306 Erdkunde Band XXII!

21. Kremer, A.: Die Kolner Altstadt und ihre Geschafts Talbot, W. J. (Kapstadt), Mayer, H. M. (Chicago), viertel in jiingerer Entwicklung. In: Koln und die Rhein Kiuchi, S. (Tokio), Kar, N. R. (Calcutta), Czajka, W. lande. Festschrift zum 33. Deutschen Geographentag in (BuenosAires) Koln 1961. Wiesbaden 1961 34. Schwarz, G.: Allgemeine Siedlungsgeographie. Berlin 22. Kreuzer, G.: Beitrage zur Geographie einer City in 1966 (3.Auflage) In: Mitt. Ges. Miinchen 51, 1966 Augsburg. Geogr. 35. Scott, P.: Some Functional Aspects of Cape Town. In: 23. H.: Frankfurt am Main. In: Die Erde 6, 1954 Lehmann, Economic Geography 30, 1954 24. Mayr, A.: Ahlen in Westfalen. Siedlung und Bevolke ? 36. The Australian CBD. In: Economic Geography 35, rung einer industriellen Mittelstadt mit besonderer Be 1959 rucksichtigung der innerstadtischen Gliederung. Bochumer 37. Smith, P. J.: Calgary: A Study in Urban Pattern. In: Geogr. Arb. Heft 3, 1968 Economic Geography 38, 1962 25. Meinel, H: Das Problem der City. Ein Beitrag zur 38. Sombart, W.: Der moderne Kapitalismus. Leipzig 1902 Frage des Formen- und Strukturwandels der Grofistadt. 39. Steinmuller, G.: Der Miinchner Stadtkern. In: Mitt. Dargestellt am Beispiel suddcutscher Stadte. Diss. Wurz Geogr. Ges. Miinchen 43, 1958 burg 1954 40. Stober, G.: Das der Grofistadtmitte. 26. Muller, W. H: Die stadtebauliche Eingliederung der Standortgefiige Diss. Basel. Frankfurt 1964 zentralen Dienste des tertiaren Erwerbssektors. Diss. 41. F.: Bostedcr arbcidssteder iOslo. Braunschweig 1966 Sund, T., Isachsen, og Oslo 1942 27. Murphy, R. E., Vance, J. E.: Delimiting the CBD. In: 42. D.: The Industrial Revolution and the Economic Geography 30, 1954 Ward, Emergence ?: of Boston's Central Business District. In: Economic Geo 28. ?, A Comparative Study of Nine Central Business 1966 Districts. In: Economic Geography 30, 1954 graphy 42, 43. W.: Stockholm. Structure and Deve 29. ?, ?, Epstein, B. J.: Internal Structure of the CBD. In: William-Oisson, In: Intern. 1960. Economic Geography 31, 1955 lopment. Geogr. Congr. ?Norden" Upp sala 1960 30. Niemeier, G.: Binnenpendler 1961 in der Stadt Braun schweig, Karte und statistische Aufschliisselung. Manuskr. 44. Zimmermann, F. (Hrsg.): Raumplanungsgutachten Siid 1962?65. im Stadtplanungsamt Braunschweig ostniedersachsen. Braunschweig Darin: Ic: Thematische Teil lib: Gesamt 31. Norborg, K. (Hrsg.): Proceedings of the IGU Sympo Teil Karten; Teil lie: Mackensen: sium in Urban Geography Lund 1960. Lund 1961 (Bes. konzeption; Struktur, Entwicklung Teile III und IV; darin: Kant, E.: Zur Frage der inneren und Verteilung der Bevolkerung; Niemeier: Die grofien Wilhelm: Die Gliederung der Stadt, insbesondere der Abgrenzung des Stadte im Planungsraum Siidostnieders.; und kreisfreien Stadtkerns mit Hilfe der bevolkerungskartographischen Umlandbeziehungen der Kreisstadte Flachen Methoden) Stadte Siidostnieders. im Konsumbereich; Jelpke: Mecke: und im klassifizierten 32. Sacharow, A. D.: Wie ich mir die Zukunft vorstelle. In: nutzung; Verkehr Planung Die Zeit 1968. Nach einem Artikel in der New York Times. Strafiennetz; Habekost: Die grofien Stadte im Individual verkehr des Schienenver (Angaben iiber die Sozialstruktur der Sowjetunion und Planungsraums; Lagershausen: der USA) kehr und offentlicher Nahverkehr. von Auskunften erhielt ich freundlicherweise von 33. Schultze, J. H. (Hrsg.): Zum Problem der Weltstadt. Eine Reihe und Sandner fiir Festschrift zum 32. Deutschen Geographentag in Berlin den Herren Kollegen Otremba Hamburg, vom Braun 1959. Berlin 1959. Darin Beitrage von: Schultze, J. H. Ganser fur Miinchen und Stadtplanungsamt Der Deutschen verdanke ich (Einfiihrung), Pfannschmidt, M. (Berlin), George, P. (Pa schweig. Forschungsgemeinschaft der Karten. ris), Baldacci, O. (Rom), William-Olsson, W. (Stockholm), eine Beihilfe fiir die Anfertigung

THE STUDY OF GREEK RURAL SETTLEMENTS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

With 2 figures and 3 tables

J. M. Wagstaff

zum raumlicher und ihr Verhaltnis zur Zusammenfassung: Eine Literaturiibersicht Thema: Die Unterscheidung Gefiige landlicheSiedlung inGriechenland naturraumiichen Umwelt ist. Philippson ist der ejste Ver Dorfer wurden in etwa 36 Verof treter dieses doch auch Ogilvie, Vorwiegend griechische Forschungsbereiches, und deutscher Creutzburg und Kossack haben ahnliche Arbeit fentlichungen in englischcr, franzosischer geleistet. unter detaillierte iiber soziale und Sprache in den letzten 80 Jahren (bis August 1968) Neuzeitliche, Untersuchungen zuerst von haben zur solcher sucht. Siedlungstypen sind auf nationaler Ebene wirtschaftliche Wandlungen Erganzung klassischen Studien Niederlandische Wissen Cvijic eingehend beschrieben worden. Seine Klassifikation beigetragen. sind hier besonders aktiv. Der Bei wurde 40 Jahre spater von Beuermann verfeinert, der auch schaftler ausgezeichnete erst seit Burgels diirfte fiir Arbeiten ein Muster einige Siedlungstypen untersuchte, die sich Anfang trag zukiinftige und sein. In den letzten war auch die dieses Jahrhunderts entwickelt haben. Die Erkennung beispiel Jahren Siedlungs besonders Klassifizierung von Siedlungstypen sind in regionalen Un morphologie Gegenstand einiger Untersuchungen, die vom architektonischen aus. Aufmerk tersuchungen zu finden, deren Hauptanliegen jedoch Standpunkt Einige /. M. Wagstaff: The Study of Greek Rural Settlements: A Review of the Literature 307

