and discusses the Neolithic and Palaeolithic periods. He divides the elevation of w800 m has yielded a “huge quantity of finished tool, entire prehistoric period into four series: waste flakes and cores indicating characters of an extensive factory Series I: includes artefact types such as handaxes, cleavers, site.” A small trench at the site reveals one cultural layer of 1 m choppers, chopping tools, discoids, and pointed tools found at the thickness. The artefacts are mainly made on flakes and blades prehistoric sites of Garo Hills. These artefacts are found associated representing Mousterian, Levalloisian and blade techniques. with cemented coarse gravel in in-situ position or resting directly Acheulian types of tools are smaller in size. Cleavers are made on over sandstone and shale at Rongram, Rombhagiri, and Chibragiri. flakes. They divided the industry into (a) flake industry and (b) Series II: This series is characterised by the flake tools, and the blade industry comparable to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic majority of these flakes show prepared multifaceted striking plat- industries of India. form with a prominent bulb of percussion. Regular tool types are Sonowal and Sharma (1988) presented the discovery of blunted scrapers, points and borers. back flake knives of the Central Garo Hills collected from eleven Series III: Blades and blade tools such as scrapers, points, blades sites of Rongram and Ganol river valleys at different elevations and burins are the main components of this series. These artefacts ranging from 500 to 800 m. The sites are Michimagiri III, Author's personal copy

M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 51

Thebranggiri, Selbalgiri, Mokbol Giri, Chitra Abri, Cibra Giri, Singh (1990) reported their findings of a few artefacts comprising Mechingrenchap, Watri Abri, Ganol Abri, Muksak Abri, and Dida- of handaxes, worked flake pebble with round edge, flaked pebble, migiri. The collected artefacts show that, ‘one of its longer sides is blade, flake, pebble striker, split pebble, waste flakes etc. at the site blunted and the other side is made sharp for cutting by removing of Singtom (24170N, 93540E) in the Chandel district of Manipur. flakes’. These artefacts are made on side or end flakes. Two types on Similarly, Bopardikar (1972) of the Archaeological Survey of the basis of forms have been identified, (i) in the Type I, the edge India with a multidisciplinary team explored the Daphabhum area along the longer axis is perpendicular to the bulbar end, and (ii) in of the Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh and reported evidence of the type II, the transverse cutting edge is along the shorter axis. The Palaeolithic (?) material. However, the artefacts are unconvincing blunted back of these artefacts is made by either retouching along and doubtful (Chakrabarti, 1998). Ashraf (1990) also finds some one of the long axes of the flakes or blunted naturally with an Palaeolithic stone tools consisting of choppers, cleavers and han- original thick core surface. These artefacts are comparable with the daxes from Kamla and Dikrong valley of the Papumpare district of flake knives found in the Acheulian contexts of Europe and India. Arunachal Pradesh. These claims failed so far in establishing an The Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University (IAR, undisputed chronology for the prehistoric cultures prior to the 1986e87) located some sites in the Ganol River valley, namely, Neolithic. These are the reasons why the evidence of Palaeolithic Mechingrenchap II, Didamigiri II, Didamigiri III, Michimagiri IV, and material are always neglected and generally not considered in the Sambalakong located within 2200 m and 2400 m. The sites yielded discussions on Indian Palaeolithic (Misra, 2001). Recently, Medhi mixed assemblages of Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic tools in et al. (2006) has claimed some Palaeolithic artefacts from Mizoram. addition to microliths and Neolithic artefacts. The artefacts comprise choppers, handaxes, cleavers, awls, knives, blunted blade 6. Stratigraphic contexts knives, scrapers, and points. Some more artefacts were collected from different sites, such as Misimagiri III, Didami III, Meching- Most of the chrono-stratigraphy, provided by the earlier renchap containing Middle and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts. Some scholars (Sharma, 1972, 1979; Sonowal, 1987; Mahanta, 1995)are small axes with lanceolate-tips and butts, similar to Southeast based on artefact typology and technology and hardly interpreted Asian artefacts were also collected (IAR, 1995e96). Mahanta (1995) on the basis of numerical dates, whereas the context of the sites is analysed the stone artefacts from Selbalgiri, West Garo Hills and mostly neglected. Most of the artefacts occur on erosional surfaces. identified evolutionary stages belonging to Palaeolithic, Mesolithic Chronologies have been proposed on the basis of typological and Neolithic cultures. comparison with the sites of India and Southeast Asia. However, In 1969, Sankalia (1974) visited the Garo Hills and observed that these studies failed so far to establish a well stratified chronological the Palaeolithic elements might be present in the area. Medhi sequence, corroborated with numerical dates and associated (1980) interprets the Garo Hills situation on the basis of his field archaeological data. So, the story of cultural evolution from Lower, work in the context of palaeoecology of the area. The artefacts Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is not substantiated. Study by Medhi which are not typical Neoliths have been grouped by him “under (1980) on the Quaternary