Greek letters and their pronunciation pdf

Continue If you are trying to learn the Greek you will find some useful resources including a course on pronunciation, and the sound of all the letters... to help you with your Greek grammar. Try to concentrate on the lesson and remember the sounds. Also be sure to check out the rest of our other lessons listed on Learn Greek. Enjoy the rest of the lesson! Learning the is very important because its structure is used in daily conversation. Without it, you won't be able to say the words correctly, even if you know how to write those words. The better you pronounce the letter with the word, the more you realize that you will speak Greek. Below is a table showing the Greek alphabet and how it is pronounced in English, and finally examples of how these letters will sound if you put them in the word. Greek AlphabetAnglish SoundPronunciation Example of Alfaa, as in smart Betav, as in the very Γ Gammabet between u, as in yes and d, how to go Deltat, as in that , as in a very Ζ ζZetaz in the zoo Etai, as in the bee Θ θThetath as in the thought of Iotai, as in the bee Cappak, as in the look of Lambdal as in the magazine as in not Ξ ξXix as in the wax of Omicrono, as in the box 'Pip, as at the top, close to '' 'Rhorolled r, as in Roma q σ of the zSigmas as in the sap Ω Ψ ψPsips Χ χChich Φ φPhiph 'hTouto, as in hot, but softer and closer to 'd' , but there is nothing better than the sound of the letters in the video or audio. Below you can hear the letters above being pronounced, just click the playback button: the alphabet and its pronunciation have a very important role in the . Once you've finished with the Greek alphabet, you can check out the rest of our Greek lessons here: Learn Greek. Don't forget the bookmark on this page. Links above, just a small sample of our lessons, please open the menu on the left side to see all the links. The © 2019 MYLANGUAGES.ORG. The script is used to write Greek Greek alphabetType Alphabet LanguagesGreek Official Scenario in: Cyprus Period Time. 800 BC - present No. 2Born systemsEgiptian hieroglyphicsProto-Sinai alphabetFenik alphabetGrek alphabetSystemsGothIcGlagoliticCyrillicCopticArmenianOld Italic and thus LatinGeorgianDirectionLeft-to- rightISO 15924Grek, 200Unicode aliasGreekUnicode rangeU-0370-U'03FF Greek and CopticU-1F00-U'1FFF Greek alphabet was used to write Greek from the late ninth or early eighth century BC. as well as consonants. In archaic and early The Greek alphabet existed in many local variants, but by the end of the fourth century BC, the Euclid alphabet, with twenty-four letters ordered from to , had become the standard, and it was this version still used to write Greek today. These twenty-four letters (each in the upper and lower register forms) are: No α, Γ γ, δ, η, Ζ ζ, Θ θ, Kew, Kew, Μ Φ φ, W, W, Ξ ξ, W, π σ, W, W, Χ χ, Ψ ψ and Ω. Greek alphabet. As in and Cyrillic, the Greek language originally had only one form of each letter; it developed the distinction of the between the uppercase and the lowercase in parallel with Latin during the modern era. Sound meanings and conventional transcriptions for some letters differ between ancient and use, because the pronunciation of Greek has changed significantly between the fifth century BC and today. Modern and also use a variety of . In addition to the use of Greek in , both in its ancient and modern forms, the Greek alphabet today also serves as a source of technical symbols and labels in many fields of mathematics, science and other fields. Letters Sound Meanings Main Articles: Greek atography and pronunciation of the ancient Greek language in the teachingsIn addition of information: Manners of articulation in both ancient Greek and modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound displays, making the pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was usually almost phonemic. For a number of letters, sound meanings differ significantly between ancient and modern Greek, because their pronunciation followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that influenced the language in its post-classical stages. Letter Name Ancient Pronunciation Modern Pronunciation IPA,8' Approximate Western European equivalent IPA 9 Approximate Western European equivalent 10 α alpha, άλφα Short: aː Short: first as in English waiting β Long: how the English father 11 βήτα b1211 b as in English better 12 as in the English vote Γ γ scale, γάμμα ɡ ŋ when used before the γ q, ξ, χ, and possibly μ G as in English receive 1211ng as in English sing when used before γ, q, ξ, χ, and if possible μ (ɣ) ʝ, ŋ (ɲ) d, as in Spanish Lago or y y, as in English yellow , ng, as in English long or in Spanish ni'o δ , δέλτα d d, how in English to remove 1312 11 11 th, as in English, that ε Epsilon, έψιλον e as in English pet'11 e as in English pet Ζ ζ , ζήτα zd, or possibly sd z as in wisdom, or possible dz as in the English adze 14 note 1 z as in in the zoo η , ήτα ɛː as in French aunt, as in the English car Θ θ , θήτα t as in the English top1611 note 2 θ th as in the English thin , ιώτα Short: iLong: iː Short: I as in French vite, 16Long: i as in english car (former 4) (ʝ), ex 5 (ɲ) I, as in the English car , κάππα k k, as in English, as in English, do la(m)bda, λά (μ) (note μ 3) l, as in English lantern, m m, as in English music, as in English music, N n in English grid n n n in the English network Ξ ξ , ξι ks x as in English fox ,18 x as in the English fox , o o as in the German Gotto, as in german Gott, similar to the British soft π , R, as in the English top, as in the English top, as in the English top, as in the English top, ρώ trilled r, as in Italian or Spanish. R trill r, as in Italian or Spanish, σ/z, , σίγμα to β, γ, or μ s, as in English soft as in an English muse, when used before β, γ, or μ both in English coat and in English coat, ύψιλον Short: (yː) Short: u as in French luneLong: u as in French Rus in English car Φ φ , φι ph p as in English tank 22 note 2 f f as in English 5 Χ χ , χι kh as in the English cat 11 note 2 , as in English shade Ψ ψ , ψι ps ps as in English lapse 2211 ps as in English lapse Ω q omega, ωμέγα ɔː aw as in English saw 11 note 11 similar to British English soft examples, for example, ἀγκών. For example, εγγραφή. For example, εγγεγραμμένος. For example, πάπια. Like Kew. Like Kew. Notes : By about 350 BC, the zeta in the attic dialect had shifted to become a single frictional, as in modern Greek. A b c theta ⟨θ⟩, phi ⟨φ⟩ and chi ⟨χ⟩ are usually taught by English speakers with their modern Greek