samkeit wurde auch historischen Themen gewidmet, insbe Three groups of studies may be recognised for re sondere der Wiistung (Antoniades-Bibicou) und der Wie view purposes. The firstconsists of attempts to provide des Flachlandes Schultze, derbesiedlung (Papenhausen, a national survey and the second of regional des Bis heute sind die meisten Beuermann). Untersuchungen criptions. The third group is lesswell defined. It in mehr beschreibender als analytischer Art Ein gewesen. cludes studies of both individual settlements and sind um wesentliche Fort gehendere Analysen notwendig, on the basis of form schritte zu erzielen. Dabei ware auf bisher ziemlich ver settlement categories recognised z. or Each contains work in French nachlassigte Themen wie B. Siedlungslage, morphologische origin. group English, zu not The studies in this Entwicklung und Veranderungen im Standortbild achten. and German but Greek. few language known by the author to touch on rural settlement are principally concerned with domestic Rural settlements in have aroused sporadic architecture2). interest amongst geographers since the closing decades of the nineteenth About 29 studies, inwhich century. National Surveys rural settlements featured prominently, had been Surveys of the whole country have been mainly published by August, 1968. To thesemay be added a interested in the recognition and classification of further 7, geographical in character, but made by settlement types. Although preceded by a simple scholars from other disciplines. A total of about 36 impressionistic classification3), the first substantial studies is perhaps sufficiently large for the field to be survey was made by the Serbian geographer, Cvijic, surveyed. Achievement may thus be publicised and in his wide-ranging study of the human geography of some indication given of topics on which future effort the Balkans, La Peninsule Balkanique4). might profitably be concentrated. a Rigorous criticism, though theoretically desirable, *) Stone, K. H., The Development of Focus for the seems out of place in such a survey. Some of the Geography of Settlement, Economic Geography, 41 (1965), T. On the Nature of Settlement Geo studies have not been produced by avowed geographers 346?55; Jordan, G., so that it would be unwise to evaluate them from a graphy, Professional Geographer, 18 (1966), 26?28. For A. xal MnOTPAL, X., Ta purely geographical standpoint, even if complete 2) example, AAMnAKIS, Meaatcovixa ty)<; Xlou, in MlXEAHL, II. A., existed on the nature and aims of settlement Xcopia (Ed.), agreement To Aaixo Stuti The studies also cover a inwhich EXXtjvixo (Athens 1960). geography1). period 3) Rodd, R., The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece on settlementhave their disciplines touching improved (London 1892), 55?81. as as to some methods and refined their theory, well 4) Cvijic, J., La Peninsule Balkanique: Geographie hu extent changing the foci of their attention. maine (Paris 1918), 215?24.

I-1 7 VILLAGESA MAISONS

to Fig. 1: Settlement Types in the Balkans According Cvijic 308 Erdkunde Band XXIII

was Cvijic chiefly concerned with permanent settle work, notably by Beuermann, has suggested that for an ments, though in earlier section he dealt with forms all this the classification may have been a simplifica of pastoral life.His distribution map shows that five tion of a far more complex situation, at least as far types of permanent settlements could be recognised as Greece is concerned. It is, however, difficult to within the present boundaries of mainland Greece judge what the real situationwas fiftyyears ago, when (Fig. 1). Three were composed of m a i s o n s the field work was done. The settlement picture was agglomerees and two of maisons disse undoubtedly modified by events consequent upon the were minees. Agglomerations taken to be charac Balkan Wars and the twoWorld Wars. teristic of thewhole country away from the frontiers Cvijic's original interest in physical geography was but themost widespread typewas what Cvijic called revealed in a brief discussion of site and situation5), le type greco-mediterraneen from its thoughwithout specifically Greek reference.He noted associations with a particular ethnic group and a that in mountainous regions of high rainfall, where distinctive way of life. It was very compacted and much of the forest cover still remained and a patriar stone or consisted of mud-brick houses arranged along chal form of life existed, settlements tended to be to a on streets, often paved, leading central square. Where situated valley sides at elevations below 1600 islands of Turkish population occured, as in Thrace metres. In more arid regions,where forest had largely and Macedonia, le type turco-orientale been removed and cultivation was important, settle was recognised by its distinctive population and ments were found in the plains and valleys. This characteristic house. The third type of agglomeration, situation was also related to what Cvijic called the le type des villages cifliks, was found zone of Byzantine civilisation and principally in the great plains of Macedonia and which may be said to have covered most of modern where itwas associated with estates worked Greece. He found that settlement sites (Table 1) on a some share-cropping basis. In cases, according to to Cvijic, the ciflik village consisted of a square or Table 1: Settlement Sites According Cvijic squares around which were grouped the 'miserable Lowland c c e s hovels' of the i f i j (share-croppers). Other Lacustrine Terraces were surrounded a of mud examples by wall, usually Cones of Deposition brick, pierced by a single gate. Moraines Dispersed settlementswere recognised mainly along Mountains the northern frontiers of Greece, in districts where Non^karst ethnic groups were very mixed. Since he was writing Cones of Deposition from a Serbian point of view, Cvijic derived his Fluvial Terraces Glacial Terraces from core areas in his own country. One terminology Moraines form of which his shows to have been dispersion, map Karst was of several hamlets widespread, composed typically Margins of Poljies, Uvalas and Dolines in which houses were scattered a kilo haphazardly Slopes of Hums metre or more from each other. Each hamlet in turn was from its a distance of separated neighbour by within lowland areas tended to be elevated above 2 or 3 kilometres. The whole assemblage, though drawn their surroundings,whilst in rocky terrain they appear out over some 7 or 8 had a name. kilometres, single ed to be located on areas of fertile soil. Cvijic did not, This of settlementwas classified as 1 e type type however, take these observations further and indicate de Stari Vlah, after a district in Serbia where the extent of the observed preferences or explore the itwas characteristic. The second type of particularly * relationships between site and settlement form in any was called le type d I b a r , from its dispersion detail. Subsequent general surveys have not added to in a river basin of that name in south-west frequency his remarks on situation, other than to note the Serbia. It too was composed of hamlets, the houses of importance of water supply. Site has been almost each a particular hill or group of hills. occupying entirely neglected. each to a distinct clan, the whole em Although belonged Cvijic's classification of settlement types was formed a administrative unit with one group single bodied in subsequent general geographies of Greece, headman. for example those produced by Fels and Maull6). Classification was thus based on the appea general In these le type greco-mediterraneen rance of but account was taken of ethnic settlements, was shown to characterise the whole mainland, in associations and, in the case of ciflik settlements,of a form of economic Cvijic particular organisation.. 5) Ibid., 207?14. could be in Erd recognised that these associations explained 6) Fels, E., Griechenland, in Gerbing, W. (Ed.), Das terms of cultural history, about which he wrote ex bild der Gegenwart (Leipzig 1926), vol. 1, 679?700; tensively in other sections of his book. Subsequent Maull, O., Griechisches Mittelmeergebiet (Breslau 1922). /. M. Wagstaff: The Study of Greek Rural Settlements: A Review of the Literature 309