history of the Garo Hills shows that the ‘pre-Neolithic’ with a clarification that the term is provisional and surfaces are definitely not older than the Pliocene. He proposed may be accepted for the time being as equivalent to ‘Palaeolithic’ a relative chronology of the various geomorphic events in Garo elsewhere in India”. Further, he prefers to assign “the pebble Hills. His observation on the geomorphology of the area does not choppers and microliths (?) found at Nangalbibra of Garo Hills to support a high antiquity for stone artefacts. These artefacts are Neolithic origin”. Medhi (1990) in surveying the state of research in found in the youngest terrace (Terrace III) and on the weathered prehistory mentions his study undertaken during 1982 and 1984 in rock surface, both geo-chronologically dated to the Late Quaternary the Garo Hills and states that the tools are not found in a stratified (Medhi, 1980, 1988). Considered to be Lower and Middle Palae- context and the ground and chipped tools are found together. olithic (based on typo-technology), these artefacts do not show any Further, he comments on the ‘Neolithic debitage’ problem initiated stratigraphical differences with microlithic/Upper Palaeolithic, by Ghosh (1978) that the chipped stone tools are not simply deb- Hoabinhian and Neolithic bearing horizons. The handaxes, itage, but purposefully knapped artefacts. Recent observations on scrapers, flakes etc. can be of any period, and are found even in later the stratigraphy of the sites occurring in the Ganol and Rongram periods. The artefacts identified as cleavers may be handadzes valleys of the Garo Hills makes it clear that the flake-blade (Medhi, 1988). The large cutting tools lack any significance in assemblage, the bifaces and the pebble tools are of Pleistocene chronological sequences. Selbalgiri II yielded a clear microlithic period, whereas the celts occurring in the yellowish brown allu- horizon below the Neolithic level, although without a strati- vium are Holocene (Sharma, 2002a). graphical break. Microliths are also found at the Neolithic level (Sharma, 1986). Sections at Rongram (Sharma, 2002b) show that 5. Evidence from Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh pebble choppers and short axes lay in the strong brown coloured alluvium of 31 cm below the dark yellowish brown alluvium at Singh (1972, 1983) in his excavation at the limestone cave site of 33 cm containing Neolithic ground tools. Artefacts of flake and Khangkhui near Ukhrul, Manipur, recorded interesting stone and blade tradition are well known in Late Pleistocene contexts of bone tool assemblages. The cave contained handaxes and cleavers Southeast Asia. However, considering the erosional situation of the in its lower level and scrapers, points, borers, blades, burins, and geological strata where the artefacts of different phases (at least bone points in the upper level. The bone industry comprises points, typologically) occur as mixed assemblages, as palimpsests, time- scrapers, chisels, perforated and blunted back knives. Badam of transgressive, should be scrutinised more carefully and if neces- Deccan College, Pune, identified the faunal assemblage as sary, should be re-excavated, to build up the actual story of the age belonging to Cervus, Sus, Bovide and wild fowl, and not older than of the industries indicating ‘archaic’ elements. Late Pleistocene in age, comparable to the faunal remains of Kur- Late Quaternary sediments are recorded in different localities of nool cave of South India (Singh, 1991). Other paleontological NEI (Ramesh and Rajagopalan,1999) and are dated to 38,020 2230 materials found in NEI are of Elephas maximus and Elephas hysu- B.P. at Tipang (Southeast Assam), 32,540 130 B.P. at Singra dricus (Badam, 1979) without much chronological data. Choppers (Lakhimpur, Assam), 40,000 B.P. at North Cachar hills (Assam), were also recorded at other localities such as in layer VI at Napachik 40,000 B.P. at Ziro valley (Arunachal Pradesh) and 35,690 3050 B.P. and Machi in Tengnoupal District of Manipur. Singh and Ranjit at Khowai and Hoara valley (Tripura). Interestingly, the stone Author's personal copy

52 M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 artefacts (of late Middle Palaeolithic/Upper Palaeolithic) of Tripura Artefacts made of fossil wood were also reported from the site of occur in Late Pleistocene deposits (Ramesh, 1989). Similarly, strati- Igara Mile in Birbhum and in cemented gravel deposits of the Tar- graphically, the flake-blade assemblage, bifaces and the pebble tools afeni River section in Midnapur in West Bengal (Chakrabarti, 1992), are placed in the Pleistocene (Sharma, 2002a). The faunal assem- Rangamati of Chittagong and Chhagalnaiya (Chakrabarti, 1988, blage at Khangkhui cave occurring with stone artefacts indicates 1992). Explorations carried out by Chakrabarti (1992) in the Late Pleistocene (Singh, 1991). Archaeological record prior to Mainamati-Lalmai Hills during 1989 revealed several localities Terminal Pleistocene/Early Holocene is very scanty in mainland yielding Palaeolithic artefacts. This upland area has an average of Southeast Asia (Schepartz et al., 2000), which is also valid in case 12 m height and a maximum of 30e50 m. The artefacts were found of NEI. in close proximity to the distribution of raw material, fossil wood. The artefacts comprised retouched core, scrapers, fragments of 7. Fossil wood assemblages of Myanmar, Tripura handaxes, points, burins, blades, cleavers, split pebbles, etc., indi- and Bangladesh cating a mixed industry comprising both Acheulian(?) and Upper Palaeolithic elements. Chakrabarti (2006) revised his earlier clas- Movius (1944, 1948) on the basis of his work in the