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2013 Archaeological Permit Area TCWR Winter Potential Development Area Road Connector (PDA) Regional Study Area (RSA) Winter Road Federal Watershed Delineation Local Study Area (LSA) Winter Road, George Tie-In Bathurst Inlet - TCWR Winter Road Option 1 7160000 Connector Assessment Upper 7160000 Area Winter Road, George Tie-In Option 2 Queen Gulf - Ellice River !. Community/Settlement BIPR Winter Road Connector Upper Coppermine - *# Existing Exploration Camp Haul and Access Road Central Lockhart ^_ Marine Laydown Area Proposed Infrastructure 1:875,000 Tibbitt to Contwoyto 0 20 40 Winter Road Projection: NAD 1983 UTM Zone 13N Kilometres

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Figure2.2-1 Figure 2.2-1 Back River Project Study Area PROJECT SETTING

Table 2.4-1. Kitikmiut Place Names near the Project Area

Amagok Creek Amagok means “” in Inuinnaktun Beechey Lake Hanninggayuk Back River Hannigayok Propeller Lake (NE of Goose Lake) Tahikafalok Nahik Bathurst Inlet Kiligiktokmik, Kilogiktok George Lake1 Tikigak Bathurst Lake Tahikafalok Western River Kilokgiktok

Source: KIA (2012). 1 This reference is not to the George Lake at the exploration camp but to a lake approximately 10 km to the southeast of the existing George camp.

Samuel Hearne’s encounter with the in 1771, when he travelled to the Central on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay Company, is the first reported European contact with people in this area (Hearne 1911). Hearne also encountered a large group of Aboriginal people he called Copper Indians hunting deer (caribou) as they crossed the . This group provided him with information on the mouth of the river.

Many of the late 19th and early 20th century accounts of Inuit life were documented during expeditions to establish ’s sovereignty in the Arctic. In the early 1900s, conducted several research projects amongst the Inuit. He documented much of the seasonal round of the Kitikmiut who, as well as hunting seal and whale along the coast also travelled as far south as to hunt and collect wood in the summer (Stefansson 1914). Stefansson also documented 125 Inuit camped west of the mouth of the Coppermine River in late May. The majority of this group were heading south to Dismal Lake and Dease River though a few families were going to hunt caribou around the and another group would spend the summer fishing at Bloody Falls (Stefansson 1921). According to A. P. Low, who voyaged with the Neptune in 1903, the Inuit would move south in September to hunt the barren-ground caribou only returning to the coast when enough snow had fallen to make the return trip on dog sleds (Low 1906). The intensive fur trading activities that would change the seasonal round of the Kitikmiut did not occur in the region until the 1920s when trading posts were established near Bathurst Inlet (Neatby 1984).

2.4.2 Kiligiktokmiut Traditional Knowledge Because of their geographical position near Bathurst Inlet and Beechey Lake, the Kiligiktokmiut could harvest a range of terrestrial and marine resources, most importantly caribou and ringed seal. This contrasts with the neighbouring Kitikmiut groups: the marine-focused Ocean Inuit and the terrestrial-focused Nunamiut (KIA 2012).

The Kiligiktokmiut had access to the mainland Bathurst caribou herd throughout the most of year; however, during winter months only a portion of the herd wintered in the Kiligiktokmiut area around Beechey Lake, while the remainder of the herd wintered north of the Kiligiktokmiut area. The NTKP describes the movement of caribou as frequently changing and of variable distribution across the landscape; however, the herd’s main calving areas are consistently described as being in southern Bathurst Inlet and at Beechey Lake. Other species were also hunted to supplement caribou, including , ground squirrels, hares, and waterfowl. Fishing was common during the spring and fall, with Arctic char being the main species fished. Campsites were often located along lakes and streams to take advantage of fishing opportunities. The Kiligiktokmiut used small shrubs for wood (KIA 2012). No important sources of copper or carving stone were noted within the Kiligiktokmiut area in the NTKP study.

Traditionally, the Kiligiktokmiut were highly mobile, travelling long distances in small groups seeking widely distributed resources. They lived in temporary camps consisting of igloos in the winter and tents made from animal skins during the summer. Maps in the NTKP report show the communities of Bathurst Inlet and Omingmaktok (Bay Chimo) as focal points for travel throughout the region, with intensive use

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of southern Bathurst Inlet, Bathurst Lake, the Western River and Beechey Lake for travel, gathering and camping. One informant described camping for nine nights as they travelled on foot from Beechey Lake to the community of Bathurst Inlet, a distance of approximately 160 km (KIA 2012).