eluding the which Cvijic had not dis Sarakatsani pastoralists. These groups, whose life is cussed though its northern coast was depicted on his the subject of a recent monograph by Campbell11), map. Similarly, the authors of the British Naval have greatly diminished since the Second World War, Intelligence handbook described the typical Greek principally because their traditional winter grazings as a rural settlement 'solitary nucleated village', though have been ploughed up. Many of their kalyvia have were also been they recognised that there variations in detail transformed into permanent villages. as between regions, such the Peloponnese and Mace Permanent settlementswere divided into five main same donia, and between mountains and plains7). The types.The most characteristicwas the clustered village concept of broad uniformity has also been adopted and several sub-types could be recognised. The most more recent by sociological and anthropological widespread Beuermann called compact clus studies8). tered villages (geschlossene Haufendorfer). In 1955 Beuermann presented a paper drawing This term took account of the possibility that observed to recent attention changes in the structure of Greek variations in size and physiographic detail might be were rural settlement9). His findings subsequently related to such things as water availability or relief into a and not or as expanded fully documented discussion of simply race, culture economy suggested in In as settlement types Greece10). This paper contains the by Cvijic. any case, Beuermann pointed out most comprehensive classification to date and itmay in his first paper, the distinctive turco-orien therefore be useful to other workers if it is set out in t a 1 e villages of Macedonia have been almost com some detail. However, the presentation used below pletely transformedwith the replacement of wooden and in 2 is not ones Table precisely that followed by turco-orientale houses by stone-built in Beuermann himself. the Greek tradition. They have survived, however, inThrace where there is still aMuslim population. Table 2: Beuermann's Classification of Settlement Types A second major sub-type was the loosely clustered In Temporary Permanent Settlements village (lockeres Haufendorf). Settlements general the type was recognised by its cellular struc 1. ture. A number of house clusters were from Winter 1. Clustered Villages separated as Settlements Compact Loose each other by considerable distances, in the Ibar 2. Nomad Malachi Estate and Stari Vlah settlement types recognised by Cvijic Settlements Colonisation in frontier areas. Beuermann, however, observed that 2. such were Street-and-Line Settlements settlements found throughout the country. 3. Hamlets Transitional between loosely clustered and compact 4. Isolated Farmsteads clustered villages was a group which Beuermann 5.War or Defensive Settlements called malachi settlements (from to = MaXa/iov clan settlement). They were found in the Pindhos Mountains and were re Accepting the classic distinction between temporary principally the cellular of houses which and permanent settlements, Beuermann described two cognised by groupings aerial showed to exist within their built types of temporary settlement found in Greece. The photographs up areas. Beuermann that these settlements first consisted of themore or less permanently located argued had the coalescence of sepa k a 1y v i a (huts) used by pastoralists from fixed developed by originally rate house clusters, each of which was associated with villages in themountains when wintering their animals a clan. However, he did not offer in the plains. The second type shifted location from particular any to evidence to support his year year. They were temporary settlements of 40? hypothesis. Two other of clustered were 50 kalyvia erected by the fully nomadic Aroumi and sub-types village recognised by the regularity of their ground plans. One was classified as the estate Like 7) Naval Intelligence Division, Geographical Hand village. Cvijic's ciflik this was a hooks, Greece (London 1945), especially vol. 2, 40?42. village, distinguished by and a central 8) For example, Friedl, E., Vasilika: A Village inModern quadrilateral ground plan large square, the sides Greece (New York 1962); Mcneill, W. H., Greece: Ameri ofwhich had originally been linedwith small, can in Aid Action, 1947?1956 (New York 1957): Sanders, mud-brick cottages roofed with thatch. The hovels I. in T., Rainbow the Rock: the People of Rural Greece have been replaced by substantial stone houses, names Mass. (Cambridge, 1962). have changed, but characteristically large squares still Strukturwandel landlicher 9) Beuermann, A., Siedlungen survive. Beuermann realised, that all in though, villages Griechenland, Verhandlungen des Deutschen Geographen tages, Hamburg 1955, Tagungsbericht und Wissenschaftliche 409?15. Abhandlungen (Wiesbaden 1957), n) Campbell, J. K., Honour, Family and Patronage: A 10) Beuermann, A., Typen landlicher Siedlungen in Grie Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Moun Petermanns 100 tain chenland, Geographische Mitteilungen, Community (Oxford 1964). Earlier works are cited in (1956), 278?85. the bibliography. 310 Erdkunde Band XXIII