pronunciations θ, f and x respectively, because these sounds are easier to distinguish English-speaking from the sounds produced by letters (t), pie and kappa (c) respectively. These are not the sounds they make in the classical attic in Greek. In the classic Greek attic, these three letters have always been aspirated consonants, pronounced exactly like tau, pi, and kappa respectively, only with an explosion of air after an actual consonant sound. Although the letter I is almost universally known today as (λάμβδα), the most common name for it during the Greek classical period (5 ⟨10-323 BC) appears to have been labda (λάβδα), without ⟨σ⟩ ⟨⟩ ⟨⟩ ⟨σ⟩ μ⟩. In some 19th-century ⟨⟩ was also used by the medial word at the end of the composite morphema, such as δυςκατανοήτων, denoting the boundary of the morphema between the δυς-κατανοήτων (difficult to understand; Modern standard practice is δυσκατανοήτων to spell mean with a non-final sigma. The sigma letter also has an alternative, lunate sigma (upper register, lower register), which is used in all positions. This form of writing was developed during the (323-31 BC) as a simplification of the older version ςτάςις of σ/3 στάσις 1. In modern, edited Greek texts, the sleepy sigma usually appears mainly in old types. The letter omega ⟨⟩ is usually taught by English speakers as oʊ, long as English goes, in order to more clearly distinguish it from the omicron ⟨⟩. It's not the sound he actually make in the classic Greek attic. Among the consonant letters, all letters are marked by voiced flat consonants (/b, d, g/) and aspirated povives (/ph, th, kh/) in the ancient Greek stand for appropriate frivolous sounds in modern Greek. Correspondence: Former Voiced Pilss Former Aspirates Letter Ancient Contemporary Letter Ancient Modern Laboratory No β /b/ /v/ Φ φ /f/ /f/ Dental No δ /d/ // Θ θ/th/ /θ Θ θ Γ γ/ Dors/ Among Γ γ vowel symbols, modern Greek sound values reflect Χ χ ʝ ɣ ɡ a radical simplification of the system of publicity post- classical Greek, merging several previously different vowel media in a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowels denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek spelling remains true to historical spelling in most of these cases. As a result, spelling of words in modern Greek is often not predictable only with pronunciation, while the reverse display, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable. В слиянии участвуют следующие гласные буквы и диграфы: Письмо Древнего Модерна No η ɛː > i i (ː > > ː eː) y yː > yː > y Ω ɔː > o'o ε e > e q ai Современные греческие колонки обычно используют те же самые современные символо-звуковые отображения при чтении греческого языка всех исторических этапов. In other countries, students of the ancient Greek language can use different usual approximations of the historical sound system when pronunciation Greek. Digraphs and letter combinations Multiple combinations of letters have special ordinary sound values, different from the values of their individual components. Among them are several digraphs of vowels, which used to represent , but are now monofonged. In addition to the four mentioned above (⟨, q, q, q, ⟩), there are also ⟨s, z⟩, and ⟨⟩, pronounced /u/. Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨⟩, ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩ is pronounced in modern Greek. In some environments, they are deprived of afa, ef and if respectively. Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩ will stand for b and d (or mb and nd) respectively; ⟨τζ⟩ means z and ⟨ ⟩ means ͡ts. In addition, both in ancient Greek and modern, the letter ⟨γ⟩ before another velar consonant means a nasal velar (ŋ); ⟨ ⟩ and ⟨⟩ were pronounced as English ⟨ng⟩. Similar to ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩, ⟨⟩ is also used to stand for g. There are also combinations of ⟨γχ⟩ ⟨γξ⟩. Combined pronunciation, devoid of pronunciation ⟨⟩ av (af) ⟨⟩ ef ⟨⟩ yves (if) ⟨⟩ b - ⟨⟩ - ⟨τζ⟩ d ' ⟨⟩ -͡ts Main article: In political retography, traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accents: either a sharp accent (ά), a serious accent (ὰ), or a district accent (α̃ or α̑ ). These signs were originally designed to mark various forms of step phonological accent in ancient Greek. By the time their use became commonplace and mandatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, the pitch accent was turning into a single accent of , and thus the three marks did not correspond to the phonological difference in actual speech until now. In addition to accent marks, each word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called breathable signs: (ἁ), marking/h/sound at the beginning of the word, or (ἀ), noting its absence. The letter (me), although not vowel, also carries a rough breath in the original position of the word. If the rho was geminated in the word, the first one always had smooth breathing and a second rough breath (ῤῥ) leading to the of the rrh. Letters of vowels ⟨α, η, q⟩ carry an additional diacritic in some words, the so-called iota subscriptum, which has the form of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨⟩ under the letter. This iota is a former offglide of what was originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, W, W⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/), which became monophthongized in antiquity. Another diacritic used in Greek is diarrhea showing a break. This diacritic system was first developed by the scientist Aristophanes from (c. 257 - 185/180 BC), who worked at Musaium in Alexandria in the third century BC. Aristophanes of Byzantia was also the first to divide poems into lines rather than write them as prose, and introduced a number of signs for textual criticism. In 1982, a new, simplified retography known as monotonous was adopted for official use in modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only one accent mark, sharp (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. just accent), marking the highlighted of multi-complex words and sometimes distinguish diphthongal from diphographic readings in pairs of vowels, making this monotonous system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The political system is still commonly used to write the ancient Greek language, while in some book printing and generally in the use of conservative writers it can still be found in use for modern Greek. Although not diacritic, the has a similar function as the silent letter in a handful of Greek words, mainly distinguishing z, e (z, tee, everything), from q (that's what). Romanization Home article: There are many different methods of rendering the Greek text or Greek names in Latin writing. The form, in which classical Greek names are conventionally presented in English, dates back to the way Greek credit words are included in Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨⟩ is replaced by ⟨c⟩, ⟨⟩ diphthongs and ⟨⟩ are displayed as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨o⟩ (or ⟨⟩) respectively; both ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively. Smooth breath marks are usually ignored, and rough breath marks are usually displayed as a letter ⟨h⟩. In the modern scientific transliteration of the ancient Greek language, ⟨⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩, and vowel combinations ⟨, z, w⟩ as ⟨ai, oh, hey, y⟩ respectively. Letters from ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨φ⟩ are usually ⟨-⟩ and ⟨ph⟩; ⟨χ⟩ as ⟨h⟩ or ⟨h⟩; and the word-initial ⟨⟩ as ⟨rh⟩. Several different transcription conventions exist for the modern Greek language. They vary greatly, depending on their purpose, on how close they are to the usual letters of ancient Greek transcription systems, and to what extent they try either accurate transcription of letter by letter, or rather phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been identified by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843), And others. The letter Traditional Latin Transliteration (traditional Latin transliteration) α A a β B b b Γ γ G g δ D d ε E e Ζ ζ z η Θ θ th k to th l μ m h n h Ξ ξ x x x x π r Rh rh rh σ/s s u u Φ φ Ph ph Χ χ ch, kh kh Ψ ψ ps ps ps Ω - History Home Article: The History of the Greek Alphabet Origin Dipylon Inscription, one of the oldest known examples using the Greek alphabet, c. 740 In the Mycenaean period, from about the sixteenth century to the twelfth century BC, was used to write the earliest illuminated form of the Greek language known as . This non-Greek writing system was last introduced in the thirteenth century BC. At the end of the ninth century BC or the beginning of the eighth century BC, the Greek alphabet appeared. The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which not whistling Greek texts, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The adopted the alphabet from the earlier , one of the closely related scripts used for Western Semitic languages, calling it Φοινικήια γράμματα Phoenician letters. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited by consonants. When it was adopted to write Greek, some consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in a narrow sense, which is different from the abyad used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants. The early Greek alphabet on ceramics at the National Archaeological Museum of Greek originally took over all 22 letters of the Phoenician language. Five of them were reassigned to refer to vowel sounds: the slip of consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ () were used for i (I, iota) and u (yap. The ʔ/ (aleph) was used for a (I, alpha); the pharyngealal/ʕ/ (ʿayin) was turned into an ovichron; and the letter for /h/ (he) was turned into e (I, Epsil Ϝ on). the Phoenician letter for the resolute hgtalal /ħ/ () was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of the Greek language: as a letter for /h/ (I, ) those dialects that had such sound, and as an additional vowel letter for long/ɛː/ Ω (me, this) by those dialects that had no conson ɔː ants. , omega) was introduced. Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated pable sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (fi) for /ph/, Χ (chi) for /kh/ and Ψ (psi) for /ps/. In The Western Greek versions, Χ was used for /ks/ and Ψ /kh/. The origin of these letters is the subject of some controversy. Phoenician Greek Alef /ʔ/Alpha/a/, /aː/bet/b/ /b/ gimel /ɡ/ Γ /ɡ/ daleth /d/ Δ delta /d/ he /h/ Ε epsilon /e/, /eː/[note 1] waw /w/ Ϝ () /w/ zayin /z/ Ζ zeta [zd](?) heth /ħ/ Η eta /h/, /ɛː/ teth /tʕ/ Θ theta /th/ yodh /j/ Ι iota /i/, /iː/ kaph /k/ Κ kappa /k/ lamedh /l/ Λ lambda /l/ mem /m/ Μ /m/ nun /n/ Ν /n/ Phoenician Greek /s/ Ξ xi /ks/ ʿayin /ʕ/ Ο omicron /o/, /oː/[note 1] pe /p/ Π pi /p/ ṣade /sʕ/ Ϻ () /s/ /q/ Ϙ () /k/ reš /r/ Ρ rho /r/ šin /ʃ/ Σ sigma /s/ taw /t/ Τ tau /t/ (waw) /w/ Υ /u/, /uː/ – Φ phi /ph/ – Χ chi /kh/ – Ψ psi /ps/ – Ω omega /ɔː/ Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape : the letter Ϻ (san), which was in competition with the z (sigma), denoting the same phonem /s/; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with q (kappa) for /k/, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value /w/ fell out of the spoken language before or during the classical period. The Greek language was originally written mostly from right to left, as well as Phoenician, but scribes were free to alternate between directions. For a while, the style of writing with alternating right-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon, literally bull-turning, after the bull's manner of plowing the field) was common until in the classic period from left to right the written direction became the norm. The individual shapes of the letters were reflected depending on the direction of the current line. Archaic variants of the distribution of green, red and blue types of alphabet, after Kirchhoff. Main article: Archaic Greek Originally there were numerous local (epic) versions of the Greek alphabet, which were distinguished by the use and non-notice of additional vowels and consonants of symbols and a number of other features. Epihor alphabets are usually divided into four main types according to their different ways of treating additional consonant letters for aspirated consonants (/ph, kh/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of the Greek language. These four types are often conventionally labeled as green, red, light blue and dark blue types, based on a color map in a 19th-century seminal work on the subject, Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867). The green (or southern) type is the most archaic and close to Phoenician. The Red (or Western) type is one that was later transferred to the West and became the ancestor of the and has some important traits characteristic of this later development. The blue (or eastern) type is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet originated. Athens used a local form such as the light blue alphabet until the end of the fifth century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ω