Irrawaddy sification of the ‘cleavers’ and the ‘retouched cores’ as handadzes. valley of southern Myanmar, suggested that a technological line, Singh Roy and Ahsan (2002) have discovered several artefacts in commonly known as the ‘Movius Line’, separates the unifacial the bordering areas of Hobigunj sector of Sylhet and Tripura. Singh ‘chopper-chopping tool’ tradition of Eastern Asia from the bifacial Roy and Ahsan (2007) further report several fossil wood artefacts in ‘handaxe’ tradition of Western Asia, Africa and Europe. The Lalmai hills and Chaklapunji area. The Anyathian and Neolithic Acheulian-like industries do not occur east or north of ‘Movius Line’ tools from the Irrawaddy valley of Myanmar indicate close resem- which arcs from the India-Bangladesh border to Northern England. blances to the materials of Lalmai hills and Chaklapunji of In an Indian context, the Movius line separates the Sub-Himalayan Bangladesh. Fossil wood was extensively used in Myanmar (de regions where ‘chopper-chopping’ assemblages occur from the Terra and Movius, 1943) as a raw material for making artefacts Acheulian assemblage region of Peninsular India. However, on from the Early Anyathian to the Neolithic culture (Aung-Thwin, the basis of the distribution of Acheulian artefacts in the 2001). The site of Sung Noen in Nakhorn Ratchasima province of sub-Himalayan region and relatively late age of the Soanian northeastern Thailand has also yielded similar fossil wood assem- industries, Gaillard and Mishra (2001) and Mishra et al. (2010) blages resembling the Anyathian of Myanmar (cited in Reynolds, questioned the validity of the arguments made by Movius who 1990). Chakrabarti (2006) opines that the artefacts in all the considered the Soanian as contemporary to the Acheulian. Mishra localities found in the Lalmai Hills of Bangladesh and Tripura Hills (2010) in a recent paper suggests revision of the original formula- are identical with the Late Anyathian 2 industry of Mandalay tion of the ‘Movius line’ at least in relation to the Indian sub- region of Northern Myanmar. The abundance of blades, backed continent. Convincingly, the Late Pleistocene of the Indian sub- knives, burins in the assemblage indicates an Upper Palaeolithic continent shows two separate technological traditions, Soanian in phenomenon over a geographically extended area from the Sub-Himalayan region with close resemblance to other Bangladesh, NEI and Myanmar. contemporary Palaeolithic industries in Southeast Asia, and on the other hand, microlithic blade industries in other parts of India 8. The Hoabinhian connection dated to more than 40 ka, hence contemporary to the Soanian. Mishra (2010) proposed that the “Movius Line does track an Hoabinhian is a cultural techno-complex of Southeast Asia, both important ecological and cultural boundary as originally envi- mainland and island. The term is used to refer to the lithic sioned, but in Late Pleistocene time rather than Middle and Lower assemblages from the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene of Pleistocene time and probably with modern humans on both sides Southeast Asia characterised by unifacial, centripetal and circum- of the line”. The archaeology of Late Pleistocene NEI can be evalu- ferential cobble reduction and resulting flakes and debitage (see ated in connection to the newly interpreted time framework of the Marwick, 2008). However, the term Hoabinhian has been under ‘Movius line’ by Mishra (2010). debate (Shoocongdej, 2000). The Hoabinhian techno-complex Movius (1944, 1948) suggested a Palaeolithic tool culture based (Bellwood, 1978)isdefined purely on the basis of tool categories on large core tools made on fossil wood and named the assemblage comprising pebble tools, utilised flakes, and a small proportion of as Anyathian, meaning ‘man of upper Myanmar’. However, the edge-ground tools and bone tools, and in the later period pottery exact chronology of Anyathian culture is not well determined. and fully ground axes and adzes also occur. The Hoabinhian sites Fossil wood is siliceous in nature and has good flaking quality are spread over a broad region from Southern China, North Viet- and occurs in abundance in the region covering Bangladesh, nam, Malaya, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Sumatra, and Taiwan. The southern NEI, Myanmar, and Arunachal Pradesh (Mehrotra et al., importance of Hoabinhian in the Indian context (Gaillard and 1999). These fine quality rocks were exploited as a raw material Dambricourt-Malassé, 2008; Gaillard et al., 2011) is not well for making artefacts in this region. The Quaternary deposits of understood yet. Tripura are known to have yielded stone tools comprising scrapers, In the Garo Hills, a group of artefacts was found made ‘either points, chopping tools, hammer stones, blades, and fluted cores wholly by flaking or by flaking all over and grinding at the cutting (Poddar and Ramesh, 1983). These artefacts made of silicified fossil edge’ (IAR, 1965e66; Sharma, 1972, 1988). Excavations during wood are found at Teliamura, Sonai Bazar area, Mohanpur, Sonaram 1977-78 at the Rongram terrace site with an altitude of about 490 m areas in West Tripura. A chronological scheme for prehistoric yielded Hoabinhian artefacts to a depth of 75 cm, below 10 cm of cultures of Tripura was proposed on the basis of available strati- a Neolithic layer at the top and without any stratigraphic gap graphic data and typo-technological evidence, corroborated by (Sharma, 1986). The Hoabinhian artefacts are made on flattish oval radiocarbon dates as: river pebbles by flaking the pebble either partly or wholly, showing patches of unworked pebbly surface. On the basis of the strati- Holocene-Evolved Tripurian ¼ Upper Palaeolithic-Early graphic position and typology of the stone artefacts, Sharma (1988) Neolithic 3450 110 B.P. assigned these cultural materials to Late Pleistocene and Early Late Pleistocene- Late Tripurian ¼ Late Middle Palaeolithic Holocene. Typo-technologically, these chipped pebble tools can be 35690 3050 B.P. compared with the Hoabinhian culture of Southeast Asia. Short Author's personal copy