once connected with estates did not have this distinc was the growth of settlements along the once empty coasts tive form. It was confined to the northern provinces of the Islands12). where the regulatory power of landlords was possibly Wehrsiedlungen (war or defensive settle were greatest and where large estates survived beyond the ments) Beuermann's last type. They were now end of Turkish rule. The other sub-type, the colo characterised by towers, much decayed, and nisation village, was also found principally found only in theMani. Beuermann did not mention, in the north. It developed between 1923 and 1930 as though, that most Maniat settlements today could an measure to emergency house refugees, mainly from easily be put into his other categories on the basis of Asia Minor, and was associated with the reclamation their general layout, affected in detail though that is of swampy plains and valleys formerly divided by the location of the towers.He also rather curiously between large estates and used as winter grazing by excluded from this category thewalled villages of the nomads. The type was characterised by a rigid grid and Chios, despite their apparently defen iron plan and a central square (see below). sive origin. Comparison of the studies made by Cvijic and Settlement types as less than recognised widespread Beuermann reveals the of three new wore sett development clustered villages street-and-line types of settlementduring the intervening fortyyears. lements, hamlets, isolated farm Colonisation and most street-and-line settle steads and war or defensive settle villages ments resulted from caused war. ments. Street-and-line settlements were identified major upheavals by Isolated farmsteads were a gradual development in by the arrangement of 25 to 30 houses along a road. response to socio-economic and political changes Most of them had originated during the war years which may not have been clear in the landscape at the 1941?50, when people from destroyed and insecure beginning of the century, especially in northernGreece. villages settled along main roads in the hope of secu In addition, Beuermann's papers drew attention to and food. were formed by rity Crystallisation points the effects of Numbers of houses and k h a n i a with the result emigration. village wayside chapels (inns) were in the 1950s and the total that the of the one and the owners of the standing empty patrons desertion of some mountain was names to the new settle villages predicted. other frequently gave their The 1961 census suggests that this is now widespread ments. Beuermann rightly noted, however, that and its is confirmed observation13). similar linear settlements had the reality by personal developed along Beuermann's work has other merits from coast road between Patras and Corinth in the northern apart since the of the was a to the local boom indicating developments beginning Peloponnese. This response century. It clarified the use of hamlet, though this is in viticulture during the 1880s and 1890s. perhaps of more importance in German than English was a term about which Beuer or were to cover Weiler (hamlet) French. Special categories developed mann reservations. It had been expressed originally forms of settlement between dispersion and agglomera use coined, he said, in southern Germany where its tion. Above all, Beuermann's classification simplified a date. To implied secondary settlement of medieval settlement data sufficiently to clear theway for other term Greece to either 'a small clustered apply the in geographers to initiate detailed studies of the origin or 'a small settlement with several houses or Beuermann village' and development of particular types. Beuermann farms' was therefore misleading, though himself promised a full study on these lines but it used to describe low thought itmight justifiably be does not seen to have materialised. Other geographers in a transitional state between as a land settlements perma do not appear to have used the classification nent and seasonal In the how new One reason be occupation. literature, starting point for research. may to ever, the term had most frequently been applied that any classification tends to be regarded as in some semi-nomadism. a clan settlements associated with sense an objective description of reality instead of were Beuermann in These settlements described by necessary first stage in research. of a of houses concerns his firstpaper. They consisted number Standing apart from the classificatory of own a set in their walled compounds but united by the studies already reviewed is one by an historian. was over high boundary wall. The type found wide It dealt with deserted villages14). In the first section areas of the northern mountains but their number has 12) Naval Intelligence Division, Geographical Hand declined over the last or greatly fifty sixty years. hooks, Dodecanese (2nd Ed., London 1943); Kasperson, R. The Dodecanese: and Unity in Island Isolated farmsteads (Einzelsiedlungen) E., Diversity Politics (Department of Geography, University of Chicago, were recognised as a comparatively new element in the Research Paper No. 108, 1966). had to appear in the lowlands Geo landscape. They begun 13)Wagstaff, J. M., Rural Migration in Greece, the second half of the nineteenth when during century graphy, 53 (1968), 175?79, especially Fig. 3, Uninhabited of brigandage had been stamped out, techniques deep Settlements, 1961. en ? and communications improved. An 14) Antoniadis-Bibicou, H., Villages desertes Grece drilling developed ? not Un Bilan in: Ecole des Hautes Etudes associated development, described by Beuermann, provisoire, Pratique /. M. Wagstaff: The Study of Greek Rural Settlements: A Review of the Literature 311

an In re Miss Antoniadis-Bibicou used extremely wide considered here. the Peloponnese Philippson variety of evidence (archives, chronicles, maps, place cognised the existence of two types of temporary was names, travel narratives and tradition) to discover, settlement. One used by nomads and semi-nomads was both by period and region, the number of villages practising inverse-transhumance. The other used abandoned between the beginning of the eleventh and by cultivators when working distant parts of their themiddle of the nineteenth century.A total of 2,049 village land. Pastoral settlementswere beginning to was advanced and the fourteenth and early nineteenth disappear in the 1880s, when the fieldwork was done, as were centuries suggested the periods of greatest abandon and temporary cultivation settlements gradually ment. to reasons The author then proceeded outline the being transformed into permanent villages. Isolated was to were for desertion. Much attention given general farmsteads and hamlets uncommon, except in the as a socio-economic changes, such the growth of large Mani and the peninsula. However, class of estates tax was more were and farming, but little attempt made isolated houses did exist widely. These the to show how such changesworked in detail in particu k h a n i a , establishments set some distance from lar regions or on specific villages. main roads or beaches and combining the functions Two additional criticismsmay be made. The first of inn and general store. Another type of isolated was numerous is thatTurkish material was totally neglected, particu settlement formed by the monasteries, larly the registers of land and population made many of which were ruined or almost deserted even periodically from the conquest (completed on the then. mainland c. until the seventeenth 1500) century. The predominant form of settlement was the A number of documents of course, involved. large is, nucleated village. The focus of every village was said For 24 the example, registers covering Peloponnese to be its square around which were found now general are in the Basvekalet Arsivi in Istanbul coffee houses a stores, and church. In the largest and others are held the and land office at by survey settlements the square formed the core of a well are not and Ankara15). They adequately catalogued developed bazar, the existence of which made their is far from easy, but should interpretation they distinction between town and village particularly be used by futureworkers in the field16). Secondly, difficult. Variations in settlement size were seen to Miss Antoniadis-Bibicou did not recognise that, in to exist from region region. Philippson attributed with desertion on such a scale, she dealing large might these to the relative frequency of springs.Where they some have wrongly classified settlements. For example, were as in eastern rare, the and central Peloponnese, not were a number of the was only Peloponnesian villages population forced to concentrate around them and in the War of were destroyed Independence (1821?29) large nucleations the result. Conversely, a pattern soon over reoccupied afterwards but, the centuries, of small nucleations in thewest was said to be related settlements have their names and thus many changed to an abundance of springs, though in theMani, where apparently disappeared from the record. Name are springs almost totally absent, a similar pattern was has increased since 1909 when the Com to changing attributed dependence upon cisterns. Philippson mission for Greek Place Names began also argued that springs were the main siting factor work eradicating non-Greek names from the map, for settlements, basing his case on the apparent fre sometimes to the frustration of settlement great geo quency of spring-line locations. Unlike some of his interested in historical was not graphers development. successors, he rigidly deterministic over the role of water supply for he drew attention to an Regional Studies observed preference for unencumbered, open sites on Regional studies have chiefly been concerned with mountain slopes.He believed such siteswere chosen to describing patterns of settlement and explaining them avoid the fever of valley bottoms and the storms of largely in terms of relief and geology. The trendwas mountains crests, whilst securing the benefits of set perhaps by Philippson in two regional mono bracing airs, extensive visibility and easy defence. graphs17), of which that on the Peloponnese will be Philippson's study is clearly an historical document and the situation has changed so much in the present Vie Centre de Les Section, Recherches Historiques, Hommes that his conclusions would be difficult to et century la Terre, XI, Villages Desertes et Histoire Economique verify, though some attempt has been made at up Xle?XVUIe Siecles (Paris 1965), 343?417. them in his monumental work on Greek land 15) Article on Daftar-i Khakani in Lewis, B., Pellat, C. dating and Schacht, J., (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Islam, new scape18). edition, vol. 2 and London 81?83. more (Leiden 1965), A deterministic approach was adopted by 16) Shaw, S. J., Archival Sources for Ottoman History: Ogilvie in his study of physiography and settlement The Archives of Turkey, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 80 (1960), 1?12. a. Der 17) Philippson, A., Peloponnes (Berlin 1892), 18) Philippson, A., Die Griechischen Landschaften: eine )b.Thessalien und 6 am especially 580?96; (Berlin 1897). Landeskunde, vols. (Frankfurt Main 1950?59). 312 Erdkunde Band XXIII