Ψ, as well as the symbols of vowels The attic of the alphabet, ΧΣ was behind /ks/ and ΦΣ /ps/. For all three sounds /e, eː, ɛː/ (correspondinɡ to the classic q, q, q, respectively), used for all /o, oː, ɔː/ (appropriate to the classic q, q, Ω respectively). The letter No (heta) was used for consonants .h/. Some variants of local letter forms were also typical of Athenian writing, some of which were separated from the adjacent (but otherwise red) alphabet of Emboy: the shape of the letter W resembling the Latin L and the shape of the letter Z resembling the Latin letter S(). [40] Phoenician model Southern green — — * — — — — — Western red Eastern light blue — dark blue Classic Ionian — — — — Modern alphabet Α Β Γ Δ Ε — Ζ — Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π — — Ρ Σ Τ Υ — Φ Χ Ψ Ω Sound in Ancient Greek a b g d e w zd h ē th i k l m n ks o p s k r s t u ks ph kh ps ō *Upsilon is also derived from waw (). The classic 24-book alphabet, which is now used to represent greek, was originally the local alphabet of . By the end of the fifth century BC it was widely used by many Athenians. In 403 BC, at the suggestion of Archon Eucleid, the Athenian Assembly officially abandoned the old attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tiranas. Because of the role of the Eucleids in the idea of adopting the Ionian alphabet, the standard 24-literary Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the eucleidean alphabet. About thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in and may have been adopted a few years earlier in Macedonia. By the end of the fourth century BC, he had supplanted local alphabets throughout the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet. Letter names, when the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they assumed not only the letter forms and sound values, but also the names under which it was possible to read and memorize the sequence of the alphabet. In Phoenician, each name of the letter was a word that began with the sound represented by this letter; so ʾaleph, the word bull, was used as a name for glottal stop/ʔ/, rate, or house, for /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most Phoenician names were preserved or changed a bit to fit Greek phonology; Thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma. The Greek names of the following letters are more or less a simple extension of their Phoenician predecessors. Between ancient and modern Greek, they remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation was followed by regular changes in sound along with other words (e.g. in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient to the modern /i/, resulting in a modern pronunciation vita). The name lambda will be seen in the early sources, λάβδα except λάμβδα; In modern Greek, spelling often occurs λάμδα reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes written γιώτα in modern Greek (ʝ) is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ.η, q, ⟩ word-originally and intervocalically in front of the rear vowels and /a/). In the tables below, the Greek names of all the letters are given in their traditional political spelling; in modern practice, like all other words, they are usually written in a simplified monotonous system. The Greek Alphabet Names Letters in Colloquial Standard Modern Greek Problems Play This File? See the media report. Letter Title Pronunciation Greek Phoenician original English Greek (ancient) Greek (modern) English no ἄλφα alef alpha (alpha) ˈalfa /ˈælfə/ (listen) βῆτα beth beta ˈvita -bɛːta ˈbiːtə USA: /ˈbeɪtə/Γ γάμμα gimel gamma (ɡamma) (ˈɣama) ˈɡæmə / Δέλτα delta daleta (delta) ˈðelta /ˈdɛltə/ ἦτα heth eta (hɛːta), (ɛːta) (ˈita) /ˈiːtə/, U.S. ἰῶτα κάππα: /ˈeɪtə/Θ θῆτα teth theta (thɛːta) (ˈθita) /ˈθiːtə/, USA: /ˈθeɪtə aɪˈoʊtə ˈʝota iɔːta/ (listen) Mr. Kappa (kappa) (ˈkapa) /ˈkæpə/ (listen) λάμβδα lambda lamenda (lambda) (ˈlamða ˈlæmdə) /ˈlæmdə/ (listen) μῦ mum moo (myː) (mi) /mjuː/ (listen); (U.S.: /muː/ No νῦ nun nude (nyː) (ni) /njuː / No ῥῶ re' rho (rɔː) (ro) /roʊ/ (listen) ταῦ tau (tau) /tau) /taʊ, tɔː/ In the case of the three historical sybilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and ancient Greek is less clear, with obvious inconsistencies in both the names of the letters and the sound meanings. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sybilant letter, the outdated san) was the subject of some debate. There are also regular changes in the pronunciation of the names of letters between ancient and modern Greek languages. Letter Title pronunciation of Greek Phoenician original English Greek (ancient) Greek (modern) English Ζ ζῆτα zayin zeta (zdɛːta) (ˈzita) /ˈziːtə/, U.S.: /ˈzeɪtə/Ξ ξεῖ, ξῖ samekh xi (kseː) (zaɪ, ksaɪ/ σίγμα zin siɡma (siɡma) ˈsiɣma /ˈsɪɡmə/ In the next group of consonant letters, older forms of names in ancient Greek were written with -εῖ, indicating the original pronunciation of the -. In modern Greek, these names are written in the letter The name of the pronunciation of Greek (ancient) Greek (modern) English Ξ ξεῖ, ξῖ xi (kseː) (ksi) /zaɪ, ksaɪ/πεῖ, πῖ pi (peː) (paɪ/Φ φεῖ, φῖ phi (pheː) (faɪ/Χ χεῖ, χῖ chi (kheː) (psaɪ saɪ kaɪ/ (listen) Ψ ψεῖ, ψῖ psi (pseː) The next group of vowels was originally referred to simply as their sound values as long vowels: W, W, and ɔ. Their modern names contain an adjective qualifier that was added during the Byzantine period to distinguish between letters that have become confusing. Thus, the letters ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩ uttered by this time were called o mikron (little o) and o mega (big o) respectively. The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon (plain e) to distinguish it from the equally pronounced ⟨⟩, while, similarly, the ⟨⟩, which at that time was pronounced y, was called y psilon (plain y), to distinguish it from the equally pronounced digraph ⟨⟩. The literal pronunciation is Greek (ancient) Greek (medieval) Greek (modern) English Greek (ancient) Greek (modern) English (modern) English εἶ ἐ ψιλόν ἔψιλον Epsilon (eː) (ˈepsilon) /ˈɛpsɪlɒn/, some UK: ɛpˈsaɪlən/Οὖ ὀ ὄμικρον imichron (oː) (ˈomikron) /ˈɒmɪkrɒn/, traditional Uk: oʊ ˈmaɪkrɒn/ὖ ὐ ψιλόν ὔψιλον upsilon (uː), (yː) (ˈipsilon) /juːpˈsaɪlən, ˈʊpsɪlɒn/, also United Kingdom: /ʌpˈsaɪlən/, USA: /ˈʌpsɪlɒn/Ω ὦ ὠ μέγα ὠμέγα omega (ɔː) (oˈmeɣa) USA: /oʊˈmeɪɡə/, traditional United Kingdom: /ˈoʊmɪɡə/ Some dialects of the and Cyprus have retained long consonants and pronounce ˈɣamːa and ˈkapha; moreover, the ήτα for