M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 53 axes, the most frequently occurring pebble tool in the Garo Hills, have considerably changed the earlier views of ‘post-Pleistocene’ are classical Hoabinhian artefacts (Sharma, 2002a, 2007). Sharma chronology of the Hoabinhian culture (Mathews, 1968). This Hoa- (2002b) observed that the short axes of Rongram match typically binhian situation suggests a technological link and migrations or with the materials from Xam Trai cave of Vietnam and fall within connections between Southeast Asia and eastern Himalayan foot- the third division of classification of Hoabinhian artefacts by Bell- hills during Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene (Corvinus, wood. The sites yielding Hoabinhian artefacts and found associated 1987, 2007) which is also supported by recent genetic data. with ground stone axes and/or grindstones are chronologically younger than the sites yielding only Hoabinhian artefacts in 9. Recent genetic data Southeast Asia (Bowdler, 2008). Hoabinhian artefacts are initially associated with hunter-gatherers, but some of these early humans Prehistoric migrations across the Himalayas have been a matter continued making these artefacts after they have adopted agricul- of discussion among genetic scientists (Su et al., 2000; Gayden tural practices (Bowdler, 2008). So, can the Hoabinhian artefacts et al., 2007) and linguists (van Driem, 2002, 2005, 2008), besides found associated (actually without proper chronological differ- archaeologists. In recent years, an increasing number of publica- ences) with ground stone tools of Neolithic origin in the Garo Hills tions devoted to molecular genetics have substantially discussed be considered as an indication of its contemporaneous situation the peopling and migrations in the Himalayas, which have great with the Neolithic or only as a contextual problem of mixed archaeological significance. Nevertheless, more archaeological data assemblage occurring as palimpsest? The effects of human agency, is needed, with concrete chronology, to corroborate these genetic such as continuous practise of shifting cultivation by the local hypotheses. Genetic scientists, on the basic of genome sequencing inhabitants, in disturbing the topography and stratigraphy cannot of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) build demographic histories, pop- be ruled out. Moreover, weathering of raw material as well as ulation movements and coalescent time of different groups of location of sites in river sections and eroded hill slopes (see Table 1) a particular geographical region. This section considers some of also limit understanding in this regard. At this stage, considering these recent studies which support population dispersal and the problems of chronology of Neolithic culture of this region multidirectional movements of cultural traits through the north- (Hazarika, 2006a, 2006b), it will be indeed risky to make any east Indian corridor in the Himalayas and its adjoining regions. concrete inferences about the relationship of the Hoabinhian As against the hypothesis that the Himalayas acted as a barrier artefacts with the Neolithic. Recently, Ashraf (2010), taking a fresh for human movements in the past (Cordaux et al., 2004), recent approach, attempted to explain the adaptive patterns and subsis- studies show that it acted as a pivotal passageway allowing multiple tence variables among the bands, particularly the Hoabinhians as population interactions in different times (Fornarino et al., 2009). an outcome of interactions of behavioral traits relating to tech- Analysis of Y-chromosome variations among the Tharus, one of the nology, economy, etc. in Meghalaya rather than population oldest and the largest indigenous people of Terai region of Nepal, expansion or sudden exposure to a new technology. and the Indians shows three principal components, i.e., East Asian, Association of pottery with large size cleaver-like flakes and West Eurasian and Indian, indicating gene pool retaining traces of Hoabinhian artefacts in northwestern sub-Himalaya (Soni and Soni, ancient complex interactions within a large area (Fornarino et al., 2010), similar to the Garo Hills situation, points towards a slightly 2009). NEI served as a major passage into India (Basu et al., 2003,; later date for the Hoabinhian there than in Southeast Asia. Does it Sahoo et al., 2006,; Kumar et al., 2006, and; Reddy et al., 2007). signify a dispersal route of the Hoabinhian traits from Southeast Keeping aside for a moment the controversies of original home- Asia to the north-western sub-Himalayan region through Northeast land of the Austro-Asiatic linguistic family, the oldest linguistic group Indian uplands? of India (Kumar and Reddy, 2003), there seems to have agreement Singh (1993) at the site of Nongpok Keithelmanbi of Manipur, among the scholars regarding the genetic links between the linguistic close to Myanmar observed a Hoabinhian stratum below the Cord- sub-families of the Indian subcontinent and their Southeast Asian impressed ware layer. The Tharon cave of Manipur yielded one counterparts. The Austro-Asiatic Khasi tribes of NEI represent flake tool and five pebble tools of Hoabinhian character (Singh, a genetic continuity between the populations of South and Southeast 1991). Some