in southernMacedonia19). He set out to describe the ed by Creutzburg in a paper on Crete21). Most relief of the region and to indicate human response settlementswere found below the altitudinal limit of to it in terms of settlement location. His method was the olive (600?700 metres) and, given that the staple to divide the region into physiographic units and crops were olives, vines and wheat, Creutzburg turn. a a describe each in As result Ogilvie produced argued that the climatic requirements of the olive, the characteristically fine description of the terrain but most demanding of the three, set an upper limit to offered this description, synthesising settlement loca location. In this he apparently ignored the existence tion and relief, as explanation for settlement location of permanent settlements on the large upland plain ol itself. In effect a series of simple correlations was (c. 900 metres) and their associated olive produced with little analysis of site and location in groves. An apparent preference for spring-line loca terms of process. To be fair, however, Ogilvie prob tions also led Creutzburg to conclude that water ably did not have the necessary data to hand since supply was important,whilst thewidespread situation his paper was based on map analysis and rapid field of settlements on the edge of areas of cultivated soil work under war conditions. caused him to deduce that sitingwas controlled by a desire to these valuable stretches of land. The physical emphasis in regional studies was also preserve In a later on the apparent in a paper by Kossack on Epirus20). Using paper, commenting dispersed pattern a of settlement characteristic of Creutzburg aerial photographs he produced ten-part classifica Mykonos, a more His case tion of settlement types and argued that four of his developed sophisticated argument22). was that the settlement of the island resulted categories reflected the influence exerted on settlement pattern from a traditional in which intensive culti form by relief (Table 3). Kossack's conclusions pro economy vation was combined with pastoralism. In turn this form of economy was a response to an arid Table 3: Types of Rural Settlement in Epirus, According particular to Kossack climate and a relief composed of hard rocks inwhich soil was confined to a few shallow depressions. The Clustered Villages fault with both accounts is that, as in Ogilvie's was into ex article, descriptive correlation turned Irregular Ground Plans Regular Ground Plans planation. As still happens with many studies in On Slopes Ciflik Villages no was made to demon human geography, attempt On Scree and Colonial Villages strate theprocesses whereby forms of economy actually Terraces (Kolonialdorfer) location ar settlement form. produced patterns of On Ridges Detailed historical work is necessary for this but it In Gaps must be admitted that suitable records are often as Antoniadis-Bibicou made clear in (Durchragungen) missing, Miss With Quarters a paper discussed above. to (Machala) Creutzburg's most interesting contribution was that house Street-and-Line Villages Greek settlement study his recognition type had a direct influence on settlement form. It is Hamlets (Kalyvia) a fundamental point but it is one which does not seem Isolated Farmsteads (Einzelsiedlungen) to have been made before in a Greek context. Only recently has it been explored in detail, despite the vided much of thematerial for Beuermann's nation considerable attention given to house types by in a on the Dodecanese wide classification but they were not used without Migliorni paper Islands23). to the Cretan house criticism. Beuermann attacked Kossack for ignoring According Creutzburg, typical human factors in the evolution of settlement form was a honey-comb structure of flat-roofed cells joined on to an core in to accomodation and for not setting his study in an historical context original response a which would have taken full account of the wide pressures. A collection of such houses formed highly settlement which followed the con cultural connexions of Epirus. He added that compact closely Kossack's work on the clustered village simply indi Insel cated that the type could be found on any kind ol 21) Creutzburg, N., Die landlichen Siedlungen der ver terrain. Kreta, in Klute, F. (Ed.), Die landlichen Siedlungen in schiedenen Klimazonen 55?66. More subtle environmental influenceswere deduc (Breslau 1933), insbeson 22) Creutzburg, N., Die Mykonischen Inseln, 1 dere ihre Siedlung und Wirtschaft, Regio Basiliensis, anid in Sou 212?32. 19)Ogilvie, A. G., Physiography Settlement (1960), Ricerche thern Macedonia, Geographical Review, 11 (1921), 172?97. 23)Migliorni, E., antropogeographiche eseguite zur Kenntnis einer italiane di Promossi 20) Kossack, H. P., Epirus: Beitrage nelle isole dell'Egeo, Viaggi Studio, 46 4 Accadamia Nordgriechischen Landschaft, Geographica Helvetica, dalla Fundazione Volta, (Reale dTtalia, 1938), (1949), 78?92. 5?27. /. M. Wagstaff: The Study of Greek Rural Settlements: A Review of the Literature 313