the Cypriots has become a always ˈitha. The letter forms a 16th-century edition of the New Testament (The Gospel of John), printed in the Renaissance of Claude Garamond Theocrit Idyll 1, lines 12-14, in a script with abbreviations and ligatures from the signature in the illustrated edition of Theocritus. Lodewijk Caspar Valkenaer: Carmina Bucolyca, Leiden 1779. Like Latin and other alphabetical letters, the Greek language originally had only one form of each letter, with no distinction between the upper and lower registers. This distinction is an innovation of the modern age, drawing on different lines of development of letter forms in earlier handwriting. The oldest forms of letters in ancient times are magusculal forms. In addition to vertical, direct inscription forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or ceramic carvings, in ancient times more fluent styles were also developed, adapted for handwriting on soft materials. This handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting has developed two different styles: non-national writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of roughly the same size, used as a book hand for carefully prepared literary and religious manuscripts, and handwritten writing used for everyday purposes. The handwritten forms fit the style of the lower register letters, with ascending and downward lines, as well as many connecting lines ligatures between letters. In the ninth and tenth century, non-national book hands were replaced by a new, more compact style of writing, with the letter forms partially adapted from earlier italics. This minuscule style has remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek in the modern era. During the Renaissance, Western printers adopted tiny letter forms in the form of lower-case printed , modeling the letters of the upper register on ancient inscriptions. The orthographic practice of using letter differences to mark the right names, names, etc. has evolved in parallel with the practice in Latin and other Western languages. Inscription Manuscript Contemporary Print Archaic Classical Non-Catholic Sub-Lower Register - γ Γ δ ε ζ Ζ η μ θ Θ Issues ξ Ξ - π y q - φ Φ χ Χ ψ Ψ Ω Received AlphabetS The earliest Etruscan Abeary, from Marsiliana d'Albegna, still almost identical with the contemporaneous Page from Codex Argenteus, the 6th century Bible manuscript in the Gothic Greek alphabet was a model for various others : The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient letters in , is taken from the archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by the Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, through the Etruscan; Gothic alphabet, developed in the 4th century AD to write gothic, based on a combination of Greek and Latin non-cell models; The verbidic alphabet, developed in the 9th century AD to write the Old Slavic Slavic; The Cyrillic alphabet, which soon replaced the verbic alphabet. The Armenian and Georgian alphabets are almost certainly modeled in the Greek alphabet, but their graphic forms are completely different. Other uses are used for other languages besides the alphabets listed above, which have been adapted from the Greek language but developed in separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at different times and in different places for writing other languages. Additional letters were introduced for some of them. Antiquity Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in the use of c. 800-300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were the early Greek alphabet with little change - like the original old Italian alphabets. It was used in some paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but continuous texts are not preserved. The Greco-Iberian alphabet was used to write the ancient Iberian language in parts of modern Spain. Gallic inscriptions (in modern France) used the Greek alphabet before the Roman conquest of Hebrew and the Aramaic text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Hexaple Origen. Bactrian, The Iranian language spoken in what is now Afghanistan was written in the Greek alphabet during the Kushan Empire (65-250 AD). It adds an additional letter ⟨⟩ for the ʃ. The adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mainly in Egypt, to write the Coptic, liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain a non-citative shape, different from the forms used for Greek today. The Middle Ages Arabic fragment of the 8th century retains the text in the Greek alphabet. An old Ossetian inscription from the 10th to 12th centuries, found in Arksyts, the oldest known protest of the Ossetian language. The old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from the measured letter, and a digraph of two Greek scales used for the velar of nasal sound. Various South Slavic dialects, similar to modern Bulgarian and Macedonian, are written in Greek. Modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets. In the early 18th century, the front page of the book, printed in Turkish by Karamanli, which was spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlid), was often written in Greek and was called Karamanlidika. The longing of Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, beginning around 1500. The printing press in Mosciopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek in the 18th century. It was not until 1908 that the Monastir Conference standardized Latin retography for both Tosca and Gega. Greek spelling is still sometimes used for local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece. Gagauz, the Turkic language of the northeastern Balkans, was apparently written in Greek hieroglyphics in the late 19th century. In 1957 it was standardized in Cyrillic, and in 1996 the Gagauz alphabet was adopted, based on Latin symbols (derived from the Turkish alphabet). In Turkic, Surgut was spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece. It is currently written in Latin or Cyrillic symbols. Urum or Greek Tatar used the Greek alphabet. The Judeo-Spanish language, the Hebrew dialect of Spanish, was sometimes published in Greek hieroglyphics in Greece. In Mathematics and Science The main article: Greek letters used in mathematics, science and engineering Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as the lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, a pi of the lower case (π) for the ratio of the circle circumference to its diameter, a capital sigma (I) for summation and a sigma of the lower case (σ) for standard