Kiligiktokmiut ways of life changed during the 1900s with their increasing participation in the fur trade. The Kiligiktokmiut began incorporating trips to fur trade post into their annual travels. The fur trade introduced them to new types of European goods including foods, tobacco, tools, firearms, and snow machines, as well as Anglican and Catholic missionaries. However, the first permanent community in Bathurst Inlet, called Bathurst Inlet (or Kingoak), did not exist until the establishment of a Hudson’s Bay Company fur trade post during the 1920s. Animal species that were previously of marginal importance to the Kiligiktokmiut, such as (KIA 2012), became more widely trapped and traditionally trapped species, such as , became more intensively harvested.

2.4.3 Kiligiktokmiut Land Use within the Project Area The following sections summarize Kiligiktokmiut traditional knowledge within the Project area, divided into four main geographic areas: 1) Southern Bathurst Inlet, 2) Bathurst Lake, 3) the Western River, and 4) the Goose, George, and Beechey lakes area.

Southern Bathurst Inlet The NTKP study documents extensive use of the southern portion of Bathurst Inlet by the Kiligiktokmiut as a travel, resource gathering and camping area. Southern Bathurst Inlet is a main calving area for the Bathurst caribou herd, and this in turn attracts a number of other species, in particular grizzlies and . An area where ringed seals were hunted is mapped in Bathurst Inlet east of the proposed Marine Laydown Area, and Bathurst Inlet is described as a well-known area for hunting wolves (KIA 2012).

The NTKP study identifies a major nadlok (a narrowing in a body of water where caribou swim across during the ice-free season) in Bathurst Inlet that includes the proposed Marine Laydown Area (KIA 2012). Nadloks are important hunting and camping areas (KIA 2012). This method of hunting is described in Keith and Stewart (2005):

Other hunters would be hiding in the qajaq [] at the water’s edge for the caribou to enter and begin crossing the lake. Once they were committed to crossing, the hunters would move behind the animals and spear them using a caribou lance called a kaput (2005:14).

Keith and Stewart also note that Diamond Jenness believed that Bathurst Inlet had a relatively large number of due to the prevalence of this hunting method (Jenness 1922; Keith and Stewart 2005).

Two fur trade posts are identified in Southern Bathurst Inlet in the NTKP study. One is mapped on the first point of land on the eastern side of the inlet, several kilometres north of the mouth of the Western River. This post corresponds to historic and prehistoric archaeological site McNj-28 recorded by Rescan during baseline studies for the Project and is likely one of the earliest Hudson’s Bay Company posts in the inlet, dating to the 1920s (KIA 2012; Usher 1971). The second post is mapped on a point of land on the western side of the inlet, within the proposed Marine Laydown Area. This post has a place name associated with it (Tikighik); however, this name is not defined in the NTKP study (KIA 2012).

A number of “major camps” are described as being on both sides of Bathurst Inlet, but their locations are not defined further. These camps may be associated with some of the archaeological sites that have been recorded along the shores of the inlet, as many of these have a historic component. In particular, Fishing Creek and Fishing Lake, located outside of the proposed Marine Laydown Area to the northwest and west, is identified as an important camp area and grave site (KIA 2012).

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Bathurst Lake Bathurst Lake is described as an important camping area and caribou calving area (KIA 2012). The lake is important for trapping foxes and fishing Arctic char (KIA 2012). Grizzlies are mentioned as being numerous around Bathurst Lake. Specific camps described in the NTKP study include one on an esker south of the lake, and another at the north end of the lake where families wintered (KIA 2012). Additionally, a trading post is described as having been located at the southern end of the lake (KIA 2012). The camp at the north end of the lake may be the Tahikaffaaluk Site (McNk-3 to McNk-13) described in detail in Keith and Stewart (2005). The site has numerous features including dwellings, caches, hunting features, and cooking and food preparation areas. There are discreet domestic and hunting areas, divided by bedrock ridges. Keith and Stewart (2005) estimate that the site predates 1920s or 1930s, as there were no artifacts to indicated reliable access to Western goods.