tours of its site to give the overall appearance of a Common and Prentice showed that economic change series of low, irregular steps cut through by narrow, generally had beneficial results in the typical village not gorge-like streets. Unfortunately, Creutzburg did of lowland Macedonia30). Conclusions reached in a explore theways inwhich houses might actually have very detailed study of changingman-land relationships interacted to produce the compact form, though this in a village in the Mesara Plain of southern seems to were struc necessary establish the validity of his hypo somewhat different31). In this community, thesis. Similarly, he failed to use his data to explain tural obstacles to the adoption of modern technology general morphological development, despite his state were so considerable that economic change had brought ment was an a that the typical house expression of about good deal of emigration, a response observed traditional Cretan society with a history claimed to in the marginal environments of mountains and to go back Minoan times. Moreover, the whole hypo smaller islands but not normally associated with low areas. on thesismay have been incorrectly based. It apparently land The Mesara study is also important western counts. to an ignored the existence in Crete of two-storey other It attempted provide historical houses with pitched roofs. The honey-comb structure perspective with which to view change and made use is entirely absent so that the general mountain of a wide variety of sources and data-collecting tech type24) of house may be related to the looser form niques. These points suggest that the studywill prove of clustered settlement characteristic of the region. to be a useful model for similar work elsewhere in Greece. Miscellaneous Studies Morphological development has attracted some studies of Greek rural are modern trends Many settlements difficult attention, despite in favour of analys to classify in any consistent way. They are neither ing function. Perhaps significantly, though, the atten national nor in A tion has been wholly regional scope. majority mainly from non-geographers. In the are particularly concerned with the socio-economic earliest of these studies Eden dealt with one of the functions of settlements,but a few are devoted to the fortified settlements of southern Chios32). He de more traditional aspects of form and location. Some monstrated that use of the outer walls of houses as a are concerned to a greater or lesser extent with several community defence was only possible if the physical aspects. size of the settlement was decided before building Three studies have been concerned with economic began. Equally, access to houses from the interior of inmountain ? the settlement necessitated an change villages in the Peloponnese25), provision of open space central Greece26) and Epirus27). They showed how at the centre,whilst the use of other houses as internal marginal physical environments, together with con rings of defence forced circulation into streets arrang servative were at ed as concentric The entire structure attitudes, least partly responsible for loops. of the the of settlement was therefore depopulation mountain villages which has be indicative of planning. come so over Eden's conclusions almost to noticeable all Greece in the last twenty certainly apply neigh years. A UNESCO development study, however, in bouring settlements in Chios. This possibility is sup dicated was a recent that change not uniform in pace nor ported by architectural study35). Amongst similar in its detailed effects even within one moun other things,Miss Tyrwhitt showed how a high tainous region28). Similar conclusions were reached degree of regularity in the villages resulted from the in a consistent use of a comparative study dealing with the suitability for standard-sized barrel vault in modern streets. economic development of settlements in wide houses and covered Similar indications of are ly different parts of the Peloponnese29). By contrast, planning found in theCyclades and were described by the classical scholarsWace and Dawkins34). Eden 24)Wagstaff, J. M., Traditional Houses in Modern believed that the concentric form of Mesta, and Greece, Geography, 50 (1965), 58?64. P. Ano Vlasia: van een 25) Sibbles, L., Analyse Bergdorp in de van het Neder van het Peloponnesos, Tijdschrift Koninklijk Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijskundig Genoot landsch 77 Aardrijskundig Genootschap, (1960), 177?2D0. schap, 75 (1958), 30?55. P . L. and A. 26) Sibbles, Schrijvers, J., Vryena, Analyse 30) Common, R., and Prentice, A., Some Observations van een in van on Bergdorp Midden-Griekenland, Tijdschrift the Lowland Macedonia Village, Tijdschrift voor Econo het Nederlandsch en Koninklijk Aardrijskundig Genootschap, mische Sociale Geografie, 47 (1956), 223?27. 79 315?32. Pobia: (1962), 31) Burgel, G., Etude geographique d'un Village 27)Kayser, B., a. L'Echec d'une coloni Cretois (Epire). (Centre des Sciences Sociales d'Athenes, 1965). sation Etudes spontanee, Rurales, 11 (1963), 65?101; Eden, W. A., The Plan of Annual the ? 32) Mesta, Chios, of b. des Sciences Socia at Margariti Village d'Epire (Centre British School Athens, 145 (1950), 16?20. les d'Athenes, 1964). 33) Tyrwhitt, J., Order out of Chios, Architectural Re Six 28)Mendras, H, Villages d'Epire (UNESCO Rap view, 139 (1966), 475?78. de No. ports Missions, 11, 1961). 34)Wace, J. B. and Dawkins, R. M., The Towns and Vooys, A. C, de, and Piket, A Houses of 29) J. J. C, Geographical the Archipelago, Burlington Magazine, 26 of Two in the Analysis Villages Peloponnesos, Tijdschrift (1914?15), 99?107. 314 Erdkunde Band XXIII

of was presumably similar settlements, that prefered refugees found homes in former Turkish villages, town by planners before the revolution in planning others were settled in specially designed settlements concepts associated with Hippodamos of Miletus. (subsequently classified as colonisation vil Mesta itself eseems to However, have been built early lages). Papenhausen40) and Schultze41) gave in the Genoese occupation of Chios (1346?1566), straightforward accounts of those established in north an ern a though ancient tradition may have been Greece, where majority were located. Papen followed35). hausen concluded that 432 setlementswere built in Apart from providing evidence for planned settle New Greece during the 1920s. They could usually be ment are in Greece, these studies significant as attempts recognised by theirnames, often those of places inAsia co relate social needs and domestic architecture to the Minor but with the prefix n e a (new). The urgent form of the settlement.The same basic relationships, task of providing rural housing for a considerable also mentioned by Creutzburg for Crete, have been number of people left its mark on settlement form in two one on explored other papers, the Mani penin and housing character. In contrast with the confusion sula and the other on Lindos in the island of . of traditional settlements, most of the new ones were a Both began with tacit, and perhaps natural assump laid out on a chequer-board or grid-iron plan. The tion that relationships exist between a settlement and main exception was Nea Chios in theArgolis, describ theway of lifewhich it contains. They then attempted ed by Lehmann42), where a fish-bone layout was to nature cases streets at discover the of the relationships, though adopted. In all intersected right angles causation seemed easier to to suggest than prove. The and along them standardised two-roomed houses were Mani focused on house as an set a paper types expression at regular intervals. At the centre whole block of the peculiar social systemwhich once existed in the was left for a square and around it a church, school and It to two were region36). attempted indicate how the inter coffee house subsequently built. Swamp reclama to acted produce the characteristic physiognomy of tion and land redistribution were associated develop as as Maniat settlement well the regional pattern of ments. They resulted in extremely regular field patterns the peninsula. A subsequent study broadened the and compact land holdings. to on argument siting37). In their paper Lindos, three Kalyvia villages, a much older settlement type,were to architects sought explain the village's overall form studied by Beuermann in the Peloponnese43). Beuer the of certain mann through inter-relationships basic argued that when people from permanent vil were as needs38). These identified the need for protec lages in the plains vacated them, during conditions tion against attack and earthquake, for warmth and of insecurity in themedieval period, theywere forced coolness in season, for containing the family, and for to establish themselves in unclaimed mountain country, were metre contour. allowing internal circulation. All expressed by generally around the 1000 A marginal into to a the integration of domestic architecture the environment forced such communities adopt pasto general settlement plan. ral economy, using upland grazing in summer and the Both studiesmay be criticised for theirbasic assump largely empty plains in winter. Accordingly, kalyvia as tions. They may also be regarded pioneer attempts were built for seasonal occupation in the plains or to a reach deeper understanding of settlements than around their margins. During the nineteenth and twen has hitherto been usual. tieth centuries many kalyvia villages gradually be Studies of two came to specific types of settlement have permanent in response increasing internal been German made by scholars: kalyvia villages, and security and economic development. Some kalyvia to settlements established accomodate refugees from Asia Minor and various Balkan countries in the after 40) Papenhausen, F., Die Neubesiedlung Griechenlands, zu math of the First World War39). Although many Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde Berlin, 1933, 34?51. a. 35) Smith, A. C, The Architecture of Chios, edited by 41) Schultze, J. H., Neugriechenland. Eine Landes Argenti, P. P. (London 1962), 119?20. kunde Ostmakedoniens und Westthrakiens mit besonderer 36)Wagstaff, J. M., House Types as an Index in Settle Beriicksichtigung der Geomorphologie, Kolonistensiedlung ment Study: A Case Study from Greece, Transactions and und Wirtschaftsgeographie (Gotha 1937); b. Greek Coloni Papers of the Institute of BritishGeographers, 37 (1965), sation in Thrace and Macedonia, Scottish Geographical 69?75. Magazine, 53 (1937), 81?89. a. 37)Wagstaff, J. M., Anonymous Settlement Planning in 42) Lehmann, H., Zur Fluchtlingssiedlung in Griechen the (summary only), Ekistics, 22 (1966), land, Zeitschriftder Gesellschaft fiirErdkunde zu Berlin, 196?98. 1929, 113?122; b. Argolis. Landeskunde der Ebene von Ar 38) Smith, D. Lee, Rich, P., and Morgan, J., A Study of gos und ihrer Randgebiete (German Archaeological Institute, the Architecture of Lindos, Rhodes (summary only), Ekistics, Athens 1937). 22 (1966), 182?87. 43) Beuermann, A., Kaly vien-Dorf er im Peloponnes, in: 39) The most recent of many studies of the population ex Ergebnisse und Probleme moderner geographischer For changes is Pentzopoulos, D., The Balkan Exchange of schung. Hans Mortensen zu seinem 60. Geburtstag (Bremen Minorities and its Impact upon Greece (The Hague 1962). 1954), 229?38. /. M. Wagstaff: The Study of Greek Rural Settlements: A Review of the Literature 315