deviation. Astronomy Home article: Bayer designation Greek letters used to refer to bright in each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations, the brightest star is alpha and the next bright bright Etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation Centauri is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower-ranking letter. The international phonetic alphabet Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Some of them refer to frictional consonants; others are in favour of vowel options. The glyph forms used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts are sometimes slightly different from the usual forms in Greek proper typography, with glyphs tending to be more upright and using serifs to make them conform to the greater typographical nature of other Latin letters in the phonetic alphabet. However, in the coding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered to be the same symbols, that's the corresponding Greek letters: β beta U'03B2 voiced the bilabial frictional θ theta U'03B8 headless dental fricative χ chi U'03C7 headless ufular fricktiv on the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabet, either because their usual typographical form is too different from the original , or because they also have secondary use as regular alphabetic symbols in some Latin alphabets, including the individual Latin letters of the upper register different from the Greek ones. Greek letter Phonetic letter Uppercase φ phi ɸ U'0278 Latin small letter phi Voiceless bilabial fricative - γ gamma ɣ U'0263 Latin Small letter Gamma Voiced velar fricative Ɣ U'0194 ε epsilon ɛ U'025B Latin small open letter e (alias: epsilon) Open-medium front unrounded vowel Ɛ U'0190 α alpha ɑ U'0251 Latin small letter alpha Open back unrounded vowel Ɑ U'2C6D and upsilon ʊ U'028A Latin small letter upsilon almost close to the back rounded vowels Ʊ U'01B1 iota ɩ U'0269 Latin The small letter of the Yuta Obsolete for the near close front of the unrounded vowel is now ɪ Ɩ U'0196 Symbol in the americanist phonetic notation for the naked alveolar lateral fricative Greek letter lambda ⟨⟩, but ⟨ɬ⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palace side approximation is a ⟨ʎ⟩ that is similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lower register u. Using as numbers The main article: Greek numbers Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical ion system, the first nine letters of the alphabet were behind numbers 1 to 9, the next nine letters were behind the multiples of 10, 10 to 90, and the next nine letters were behind the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. To do this, in addition to the 24 letters that by then had made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise outdated letters were preserved or revived: digamma ⟨Ϝ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨Ϙ⟩ for 90, and rare ionian for , today called called ⟨Ͳ⟩, for 900. This system is still used in Greek until today, although today it is only used for limited purposes, such as listing chapters in a book, just as Roman numerals are used in English. Three additional characters today are written as ⟨ϛ⟩, ⟨ϟ⟩ and ⟨ϡ⟩ respectively. To mark the letter as a sign of the number, a small stroke called keraya is added to the right of it. Αʹ αʹ alpha 1 Βʹ βʹ beta 2 Γʹ γʹ gamma 3 Δʹ δʹ delta 4 Εʹ εʹ Epsilon 5 ϛʹ digamma () 6 Ζʹ ζʹ zeta 7 Ηʹ ηʹ eta 8 Θʹ θʹ theta 9 Ιʹ ιʹ iota 10 Κʹ κʹ Kappa 1020 Λʹ λʹ 30 Μʹ μʹ mu 40 Νʹ νʹ nude 50 Ξʹ ξʹ si 60 Οʹ οʹ omikron 70 Πʹ πʹ pi 80 ϟʹ koppa 90 Ρʹ ρʹ rho 100 Σʹ σʹ sigma 200 Τʹ τʹ Thu 300 Υʹ υʹ upsilon 400 Φʹ φʹ phi 500 Χʹ χʹ chi 600 Ψʹ ψʹ psi 700 Ωʹ ωʹ omega 800 ϡʹ 900 Use of student fraternities and sorrions in North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, hence also known as Greek letter organizations. This naming tradition was initiated by the founding of the Phi Beta Kappa Society at the College of William and Mary in 1776. The name of this fraternal organization is an acronym for the ancient Greek phrase Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης (Biou Cybernetos Philosophy), which means Love of Wisdom, The Conductor of Life and serves as the organization's motto. Sometimes early fraternal organizations were known by Greek names, because the mottos for which these names were spoken were secret and were disclosed only to members of the fraternity. The Greek letter names of most fraternal organizations today are meaningless and worthless, which, in the words of Caroline Winterer, is understandable given that the general knowledge of the ancient Greek alphabet and language is almost completely gone. Different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) denoted using Greek letters as serial numbers. As the founding chapter of each relevant organization is chapter A. As the organization expands, it establishes Chapter B, chapter, Γ, and so on and so forth. In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter behind Ω head of AA and then the head of AB, etc. Each of them is still the head of the Letter, although double-digit letters are the same as 10 to 99 double digits. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when needed, but it is used for columns in a table or diagram, not the head of an organization. (quote is necessary) Glyph variants Some letters may arise in a version of the form, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. Although their use in a normal Greek printing press is purely issue font styles, some such variants were given separate coding in Unicode. The symbol of β (rolled beta) is the handwritten form of the beta (β). In the French tradition of ancient Greek typography, β the word is used initially, and the word is used internally β. The letter delta has a shape resembling the cursive letter D; although this form is not coded as its own form, it is included in the drachma symbol (digraph) in the currency symbol block, in U-20AF (₯). The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, ε the form of display epsilon! (Sleep Epsilon as a semicircle with a stroke) or ε display varepsilon ! (similar to the reverse number 3). The ε symbol (U-03F5) is designed specifically for the form of the sleepwalk used as a technical symbol. The θ symbol (scripted feta) is a handwritten form of feta (θ), often used in handwriting and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol. The symbol to (the kappa symbol) is a handwritten form of kappa used as a technical symbol. The symbol of π pi) is the archaic form of