of the early assemblages found at the Padah-lin cave Asia (Reddy et al., 2007). The analysis of Y-chromosome SNP and STR of Myanmar can also be related to the Hoabinhian (Myint Aung, data of 1222 individuals from 25 different Indian Austro-Asiatic 2000). The lithic industries of Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene populations, along with 214 relevant populations from Asia and occurring in the western sector of the Siwalik Range the southern Oceania suggest that the haplogroup O-M95 originated in the Indian fringes of the Himalaya compare well with the industries occurring Austro-Asiatic populations w65,000 BP, and their ancestors carried it further east in Nepal and northern Southeast Asia related to the further to Southeast Asia via the Northeast Indian corridor (Kumar Hoabinhian industries (Gaillard et al., 2011). Several sites of north- et al., 2007). However, a very recent analysis (Chaubey et al., 2011) western sub-Himalayan region dated to terminal Pleistocene to of genetic data from uniparentally and biparentally inherited loci mid-Holocene epoch have yielded large size “cleaver-like flakes” provides estimation of gene flow across geographic and linguistic and Hoabinhian artefacts (Soni and Soni, 2010). Moreover, Corvinus borders and suggests that the present day Austro-Asiatic speakers in (1994, 2007) recorded cobble tool assemblages occurring in the India are derived from the dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by Late Pleistocene deposits from Nepal in the central sub-Himalayan extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations. region. Her work at the site of Patu in eastern Nepal shows that the Whichever may be the original homeland of the Austro-Asiatic Patu ‘Mesolithic’ assemblage is comparable to the Hoabinhian. The linguistic family, NEI, nonetheless, played a crucial role for the TL chronology for the Hoabinhian bearing layers in Nepal is older dispersal(s) from India to Southeast Asia or vice-versa. than the 14C minimum age of ca. 7000 years. The Hoabinhian of the Research on a diverse subset of 641 complete mtDNA genomes Arjun site of Nepal is proposed as Late Glacial (Zoller, 2000). Hoa- belonging to macrohaplogroup M sampled from 26 select tribal binhian in Vietnam and other parts of Southeast Asia was placed populations of India suggests modern human presence in NEI within the time bracket between 18,000 and 7000 BP (Chinh et al., during Palaeolithic time. Moreover, strong genetic continuity 1988). Recent investigations at the cave site of Hang Cho in Vietnam between Indian and East/Southeast Asian population has also been revealed a new timeframe ranging between ca. 19,500 and 8400 BP, found. The haplogroups D4b2b, D4j, D5a2, C4a, C7, M9a, M10a, indicating that Hoabinhian in northern Vietnam was already in M11a, M12 and G2a1a in NEI resulted due to population migrations existence about 20,000 years ago (Yi et al., 2008). The new dates from southern China and admixture rather than replacement Author's personal copy

Table 1 List of important sites bearing artefacts with elements of Palaeolithic culture.

Site Geological Position Artefacts Reference Comments/Observations Rongdu, Garo hills Artefacts collected from river Chopping tool made of sandstone, IAR, 1966e67 Earliest discovered artefact terraces (610 m. AMSL) heavily patinated and rolled. resembling Palaeolithic chopper Scraper made of quartzite Selbalgiri 2 (Surface Artefacts recovered from Handaxes, picks, discs, scrapers, IAR, 1967e68 Existence of handaxes, collection), Garo hills eroded gravelly surface borers, blades, microliths etc, flake/blades, microliths besides neolithic stone artefacts Selbalgiri 2 (Excavation), Layer 1: Redish earth mixed with Layer 1: Ground and Chipped axes, IAR, 1967e68 Microliths occur in lower Garo hills small quantity of quartz gravel, scrapers, potsherds, Layer 2: core, levels with pottery Layer 2: Redish brown earth with hammers, flakes, pottery, Layer 3: large quantity of quartz gravel, Microliths with pottery Layer 3: Yellowish earth with less gravel Thebronggiri, Garo hills e Crudely flaked axes, knife-blades, IAR, 1968e69 Not well understood microliths, arrowheads, points, stratigraphy cores, hammers etc. Selbalgiri Locality 3 e Early and Late Stone Age (?) IAR, 1969e70 Interpretation on the basis (Mokbol Chiring), of typological analysis Garo hills Michimagiri, Garo hills Eroded surface of slope Early, Middle and Late Stone Age (?) IAR, 1969e70 Heavily eroded and rolled of hillock artefacts Michimagiri Locality Hillock Early, Middle and Late Stone Age (?), IAR, 1969e70 Typological analysis without 1 (Watri Abri), Garo hills Large roughly flaked heavy tools, stratigraphic differences small tools of flakes, microliths, neolithic tools and pottery Michimagiri Eroded surface, 76 cm thick Flakes, cores, blades, scrapers, IAR, 1975e76 Single layer of artefacts with (Excavation), Garo hills deposits of single layer of points, burins etc. made of Upper Palaeolithic elements reddish silt with artefacts dolerite, heavily patinated Michimagiri III factory Heavily eroded hill slope Blades and burins of Upper IAR, 1978e79, for Typical flake and blade industry site, Garo hills Palaeolithic period details see Sonowal and indication of and Sharma, 1986 complete assemblage Rambhagiri, Garo hills River banks Early and Middle Stone Age IAR, 1970e71 Surface collection Waribokgiri Hill ridges Palaeolithic and Neolithic tools IAR, 1974e75 Surface collections Chibragiri, Garo hills Badly eroded coarse gravel Handaxes, cleavers, choppers IAR, 1971e72 Badly weathered section and chopping tool containing artefacts Siju area, Garo hills Hill slopes Handaxes, flakes, cleavers, IAR, 1976e77 Sporadic finds