settlements, however, originated during the Second ful examination, however, has been generally lacking. World War when numbers of mountain villages were Mention has been made of the loss of population from destroyed. mountain villages and the colonisation of plains and reverse Beuermann's paper is important, for it showed coastlands. The process, that of movement into not to plainly that locational patterns have not been static, upland areas, does appear have been studied, even in recent times. On the contrary, they have adapt though its existence has long been recognised and was to ? a con a ed changing socio-economic conditions documented in survey by Vacalopoulos44). Excava clusion which is supported by Miss Antoniadis-Bibi tion of abandoned villages should be of assistance here, cou's on a work deserted villages in Greece. Two criti for precise chronology and reliable estimates of popu was are even cisms, however, may be made. First, little attention lation rarely available where the documen given to the cultivation functions of lowland kalyvia. tation appears relatively good. Purely geographical Secondly, Beuermann did not deal adequately with studies of surviving settlementswhich resulted from a retreat are atten problem raised by his opinion, possibly derived from the process also required. Particular - - a Philippson, that the suffixes e i k a and i t i k tionmight well be given to the hypothesis that insecu or were reasons (adjectival forms showing posession association) in rity and burdensome taxation the main a divated former kalyvia village. The problem is that for their foundation. Insecurity, for example, is fre - - many settlements with an e i' k a or i t i k a termi quently invoked on the basis of analogy with other are as nation found in long settled districts, such the parts of theMediterranaean but its operation has not few settlements have been established to Mani, where been conclusively demonstrated with reference parti since and where im was independence parent settlements, cular settlements in Greece. Security clearly im plied by the ending, cannot now be traced. Moreover, portant in the of some but eva - design Aegean vilages names an e i' a in the Mani at least, settlement with k luation of its role in site choice has scarcely been suffix can be traced back to the seventeenth even century. attempted, locally. have resulted from into They may possibly migration Comparison of settlement patterns at different other the region from parts of the Peloponnese follow periods is an aspect of historical studieswhich has been the Turkish and their settlements A start was ing conquest parent somewhat neglected. made by Lehmann will be difficult to trace. It that Beuer a on eastern seems, though, with paper Crete in Minoan times45) and mann Philippson before discovered a and him, process the subject has to some extent been taken up by Kir of colonisation with a much than longer history they sten46). Much, however, remains to be done. Archaeo one was not confined imagined and which necessarily logists have provided an abundance ofmaterial for the to the of or land. reoccupation plain valley early periods47) and the Turkish archives may yield important information for modern times. Conclusions A subject not discussed in any of the studies publish Most studies of Greek rural settlement have been ed to date, but touched upon by Kayser in his Geo concerned more with description than analysis. Types graphie humaine de la Grece48), is that of settlement have been recognised and their character of definition. The Greek authorities recognise a hier istics described. Locational patterns have been dist and correlated with elements in the inguished physical 44) Vacalopoulos, A. E., La Retraite des Populations environment. Such classic studies have been vers recently grecques les Regions eloignees et montagneuse pendant supplemented by detailed investigations of the impact la domination turqaie, Balkan Studies, 4 (1963), 263?76. on Die of nation-wide socio-economic changes particular 45) Lehmann, H., Siedkingsraume Ostkretas imWan del der 45 communities. Settlement form has also been investigat Zeiten, Geographische Zeitschrift, (1939), 212?228. ed over the last few years, principally by architects. 46)Kirsten, E., Die griechische Polis als Location and site choice, however, seem to have been historisch-geo graphisches Problem des Mittelmeerraumes, Colloquium generally neglected as fields for detailed work. There Geographicum, 5 (1956), 15?25; also contributions (Bei is a need for these two aspects to be zur clearly analysed trage historischen Landeskunde) to Philippson, A., Die with due attention to the human as well as the physical Griechischen Landschaften: eine Landeskunde, 6 vols. an factors involved. Morphological development is (Frankfurt am Main 1950?59). other subject which requires further study and a start 47) For example, Simpson, R. Hope, A Gazetteer and might well be made by investigating settlementsfalling Atlas of Mycenaean Sites (Institute of Classical Studies, London H. and R. into the categories of Beuermann's classification. The 1965); Waterhouse, Simpson, Hope, Prehistoric , Part Annual the British School at development of the distinctive estate village and of 1, of Athens, 55 (1960), 67?108, Part 2, ibid., 56 m a 1a c h i stand out as worthwide topics. (1961), 114?178; T., Pour un Atlas de has been touched on several studies and Wronteka, archaeologique Change by la Crete minoenne: I, Bulletin de Correspondance between the classifications made Cvijic comparison by Hellenique, 83 (1959) 523?42. and Beuermann reveals the of new forms emergence 48) Kayser, B., Geographie humaine de la Grece (Centre of settlement over the Care intervening forty years. des Sciences Sociales d'Athenes, 1964). 316 Erdkunde Band XXII1