Western River The Western River was an important travel corridor to Beechey Lake and important camping areas are located on both sides of the river and at its mouth (KIA 2012). An important nadlok is located at a rapids on the Western River, east of Bathurst Lake, where caribou would sometimes die if the water was too rough to cross (KIA 2012). Caribou could also die if they got stuck in the cliffs that border the Western River Valley (KIA 2012). Arctic char from the Western River were fished by hook and bait and grizzlies are described as numerous within the valley (KIA 2012). It is noted that “trees” (likely willow) are plentiful within the Western River Valley (KIA 2012), and because wood is very scarce within the Kiligiktokmiut area, prehistorically, the valley may have been an important location for gathering this resource. However, to date, there has been very little archaeological study of the Western River Valley. There are currently five sites (McNj-4, McNj-5, McNj-14, McNj-16, and McNj-42) recorded near the mouth of the river, including both historic and prehistoric hunting and camping sites. Two large historic camp sites (LkNh-1 and LkNh-2), recorded by Campbell (1975) 70 km upstream on the Western River, do not correspond to any specific sites identified in the NTKP study.

Goose and George Property Areas and Beechey Lake While the NTKP study does not contain much traditional knowledge relating specifically to the Goose and George property areas, Beechey Lake, located to the south, was an important area for the Kiligiktokmiut. Beechey Lake is essentially a widening of the Back River, and the area is a major calving ground for the Bathurst caribou herd. Caribou pass through the Beechey Lake area around August but would also spend the winter here because the snow was less deep due to the rocky terrain in the area. Specific named camping areas are identified along Beechey Lake including Tudlak, Hannigayok, Kongok, and Papegak, several of which are identified as sites where families would overwinter. Beechey Lake is also identified as an important fox hunting area and a fishing spot where people would net for grayling, codfish, longnose sucker, lake trout, and whitefish. The Goose and George property areas are described primarily as part of the travel corridor between Beechey Lake and other areas like Bathurst Inlet (KIA 2012). Archaeological sites (LiNj-2, LjNj-2 to LjNj-6, LjNi-3, and LjNi-4) have been identified within the Tudlak and Hanningayok areas, suggesting repeated use dating back to the prehistoric period.

2.4.4 Summary — Naonaiyaotit Traditional Knowledge Project and Cultural Heritage Resources The NTKP study adds to our understanding of the known archaeological sites in the Project area, and identifies specific land use sites and areas that may have potential for archaeological sites. The most intensive land use occurred along Bathurst Inlet and up the adjacent river systems. The Kiligiktokmiut were highly mobile “multi-taskers” who began residing in permanent settlements only after the establishment of Hudson’s Bay Company posts after the 1920s. Seasonal activities focused on hunting caribou and ringed seals, but the Kiligiktokmiut were by necessity flexible and opportunistic,

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supplementing their diet with fish, birds, muskox, Arctic hares, and ground squirrels, as needed. Numerous activities would take place simultaneously while travelling the landscape which makes separating Kiligiktokmiut activity areas into “travelling areas,” “gathering areas,” or “camping areas” an inaccurate depiction of their land use (KIA 2012).

The NTKP study also speaks to the archaeological visibility of some land use activities. Kiligiktokmiut fishing methods included the use of stone weirs on many the region’s rivers (KIA 2012), and caribou hunting often involved the construction of inokhok (“inuksuk” is another common spelling) and talo (hunting blinds; KIA 2012). Such stone features should still be highly visible on the landscape today. During summer months the Kiligiktokmiut lived in skin tents, which would have been weighted down with stones resulting in the tent rings that are commonly found in the archaeological sites in the region. In contrast, at winter camps, where igloos were used, only stone hearths might remain (Ramsden and Murray 1995). The old burial practices described in the NTKP study are surface graves where the deceased is wrapped in caribou skins and positioned facing north (KIA 2012). Such a practice would leave little trace archaeologically. At grave sites near the community of Bathurst Inlet skeletal remains on the ground surface and animal savaging is described (KIA 2012).

2.5 REGIONAL HISTORY The Back River Project area was part of the until the creation of the new territory of in 1999. The history of this region is marked by several changes in colonial ownership and governance.