choppers etc. Ganol Abri Top Terrace Choppers, cleavers, handaxes, IAR, 1981e82 Large quantities of cores, flake cores, prepared Levalloisian flakes and unfinished tools, core, blade cores etc. indication of factory site, surface collection Muksak Abri Terrace Choppers, handaxes, cleavers, IAR, 1981e82 Surface collection scrapers, points, blade flakes, and cores Nangalbibra A, Garo hills Well cemented gravel deposits Choppers, chopping tools, and flakes Sharma and Artefact shows chopper- of pebbles and boulders of dolerite Roy, 1985 chopping core tool elements Nangalbibra B, Garo hills Surface of river banks Scrapers of various types, points, Sharma and Upper Palaeolithic/microlithic arrowheads, flakes and cores Roy, 1985 elements Waramgiri, Garo hills Erosional surface of a terrace Handaxes, points, scrapers of Sharma, 1974 Site seems to be a factory site of hilly stream Mousterian character, small flake and without elements of tools, blades, microliths etc. Neolithic stone artefacts and pottery Rongram Terrace site Silt layer overlying on a highly Edge ground types of artefacts in the Sharma, 1988 No stratigraphical distinction (Excavation), Garo hills cemented gravel upper levels within a depth of 7 cm of the artefacts and Chipped pebble axes of Hoabinhian tradition up to 60 cm of single implementiferous silt layer. In addition, a large pounding stone in a subsequent excavation Didami, Garo hills Bank of streams Bifacially flaked artefacts, blade flakes Sharma, 2007 Elements of Palaeolithic and probably utilised flakes culture Daphabum area, High terraces Choppers, proto-handaxes, cleavers, IAR, 1969e70 Sporadic finds of heavily Arunachal Pradesh scrapers, flakes and cores etc. weathered and rolled artefacts Kamla and Dikrong valley, e Palaeolithic stone tools consisting Ashraf, 1990 Sporadic finds Arunachal Pradesh chopper, cleavers and handaxes Khangkhui, Manipur Rock shelter Handaxes and cleavers at the lower IAR, 1968e69 Excavation shows stratigraphical deposit, points, borers, scrapers, differences of artefacts within blade, burins, cores and few bone the upper and lower level points from the upper deposit Somgbu, Manipur Cave site Scrapers, borer-cum-hollow scraper, IAR, 1982e83, Artefacts occur in the knifes, flake blades, flakes, cores etc. 83e84 disturbed cave floor Singtom, Manipur e Handaxes, worked flake pebble with Singh and Ranjit Typical elements of round edge, flaked pebble, blade, flake, Singh, 1990 Palaeolithic culture pebble striker, split pebble, waste flake etc. Teliamura, Sonai Bazar area, Late Quaternary deposits stone tools comprising scrapers, points, Poddar and Silicified fossil wood industry Mohanpur, Sonaram, chopping tools, hammer stones, blades, Ramesh 1983; similar to Lalmai-Mainamati West Tripura and cores from which blade scars, Ramesh, 1989 industry of Bangaladesh and or flutes Late Anyathian of Myanmar Author's personal copy

M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 55 with local initial settlers during the Last Glacial Maximum plateaux and cooler northern zones. Corvinus (2006) has also (Chandrasekar et al., 2009). The Last Glacial Maximum has been recorded Acheulian artefacts in similar upland ecological settings in placed within 26.5 to 19 ka BP (Clark et al., 2009). Nepal. Most of the lithic industries of Late Pleistocene/Early Holo- .In a very recent study to understand the original homeland of cene age in NEI occur in upland areas, especially in hilly contexts. For aboriginal Andamanese, Wang et al. (2011) reported the results of the example, Rongram IB at 484 m, Gawak Abri at 550 m, Didami at analysis of the haplogroups M31 (from which Andaman-specific 916 m, Khangkhui cave at 1767 m, and most of the sites of the lineage M31a1 branched off) and M32 among 846 mtDNA sampled Rongram valley of the Garo Hills are located in an undulating area across Myanmar. The time estimation results indicate that modern having altitudes varying between 457 m and 761 m (Sharma, 1974). humans from NEI settled in the Andaman archipelago via the land- Occupation in rock shelters and caves by the Hoabinhian people is bridge connecting the archipelago with Myanmar around the Last well known in Thailand, Myanmar, and Vietnam. The characteristic Glacial Maximum. This leaves ample scope for examining the Hoabinhian site is a small rock shelter with access to both uplands archaeological signature of this dispersal. The mtDNA from two and the resources of tributaries stream valleys (Higham, 1989). northeast Indian Rajbanshi individuals share three specific mutations Hence, there is ample scope to search for more Hoabinhian sites in with the M31a lineage observed in the Great Andamanese similar contexts in the geographical settings of NEI. (Palanichamy et al., 2006). The region of NEI, Central and Western Himalaya, and Reconstruction of dispersal events correlating genetic and Bangladesh might have been an ideal/suitable place for early pop- archaeological record indicates a complex population history in ulations who relied heavily on bamboo and wood as raw material Asia. The expansion of Hoabinhian from South China/Vietnam into for making artefacts. Considering the archaeological record the Malay Peninsula has been correlated with the arrival of the R9b (Solheim, 1970; Ronquillo, 1981; Pope, 1989) it can be postulated and N9a mtDNA haplogroups (Hill et al., 2006). There is a close that the early populations, i.e. the authors of the Hoabinhian relationship between the geographic extent of post-Last Glacial techno-complex, might have exploited perishable materials such as Maximum flake-blade industries and the haplogroup E lineages in wood and bamboo, found extensively in all these areas for making Southeast Asia (Soares et