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Fig. 2: Distribution of Studies Reviewed archy of settlements inwhich only those localities concentrated or dispersed. Clearly, then, the localities (ofoaoLtoi)with populations of less than 2,000 are do not necessarily reflect the situation revealed by field considered to be rural49). Those with populations work or analysis of such topographical maps as are between 2,000 and 9,999 are considered semi available to the public. A good example is again urban, a classification which can often be justified afforded by theMani. Some 300 individually named by the number of functions found in such communities. settlements can be counted on the British Staff maps These distinctions have applied since the 1961 census, covering the presentday eparchia (administrative when the concentrated population of the localities was units roughly corresponding to English hundreds) first taken into account. Before 1961, the definition of Oitylo and Yithion50). Only slight change seems to was based 'on the total population of the said locality', have taken place since the Second World War but only

of 1 M7 and N7 Tai'na 49)National Statistical Service Greece, Statistical 50) Greece, :100,000, Sheets Yithion Yearbook of Gieece3 1966 (Athens 1967), 12?14. ron, (1st Ed. 1944). Ernst Giese: Die Klimaklassifikation von Budyko und Grigor'ev 317

150 localities were recognised by the 1961 census51). and these need to be filled, especially before any new The leading settlement in each of these is the only one classification is advanced. It would also be generally shown in the recentlypublished administrative atlas52). helpful if the classes described by Beuermann could be some were Future work must take such discrepancies into account, mapped. Moreover, of the studies reviewed or to particularly when analyses of settlement patterns, made many years ago. The ground needs be rework even are to population densities, attempted. ed, if only discover the detailed changes that have not taken in the interim. Finally, as Figure 2 shows, settlement study has place covered the whole country. There are considerable gaps The plea, then, is formore studies and greater depth of analysis. Attention should be given not only to synthesised and ordered description, which remains 31) Office National de Statistique, Population de la basic, but also to process. It is important to discover Grece au Recensement du 19 mars 1961 (Athens 1962), 121 and 125. the forceswhich shaped settlement form, decided site and about 52) National Statistical Service of Greece, Atlas of choice, developed regional patterns brought Greece, 1:200,000 (Athens 1965). change.

DIE KLIMAKLA S SIFIKATTON VON BUDYKO UND GRIGOR'EV

Mit 5 Abbildungen und 3 Tabellen

Ernst Giese

Summary: The classification of climate of Budyko and Klimaklassifikation vorgelegt. Endgultig wurde sie Grigor'ev jedoch erst in einer Gemeinschaftsarbeit mit As in the USA there has in the USSR in Grigor'ev iiber die Klassifikation der Klimate der developed USSR Mit ihr wurde zu recent times, too, a theoretical This (1959) veroffentlicht1). physical climatology. eine Karte der klimatischen has been the research gleich Bereichsgliede development promoted particularly by der USSR die fiir den bisher noch of Budyko and Grigor'ev on the heat and moisture balance rung vorgelegt, nicht erschienenen Klimaatlas der be of the earth's surface, Based on this research Budyko and Sowjetunion von stimmt war, spater dann, kleinen drucktechni Grigor'ev have developed a classification of climate, which schen Fehlern aber sonst in is remarkable for its exact based of deliniation bereinigt, unverandert, physically den Weltatlas S. and the use of a new and deliniation parameter, physisch-geographischen (1964, 203) complex An der dieser the so called radiation index of dryness. According to this aufgenommen wurde2). Erstellung classification Budyko and Grigor'ev have defined the x) A. A. Grigor'Ev, M. I. Budyko Klassiflkacija: klima climates of the USSR and constructed a map of the clima tov SSSR. In: Izv. AN SSSR, ser. geogr., Nr. 3,1959. tic regionalization of the USSR. Eine englische Obersetzung dieses Aufsatzes findet man in: Soviet Geography, Review and Translation, Vol. I, Etwa seit Ende der 40er Jahre hat sich in der 1960, Nr. 5, S. 3-24. man Sowjetunion (USSR) eine Klimatologie entwickelt, Leider hat es auch hier wie im Originaltext unter die sich um eine physikalisch vertiefte Betrachtung lassen, den Leser iiber die Herleitung der verwendeten des Warme- und Wasserhaushaltes bemiiht. Sie ver Formeln sowie iiber die verschiedenen MeB- und Be sucht dies in zunehmendem MaBe durch theoretische rechnungsmethoden der angegebenen K >nstanten und Ableitung physikalisch begriindbarer, gesetzmaBiger Variablen zu informieren, so daB ein Verstandnis und eine Zusammenhange thermischer und hydrologischer Beurteilung der Klimaklassifikation ohne die Kenntnis vor um Parameter, dann iiber indirekteMeBmethoden auf ausgehender Arbeiten Budykos nicht moglich ist. Ebenso die Eigenschaft des Klimas eines Gebietes schlieBen muB angemerkt werden, daB in den Arbeiten Budykos im zu konnen. nur Flohn (1958) sieht in dieser sich auch in allgemeinen ubliche Dimensionsangaben in sparlichem neue zu den USA abzeichnenden Entwicklung eine und Umfang finden sind. An dieser Stelle mochte ich er grundlegende Stufe der Klimatologie, die als Herrn Julius Werner vom geophysikalischen lnstitut in theoretische Klimatologie bezeichnet. Munster, der mir bei der Herleitung einiger Formeln und zu Wesentlich dieser Entwicklung in der USSR Bestimmung der Dimensionsangaben behilflich war, herz vor haben allem die Untersuchungen Budykos iiber lich danken. den russ. Warme- und Wasserhaushalt der Erdoberflache 2) Die auf S. 270/271 des Atlasses vorliegende beigetragen. Auf ihrerGrundlage haben Budyko und Kommentierung der Karte der klimatischen Bereichs Grigor'ev eine Klimaklassifikation entwickelt, die gliederung der USSR istgleichfalls wie der gesamte Text sich durch ins Anwendung neuartiger Abgrenzungs des Atlasses Englische ubersetzt worden (siehe Soviet parameter und exakter physikalisch begriindeter Ab Geography, Review and Translation, Vol. VI, 1965, grenzungsmethoden auszeichnet. Nr. 5/6, S. 223, Obersetzung der Zeichenerklarung, S. 317 Bereits 1948 hat zu Budyko die Grundsatze dieser bis 320, Obersetzung des Kommentars).