During the early exploration and colonization of , the northernmost area of British North America was divided into three regions, known as Rupert’s Land, the North-Western Territory, and the British Arctic Territories. In 1670, the Hudson’s Bay Company was created and issued ownership of all Rupert’s Land, defined as lands draining into , for purposes of developing a fur trading business in this region. Although the North-Western Territory (i.e., lands to the northwest of Rupert’s Land) was not owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company until 1859, they nonetheless maintained a significant presence in this area during the 18th and 19th centuries. The islands of the high Arctic, the British Arctic Territories, were claimed by Britain based on their by 16th century explorer .

Upon Canadian confederation in 1867, negotiation began for transfer of these territories to the new Canadian government. Sale and transfer of Rupert’s Land and North-Western Territory by the Hudson’s Bay Company to the new Canadian government occurred in 1870, and the transfer of the British Arctic Territories from the British to Canada in 1880. For a list and description of place names used in this report, see Appendix B.

2.5.1 Early Exploration of the Arctic Coast — 1700s to 1870 This section describes the earliest European incursions into the central Arctic, and in several instances into the Project area itself.

Samuel Hearne The earliest exploration of the region was by a Hudson’s Bay Company expedition lead by Samuel Hearne between 1770 and 1772. Employing and Cree guides, Hearne led an overland expedition from Fort Prince of Wales on Hudson Bay, proceeding northwesterly, up the Coppermine River, and reaching the at (Hearne 1911).

John Franklin Between 1819 and 1822 , an officer in the British , led an overland expedition to map the Arctic coastline east of the Coppermine River (Figure 2.5-1; Franklin 1823; Houston 1994).

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On August 5, 1821, travelling south by , the expedition reached the southern tip of Bathurst Inlet. Franklin named the outlet of the river at the tip of Bathurst Inlet after , a member of the expedition. The expedition was plagued by inclement weather and logistical problems resulting in supply shortages and the loss of half the party to famine (Houston 1994).

George Back The first survey of Back River was undertaken by its namesake George Back in 1834. In 1833, George Back returned from Europe to launch an expedition in search of Captain John Ross and the crew of the Victory, which had gone missing in 1829 while attempting to locate the . Back believed that, if stranded, Ross would be taking refuge at Fury Beach where stores of supplies were left when the Fury was abandoned in 1825. A secondary goal of the expedition was continued mapping of uncharted areas of the Arctic coastline east of Point Turnagain. Back was under orders to begin returning by August to ensure he had returned before winter set in. In October 1833 they received word that Ross and survivors of his crew had returned to England, having been rescued by a whaling ship, and Back’s expedition became entirely one of exploration. Back’s expedition was launched from Fort Resolution on and proceeded northeasterly reaching Back River and descending the river and its treacherous rapids by canoe. At that time the outlet of the river was suspected to be at the southern end of Bathurst Inlet, where in 1821 John Franklin had named a river emptying into the inlet Back River after Back, previously a member of his crew. However, Back discovered that these were not the same rivers; the “Back River” he followed in 1834 empties into Chantry Inlet, east of Bathurst Inlet. The name of the river that empties into Bathurst Inlet was subsequently changed to the Western River (Back 1836; Steele 2003).

Canadian Arctic Expedition In 1913, the Canadian government, motivated by the desire to establish Canadian sovereignty over the Arctic region, funded the Canadian Arctic Expedition, a multi-disciplinary exploration and research expedition of the Arctic. The expedition lasted from 1913 to 1918 and was directed by Vilhjalmur Stefansson, an explorer and anthropologist who during a previous trip to the Arctic in 1910 had “discovered” the peoples of the Coronation Gulf, and the Dolphin and Union straits areas. The Canadian Arctic Expedition was divided into two parties; a northern party led by Stefansson and a southern party led by zoologist Dr. Rudolph Anderson. The southern party included young anthropologist Diamond Jenness, who, beginning in August 1914, spent two years conducting ethnographic fieldwork with the Copper Inuit. The ethnographic information collected by Jenness is the earliest from the Back River Project area and, because it was conducted several years prior to the introduction of the fur trade into the region, describes a people whose culture had been minimally affected by European influences (Stefansson 1914; Jenness 1922, 1946).