the pi script (π), also used as a technical symbol. The letter rho (I) can occur in a variety of stylistic variants, with the downward tail either going straight down or curled to the right. Symbol No (U'03F1) is designed specifically for the curled shape used as a technical symbol. The letter sigma, in standard retography, has two variants: z, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form of z (lunate sigma, resembling Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without final/final distinction. The capital letter upsilon (I) can occur in a variety of stylistic variations, with the top touches either straight as a Latin Y, or slightly curled. Symbol No ( U'03D2) is designed specifically for curled shapes, (display, Upsilon), used as a technical symbol, for example, in physics. The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, φ form of phi display style! (circle with a vertical touch through it) or as φ display text style warfi ! (rolled up shape, open at the top). The φ (U- 03D5) is designed specifically for the closed form used as a technical symbol. The letter omega (Ω) has at least three stylistic variants of its form of capital. Open omega, resembling an open partial circle with a hole down and ends curled outwards, is the standard. The other two stylistic options, which are most often seen in a modern printing house, resemble an emphasized full circle, where the emphasis may or may not touch the circle on a tangent (in the first case it resembles a superscriptal glimpse, similar to the one Is in a number or men's indicator sign. in the latter he is closely related some forms of the Latin letter q). Open omega is always used in symbolic settings and is encoded in letter symbols (U-2126) as a separate point of code for backward compatibility. Computer coding to use a computer, various codings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947. The two main ones that are still in use are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 only supports monotonous rethography; Unicode supports both monotonous and political spelling. ISO/IEC 8859-7 For the A0-FF range (hex) it follows the Unicode 370-3CF range (see below), except that some characters, such as ©, 1/2, etc., are used where Unicode has untapped locations. Like all ISO-8859 coding, it is equal to ASCII for 00-7F (hex). The Greek language in unicode's main articles: Greek writing in Unicode, , and Greek Advanced Unicode supports political atography well enough for the usual continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for . Using a combination of symbols, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most modern text imaging engines don't render diacritics well, so while alpha with and spicy can be presented as U-03B1 U-0304 U-0301, it rarely does well: ᾱ́ . Unicode has two main blocks of Greek symbols. First, it is Greek and Coptic (U-0370 to U-03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek technical symbols. This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Previously, most Coptic letters shared code dots similar to Greek letters; but in many scientific papers, both scripts occur, with completely different forms of letters, so that as far as Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disjointed. These Coptic letters without Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U-03E2 to U-03EF). To write a polytunnel Greek, you can use a combination of diacritic signs or pre-prepared symbols in the Greek Extended (U-1F00 to U-1FFF) block. The Greek and Coptic code chart of the Unicode Consortium (PDF) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 A B C D E U-037x Ͱ ͱ Ͳ ͳ ʹ ͵ Ͷ ͷ ͅ ͻ ͼ ͽ; Ϳ U-038x - U-039x Ύ Ώ Ά Έ Ή Ί U-039x ΐ - Γ - Ζ - Θ - Ξ 03ax U-03Bx ΰ α β γ δ ε ζ η θ Φ Χ Ψ Ω Ϊ Ϋ ά έ ή ί 1 μ ξ 03Cx π σ Φ χ ψ ϊ ϋ U-03Dx ύ ώ Ϗ β θ - U-03Ex Ύ Ϋ φ π ϗ Ϙ ϙ Ϛ ϛ Ϝ ϝ Ϟ ϟ Ϡ ϡ Ϣ ϣ Ϥ ϥ Ϧ ϧ Ϩ ϩ Ϫ ϫ Ϭ ϭ Ϯ ϯ U-03Fx - ϳ Θ ε ϶ Ϸ ϸ Ϻ ϻ ϼ Ͻ Ͼ Ͽ Notes 1. At the time of Unicode 13.0 2. Grey areas point to uns imposed code points Greek Advanced 6 7 8 9 B C D E F U-1F0x a saint ἇ Ἀ Ἁ Ἂ Ἃ Ἄ Ἅ Ἆ Ἇ U-1F1x ἐ ἑ ἒ ἓ ἔ ἕ Ἐ Ἑ Ἒ Ἓ Ἔ Ἕ U-1F2x ἠ ἡ ἢ ἣ ἤ ἥ ἦ ἧ Ἠ Ἡ Ἢ Ἣ Ἤ Ἥ Ἦ Ἧ U-1F3x ἰ ἱ ἲ ἳ ἴ ἵ ἶ ἷ Ἰ Ἱ Ἲ Ἳ Ἴ Ἵ Ἶ Ἷ U-1F4x ὀ ὁ ὂ ὃ ὄ ὅ Ὀ Ὁ Ὂ Ὃ Ὄ Ὅ U-1F5x ὐ ὑ ὒ ὓ ὔ ὕ ὖ ὗ Ὑ Ὓ Ὕ Ὗ U-1F6x ὠ ὡ ὢ ὣ ὤ ὥ ὦ ὧ Ὠ Ὡ Ὢ Ὣ Ὤ Ὥ Ὦ Ὧ U- 1F7x ὰ ά ὲ έ ὴ ή ὶ ί ὸ ό ὺ ύ ὼ ώ U-1F8x ᾀ ᾁ ᾂ ᾃ ᾄ ᾅ ᾆ ᾇ ᾈ ᾉ ᾊ ᾋ ᾌ ᾍ ᾎ ᾏ U-1F9x ᾐ ᾑ ᾒ ᾓ ᾔ ᾕ ᾖ ᾗ ᾘ ᾙ ᾚ ᾛ ᾜ ᾝ ᾞ ᾟ U-1FAx ᾠ В ᾢ ᾣ ᾥ U'1FBx ᾲ U-1 ᾭ U-1FBx , U-1FBx, U-ᾪ ᾫ ᾲ-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, то. The ῢ ῧ U'1FFx ῲ U'1FFx ῲ U.S. Notes 1. Unicode версия 13.0 2. Серые области указывают не назначенные кодовые точки Сочетание и без буквы диакритики Сочетание иل в состолнии ῗ сделат لтا то, но л собиралиل لв состол нии сделат لтل اU-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, U-1, не собиралс интервал (письмо-бесплатно) диакритические знаки, содержащие греческий язык : Сочетание интервальных примеров Описание U-0300 U-0060 ()̀ varia / серьезный акцент U-0301 U-00B4, У-0384 (́) оксия / тонос / острый акцент U-0304 U-00AF (̄ ) макрон U-0306 U-02D8 (̆ ) vrachy / U'0308 U'00A8 (̈ ) dialytika / diaeresis U 0313 U-02BC (̓ ) psili / запятая выше (spiritus lenis) U-0314 U'02BD (̔ ) dasia / обратная запятая выше (spiritus asper) U-0342 ( ) периспомени () U-0343 (̓ ) koronis (У-0313) U-0344 U-0385 (̈)́ dialytika tonos (депретирован, - U-0308 U-0301) U-0345 U-037A (ͅ) ypogegrammeni / . Кодирования с подмножеством греческого алфавита IBM код страниц 437, 860, 861, 862, 863 и 865 содержат ͂ ̀ буквы GHF (плюс b в качестве альтернативной интерпретации для b). Смотрите также греческие лигатуры Паламедес Романизация греческих заметок - b Эпсилон ⟨е⟩ и омикрон ⟨o⟩ первоначально могли обозначать как короткие, так и длительные путешествия в доклассической архаичной греческой орфографии, как и другие буквы рейса. Они были ограничены функцией коротких знаков рейса на классическом греческом языке, так как вместо этого стали писаться длинные путешествия /e/ и /o/, а также диграфы ⟨е⟩ и ⟨w⟩, которые фонологически делились с соответствующей парой бывших дифтонгов /ei/ и /ou/ соответственно. Справки - Swiggers 1996. b Джонстон 2003, стр. 263-276. Дата первых вписанных объектов; А.В. Джонстон, Алфавит, в Н. Stampolidis и В. Karageorghis, eds, Морские пути от Сидона до Уэльвы: Соединения в Средиземном море 2003:263-76, суммирует нынешнюю стипендию на знакомства. Повар 1987, стр. 9. Развитие греческого алфавита Chronology of ANE (2009), quote: Nawe gives four main reasons why it is universally agreed that the Greek alphabet was developed from the early Phoenician alphabet.1 According to Herodut Phoenicians who came with Cadmus ... brought in Ellas alphabet, which until now was unknown as I think the Greeks . 