al., 2008). A study on a similar line has artefacts. Possibly the Hoabinhian stone artefacts were used for also been conducted in Japan (Tanaka et al., 2004). Analysis of 837 manufacturing tools made of wood and bamboo (Anderson, 1988; M9a’b mtDNAs from over 28,000 subjects residing across East Bannanurag, 1988). Some typical flakes with a concave edge Eurasia suggests that southern China and/or Southeast Asia served occurring frequently in the Garo Hills assemblage might have been as the source of some post-Last Glacial Maximum dispersal(s). used in smoothening wood and bamboo, as is also supported by These include population dispersal(s) to western China and to NEI ethnographic parallels (Sharma, 2007). Advances in archaeological and to the south Himalayan region in association with the spread of science may help in distinguishing the use of bamboo in the near the Mesolithic culture originating in South China and northern future. Experimental microscopic study on the cut-marks by Vietnam (Peng et al., 2011). Such dispersal(s) seem to have bamboo knives on the possible utilisation of bamboo reveals a correlation with the occurrences of Hoabinhian artefacts across morphological differences in the characteristic features of the cut NEI, Nepal and western Himalaya in late Pleistocene contexts. marks made by stone and bamboo knives (West and Louys, 2007). The complex population dynamics in the past seems to be There is evidence on the use of bamboo in the Holocene archaeo- controversial, and the models are subjected to change with new logical sites in Papua New Guinea (Spennemann, 1990). discoveries and studies. However, NEI acted as a corridor for several Paddayya (2002e2003) suggests that this region offers an multidirectional dispersal events in the late Pleistocene/early excellent scope for investing diversity in human adaptations, as the Holocene, particularly the dispersal of Hoabinhian traits from geographical location of this area probably enabled early societies to Southeast Asia to the north-western sub-Himalayan region through develop individual identities of their own. These identities must the Northeast Indian corridor. These events, reflected in archaeo- have been developed on the basis of local environmental and logical record and molecular genetic evidence, have contributed in ecological conditions. The ethnographic situation here signifies a large scale to establishing the mosaic nature of present day a subsistence economy based on hunting small and big games, Northeast Indian population representing diverse linguistic, fishing in the rivers, streams, swamps etc., collecting wild plant food genetic and cultural affinities. Examining the archaeological record available widely in the area. The Hoabinhian sites of Southeast Asia, of this region will definitely shed more light on human movements as recorded in the Spirit Cave I (Gorman, 1971)reflect the nature of from Africa to Australia, as the NEI is strategically situated on the subsistence based on hunting-gathering and fishing. Another proposed corridor for Out of Africa II migration of anatomically important factor related to the settlement pattern of the Hoabinhian modern Homo sapiens during the late Pleistocene. sites is that they occur mostly near water sources. Availability of perennial water resources across NEI both in uplands and lowlands 10. Discussions and the emerging pattern would have served as suitable habitat for early humans of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. Analysis of the Late Pleistocene Several early Palaeolithic sites with artefacts and hominid morpho-sedimentary records indicate terminations of last glacia- remainsinBoselocalities(Hou et al., 2000), Panxian Dadong (Huang tions, lesser vegetation, episodic rainfall, increased meltwater and et al., 1995) in South China, Irrawaddy basin of Myanmar (Movius, increase of the SW Indian monsoon (Srivastava et al., 2009)which 1944, 1948)andinNepal(Corvinus, 2006) authenticate early shows a suitable ecology for Late Pleistocene humans. human presence during Middle Pleistocene at close proximity to NEI. The archaeological and paleoanthropological records have shown 11. Concluding remarks that East Asia and Island Southeast Asia was inhabited between 1.6 and 1.8 Ma. Schepartz et al. (2000) argue that the south-western The recent discoveries and research on paleoanthropology and Chinese provinces and neighbouring upland areas in Myanmar, Pleistocene archaeology at the peripheries of NEI in South Asia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam were a gateway for the dispersal of Southeast Asia and East Asia, makes it clear that the region of NEI, populations into East Asia and Island Southeast Asia. They moreover Bangladesh and Myanmar holds great possibilities of Late Pliocene/ suggest that the ability of hominids to exploit upland environments Early Pleistocene sites, as Homo erectus of Java might have migrated was important for their expansion into Southeast and East Asia from South Asia (Mishra et al., 2010). Dennell and Roebroeks (2005) where they encountered subtropical forested slopes, montane have suggested the “lack of evidence” in Asia leaves room for Author's personal copy