Northwest Mounted Police Bathurst Inlet Patrol In 1917, the Northwest Mounted Police (now Royal Canadian Mounted Police) launched a second attempt at conducting a patrol of Bathurst Inlet to investigate the two murders allegedly committed by Inuit men at Bathurst Inlet in 1911. The first attempt in 1914 had been a failure due in part to the officers’ lack of experience in the Barren Lands. The second attempt in 1917 was an extensive operation led by officers Francis H. French and Thomas B. Caulkin. The patrol was conducted by dogsled with the party comprising the two officers and four Inuit guides. They departed from the Baker Lake police detachment at Hudson Bay in March 1917 and reached Bathurst Inlet in May 1917. The officers were able to confirm from the Inuit living at Bathurst Inlet and Bernard Harbour that the murders were acts of self-defence. No arrests were made. The return trip took several months on dog sleds, arriving in Baker Lake on January 29, 1918 (Hulgaard and White 2002; Arctic Institute of North America 2012).

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Figure 2.5-1 Franklin Expeditions in Relation to the Back River Project PROJECT SETTING

2.5.2 Rise of the Fur Trade on the Arctic Coast — 1870 to 20th Century In 1870, there were no fur trade posts along the central Arctic coast and only nine posts within all of present-day Northwest Territories and Nunavut. The nine posts were all located within the Mackenzie Valley. Though between 1889 and 1907, American whalers were operating along the Arctic coast as far east as Cape Parry, they had not reached as far as Bathurst Inlet. During their whaling trips, some of these whalers began to engage in fur trading with the Inuit as a side business (Usher 1971). In 1906, completed the first successful crossing of the Northwest Passage and after 1910 the Arctic fur trade quickly intensified.

The first fur trade post in the region was a Hudson’s Bay Company post established in 1912 at Kittigazuit, near Tuktoyaktuk. Permanent fur trade posts began to spring up rapidly during the 1910s and 1920s. Competing posts were established by the Hudson’s Bay Company, American firms like the San Francisco-based Canalaska Trading Company, and some Inuit-owned and independent trading operations. Independent traders were often former whalers trading from their schooners (“floating posts”) or those setting up temporary encampments. The wreck of a beached whaling schooner observed in Daniel Moore Bay in 1975 by a Geological Survey of Canada crew may have been one of these floating posts (Campbell 1977). After the creation of the Arctic Islands Game Preserve (which included all Arctic islands and the mainland east of Bathurst Inlet) and the peak in fur prices in 1930, the Arctic fur trade economy began a steady decline (Usher 1971).

The closest fur trade post to the Back River Project area was the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Bathurst Inlet Post (Table 2.5-1; Figure 2.5-2; Usher 1971).The Bathurst Inlet Post was relocated several times. The initial post was built in 1925 on the west side of the outlet of the Western River. In 1926, it was relocated to the east side of the Western River, approximately three miles north of its outlet. In 1927, the Bathurst Inlet Post was moved northwest to the northeast side of Banks Peninsula to counter a rival Canalaska Trading Company post that had been built there (KHS 2012). Between 1930 and 1964, the Bathurst Inlet Post was located near the mouth of the Burnside River, the former location of the Bathurst Inlet settlement. Finally in 1964 the Hudson Bay’s Company post was moved to Baychimo Harbour Settlement (Bay Chimo or Omingmaktok), at the northeast end of Bathurst Inlet.

Table 2.5-1. Historic Fur Trade Posts in Bathurst Inlet

Post Dates in Post ID No. and Name Fur Trade Post Ownership Post Location Operation (from Usher 1971) HBC Bathurst Inlet Hudson’s Bay West side of mouth of Western River 1925-1926 4B18 Western River Post Company East side of mouth of Western River 1926-1927 4B18 Western River Northeast side of Banks Peninsula 1927-1930 4B14-2 Banks Peninsula Mouth of Burnside River (former 1930-1964 4B17 Burnside River Bathurst Inlet settlement) Chimo Bay (Omingmaktok), east side 1964-now 4B19 Baychimo Harbour of Bathurst Inlet closed Settlement Canalaska Trading Canalaska Northeast side of Banks Peninsula 1926-1937 4B14-1 Banks Peninsula Company Post at Trading Banks Peninsula Company Inuit-owned Post at Inuit owned Seven miles south of Wollaston Point 1931-1934 4B15 Arctic Sound Arctic Sound Independent Post Independent Opposite Wollaston Point, on west side 1927-1929 4B13 Kater Point at of Arctic Sound Independent Post Independent Near river mouth in Baillie Bay 1936-1941 4B16 Hood River at Hood River

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