2 Greek letters, alpha, beta, gimmel do not make sense in Greek, but the meaning of most of their Semitic equivalents is known. For example, aleph means a bull, a bet means home and a gimmel means tossing a stick.3 Early Greek letters are very similar and sometimes identical to Western Semitic letters.4 The sequence of letters between Semitic and Greek alphabets is identical. (Naveh 1982) - b c Coulmas 1996. Horrocks 2006, page 231-250 - Woodard 2008, page 15-17 - Holton, Macridge and Filippaki-Warburton 1998, page 31 - b Adams 1987, p. 6-7, b c d e f h i j l m n o p q r t u v v y Keller - Russell 2012, p. 5 a b d e Mastronarde 2013, p. 10 - b c d e Groton 2013, page 3 - Hinge 2001, page 212-234 - b c d e f g keller and Russell 2012, p. 5-6 a b c d e f Mastrone 2012 2013, p. 11 - b c Mastronarde 2013, p. 11-13 - b c e f i j k l m Mastronarde 2013 , page 12 and b Nicholas, Nick (2004). Sigma: final against non-finals. Received 2016-09-29. b Thompson 1912, page 108, 144, Keller and Russell 2012, page 6, b c d Mastronarde 2013, p. 13 - In addition, an older combination of ⟨s⟩ or ⟨ωϋ⟩ can occur in ancient especially in ionic texts or in personal names. Dickey 2007, page 92-93. Dickie 2007, page 93. Nicolas, Nick. Greek Unicode Issues: Archive 2012-08-06 at Archive.today. 7 October 2014. Access to 7 October 2014. a b Verbrugge 1999, page 499-511. Verbrugge 1999, page 499-502. Verbrugge 1999, page 499-502, 510-511. Verbrugge 1999, page 499-502, 509. a b Verbrugge 1999, page 510-511. a b c Verbrugge 1999, page 505-507, 510-511. ISO (2010). ISO 843:1997 (Transformation of Greek symbols into Latin symbols). Ngagn Working Group on Romanization Systems (2003). Greek. Received 2012-07-15. Greek (ALA-LC Romanization Tables) (PDF). 2010. Companion of the ancient Greek language, article by Roger D. Woodward (Egbert Bakker, 2010, Wylie-Blackwell). Daniels and Bright 1996, page 4. b Vutyras 2007, page 270. a b c d Woodard 2010, page 26-46. b c d Jeffrey 1961, page 66. b c d Threatte 1980, page 26. Horrocks 2010, page xiix. a b Panayiotu 2007, page 407. Liddell and Scott 1940, s.v. λάβδα Newton, B. E. (1968). Spontaneous hemination in Cypriot-Greek. Lingua. 20: 15–57. doi:10.1016/0024-3841(68)90130-7. ISSN 0024-3841. a b Thompson 1912, page 102-103 - Murdoch 2004, page 156 - George L. Campbell, Christopher Moseley, Script Guide and 51ff, 96ff and Macrakis 1996. Sims-Williams 1997. Miletic 1920. Mazon and Wylant 1938. Kristoffon 1974, page 11. Peyfuss 1989. Elsie 1991. Verba Hispanic X: Los problemas del estudio de la lengua sefard' Archive 2008-04-07 on Wayback Machine, Katia Schmid, Ljubljana, pages 113-124: Es interesante el hecho que en Bulgaria se imprimieron unas pocas publicaciones en alfabeto cir'lico b'lgaro y en Grecia en alfabeto griego. A handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge: University Press. 1999. p. 176-181. For chi and beta versions, Unicode 7.0 (2014) and 8.0 (2015) added separate code points for use, respectively: U'AB53 Latin small letter chi (ꭓ) and U'A7B5 Latin small letter beta (ꞵ). From 2017 on, the International Phonetic Association still lists the original Greek code points as standard representations of the IPA symbols in question. b c d e f Winterer 2010, page 377. Adams bibliography, Douglas S. (1987). The main . New York, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-25133-2.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Cook, B. F. (1987). Greek inscriptions. University of California Press/British Museum. CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Coulmas, Florian (1996). Blackwell's encyclopedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-0-631-21481-6.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Daniels, Peter T; Bright, William (1996). World writing systems. Oxford University Press.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Dickie, Eleanor (2007). Ancient Greek Scholarship: A Guide to finding, reading and understanding Of Sholia, commentaries, vocabulary and grammatical treatises, from their beginning to the Byzantine period. Oxford, England: Oxford University Publishing House. 93. ISBN 978-0-19-531293-5. Aristophanes from Byzanthi of Greek diacritics. SU1 maint: ref'harv (link) Elsie, Robert (1991). Albanian literature according to the Greek script: the Orthodox tradition of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century in the Albanian letter (PDF). Byzantine and modern Greek studies. 15 (20). SS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Groton, Anne H. (2013). From Alpha to Omega: The beginning of the course of the classical Greek language. Indianapolis, Indiana: Focus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58510-473-4.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Hinge, George (2001). Die Sprache Alkmans: Textgeschichte und Sprachgeschichte (Ph.D.). University Aarhus.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Jeffrey, Lillian H. (1961). Local scenarios of : Study of the origin of the Greek alphabet and its development from the eighth to the fifth century BC Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Keller, Andrew; Stephanie Russell (2012). Learn to read Greek, Part 1. New Haven, Connecticut and London, England: Yale University Press Office. ISBN 978-0-300-11589-5.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Holton, David; Peter McRidge; Irini (1998). Grammar ys ellinikis glossas. Athens: Pataki.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) Horrocks, Jeffrey (2006). 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Cambridge: University Press. page 14-49.CS1 maint: ref'harv (link) External links of the Greek alphabet Wikipedia sister projectsDefinitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikibooks Wikimedia Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikiversity Greek and Coptic list of characters in Unicode Unicode matching charts - including Greek and Coptic letters sorted by form Examples of Greek handwriting By Greek Unicode Issues (Nick Nicholas) at Archive.today (archive August 5, 2012) Unicode frequently asked questions - Greek and script alphabetical test for Greek unicode range (Alan Wood) numerical test for Greek Unicode range Classic Greek keyboard, browser-based tool Collection free fonts: greekfontsociety.gr Received from

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