56 M. Hazarika / Quaternary International 269 (2012) 48e58 alternative models for early human dispersals, including Australo- Prehistoric Studies: The Stone and Metal Ages in Thailand. Thai Antiquity e pithecine migrations to Asia, the evolution of Homo ergaster within Working Group, Bangkok, pp. 43 59. Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L., Asia, and dispersals back into Africa. Mishra (2006/2007) also Sardella, R., 2007. Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of suggests possibilities of early hominid dispersals from Africa prior Pirro Nord (Southern Italy). Naturwissenschaften 94 (2), 107e112. to the emergence of stone tool making and development of the Ashraf, A.A., 1990. Prehistoric Arunachal. Directorate of Research, Itanagar. Ashraf, A.A., 2010. Stone Age Traditions of Meghalaya- A study of variation and Acheulian within the Indian subcontinent. In this regard, it will be continuity. In: Kanungo, A.K. (Ed.), South Asian Archaeology Series No. 12. BAR more important to locate the geological deposits of that time period International Series, England. and search for early human presence, which has not been Aung, Myint, 2000. A review of Padah-lin culture. Myanmar Historical Research Journal 6, 1e16. attempted to date in NEI. Although handaxes have been reported at Aung-Thwin, M.A., 2001. Origins and development of the field of Prehistory in numerous sites of the Garo Hills and at Singtom, Manipur, they are Myanmar. Asian Perspective 40 (1), 6e34. not found in Lower/Middle Pleistocene deposits. The “cleavers” Badam, G.L., 1979. Pleistocene Fauna of India. Deccan College Post- graduate and fi Research Institute, Pune. identi ed by the early workers in the Garo Hills are not identical to Bannanurag, R., 1988. Evidence for ancient woodworking: a microwear study of the ‘Lower Palaeolithic Cleavers’ of Peninsular India, but to bifa- Hoabinhian stone tools. In: Charoenwongsa, P., Bronson, B. 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Prehistoric Investigations e Daphabum, Scientific Surveys suggests (without having any strong evidence for such inaccessi- Expedition (N.E.F.A.). Archaeological Congress Seminar Papers. Nagpur University, Nagpur. bility), then the uplands along the Himalayan foothills of NEI might Bowdler, S., 2008. Hoabinhian and Non-Hoabinhian. In: Pautreau, J., Coupey, A., have served for human movements. The Himalayan foothills may Zeitoun, V., Rambault, E. (Eds.), Archaeology in Southeast Asia: from Homo have been a crucial ecological zone for human movements. The Erectus to the Living Traditions, Choice of Papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Brahmaputra River traverses a total distance of 2880 km, originating Bougon, 25e29th September, 2006, pp. 59e66. in the Chema Yundung glacier of Tibet, flowing through Assam and Carbonell, E., Bermudez de Castro, J.M., Arsuaga, J.L., Allue, E., Bastir, M., Benito, A., Bangladesh along a valley comprising of its own recent alluvium Caceres, I., Canals, T., Dıez, J.C., van der Made, J., Mosquera, M., Olle, A., Perez- Gonzalez, A., Rodrıguez, J., Rodrıguez, X.P., Rosas, A., Rosell, J., Sala, R., resulted from deposition of sediments (Sarma, 2005). The sub-recent Vallverdu, J., Verges, J.M., 2005. An Early Pleistocene Hominin mandible from alluvium deposits of the Brahmaputra valley may not give fruitful Atapuerca-TD6, Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 102, results. 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Recent genetic Archaeological Foundation of Ancient India (Stone Age to AD 13th Century). data and discoveries of identical Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Oxford University Press, Oxford. Chandrasekar, A., Kumar, S., Sreenath, J., Sarkar, B.N., Urade, B.P., Mallick, S., artefacts across NEI, Nepal, and Myanmar make visualising Bandopadhyay, S.S., Barua, P., Barik, S.S., Basu, D., Kiran, U., Gangopadhyay, P., common cultural traditions clear, based on exploitation of similar Sahani, R., Venkata, B., Prasad, R., Gangopadhyay, S., Lakshmi, G.R., Ravuri, R.R., environmental settings and to postulate several dispersal events. Padmaja, K., Venugopal, P.N., Sharma, M.B., Rao, V.R., 2009. Updating Phylogeny of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup M in India: Dispersal of Modern Archaeology of this period in this region shows more connections Human in South Asian Corridor. PLoS ONE 4 (10), e7447. with Southeast Asia than with the rest of the Indian subcontinent. Chaubey, G., Metspalu, M., Choi, Y., Mägi, R., Romero, I.G., .Soares, P., Oven, M.V., Behar, D.M., Rootsi, S., Hudjashov, G., Mallick, C.B., Karmin, M., Nelis, M., Parik, J., Reddy, A.G., Metspalu, E., van Driem, G., Xue, Y., Tyler-Smith, C., Thangaraj, K., Singh, L., Remm, M., Richards, M.B., Lahr, M.M., Kayser, M., Villems, R., Acknowledgments Kivisild, T., 2011. show all authors Population genetic structure in Indian Austroasiatic speakers: the role of landscape barriers and sex-specific admix- This paper is a review of the research carried out by earlier ture. Molecular Biology and Evolution 28 (2), 1013e1024. investigators and I take the opportunity to thank all of them who Chauhan, P.R., 2008. Large mammal fossil occurrences and associated Archaeolog- ical evidence in Pleistocene contexts of Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. made pioneering contributions in the field of prehistoric archae- Quaternary International 192, 20e42. ology in NEI, a lesser known area in archaeological literature. I would Chauhan, P.R., 2009. The Lower Paleolithic of the Indian Subcontinent. Evolutionary e like to thank Dr. Parth R. Chauhan and Dr. Rajeev Patnaik for inviting Anthropology 18, 62 78. Chauhan, P.R., 2010a. Metrical variability between South Asian Handaxe assem- me to participate and contribute a paper in the workshop on ‘Plio- blages: preliminary observations. In: Lycett, S.J., Chauhan, P.R. (Eds.), New Pleistocene Environments and Hominin Adaptations in India’ at Perspectives on Old Stones: Analytical Approaches to Palaeolithic Technologies. þ e Bhopal. I am grateful to Drs. George van Driem (my Ph. D supervisor, Springer Science Business Media, New York, pp. 119 166. 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