British Journal of Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) : AN INDISPENSABLE TOOL FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTH-EAST STATES OF NIGERIA Dr. F.O. Nwokike, Dr. Ezeabii I.C and Jim E.U. Department of Technology and (Business Education Unit) Enugu State of and Technology (ESUT), Enugu

ABSTRACT: The study was carried out by the researchers in the South East States of Nigeria to determine how business education could be an indispensable tool for achieving sustainable development. A survey research design was used for the study. The population comprised 46 business educators teaching in public in the South East States of Nigeria. A self- structured questionnaire developed by the researchers and carefully validated by the experts in the Faculty of Education of Enugu State University of Science and Technology was used for data collection. Mean and Standard deviation were used to answer the two research questions that guided the study while t.test hypothesis was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The result of the study showed that business education programme is an indispensable tool for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria because it provides the needed manpower required in industries. The study equally revealed that one of the strategies for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria through business education programme is to ensure that the school curriculum is relevant to the skills required of industries. Moreover, there was no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female business educators on the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development and the strategies for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria. Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended among others that the curriculum planners should ensure that the school curriculum content is relevant to the skills required of industries because of the relevance of the programme in providing the needed manpower in industries. KEYWORDS: Business Education, Sustainable Development, Business Educator, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION Business education is a core component of Technical and Vocational Education programme and taught by professionally trained male and female business educators in universities in the Sought East States of Nigeria South East States of Nigeria is one of the six geo-political zones and has five states. There are six public universities offering business education programme in the South East States of Nigeria. Business education programme is concerned with teaching the skills, attitudes and knowledge necessary for a successful career in office and business world. Anyaeneh and Nzegwu (2015) describe business education as education that enriches basic education for teaching career, entrepreneurship, business understanding, office understanding, office environment and vocational practices. In the view of Onajite (2016), business education encompasses education programme for business, office occupation, economic understanding, entrepreneurship and it seeks to develop in the learners basic skills for personal use in the future. Schell (2003) opine that business education programme involves training students in topics relevant to the business

19 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) world such as accounting and marketing. In addition, Schell states that business education involves training students in the softer skills such as leadership. The objectives of business education as identified by Schell (2003) is to enable the students to gain experience with skills such as leadership and communication also to provide students with information about all aspects of business. According to Association of Business Educators of Nigeria,(ABEN, 2017), business education is needed by students in the contemporary world because business education develops life skills for economic success and helps students to develop skills and attitudes needed for career success. In the opinion of the researchers, the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria cannot be over-emphasized because of its potential in equipping the recipients with the relevant skills for self-employment. This is in conformity with the statement made by ABEN(2017) that business education can be a major instrument for national development because it promotes industrialization through its entrepreneurship offerings.. Business education is considered to be one of the crucial vehicles for social equity as well as sustainable development if it is accorded proper status by the government and other stakeholders. Sustainable development means the all round development of an individual. This tallied with the statement made by China, Lilly and Igbemi (2017) that sustainable development is all about improving the lives of people. In the opinion of Hansa (2014), sustainable development deals with the carrying capacity of natural system with social, political and economic challenges faced by the society. Sustainable development is believed to be a holistic approach to improving the quality of life through judicious use of available natural resources. In the context of business enterprise, sustainable development means adopting business strategies and activities that meet the needs of the enterprise and its stakeholders presently and enhancing the human and natural resources that will be needed in the future. In the context of the study, sustainable development entails equipping the graduates of the programme with vital skills for self employment that they can contribute to the economic development of the Nation. This will help to reduce hunger and improve the standard of living of the populace. The aim of sustainable development is to balance our economic, environmental and social equity and justice. The United Nations development program (2015) in its framework for sustainable development marshaled 17 sustainable development goals. The sustainable development goal also known as transforming our world is a set of seventeen goals to transform the world by 2030. The sustainable development goals include among others to: -End extreme poverty including hunger -Promote economic growth and decent jobs within the planetary boundaries -Achieve gender equality, social inclusion and human rights. -Achieve health and well-being at all ages. -Improve agriculture systems and raise rural prosperity -Empower inclusive, productive and resilient cities. -Curb human -induced climate change and ensure sustainable energy. -Secure biodiversity and ensure good management of water, oceans, forests and natural resources.

20 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) -Transform governance and technologies for sustainable development. The main aim of sustainable development is to balance our economic, social and environmental needs. In support of this, Ukairo (2017) noted that sustainable development for sustainable development to be achieved in any nation, there must be a balance between environmental, societal and economic considerations needed to maintain and improve the quality of generations to come. Appreciating the role business education play in economic and social development of the ration, Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013) identified that one of the objectives of business education is to help the recipient to appreciate the world around him and contribute maximally to the social and economic development of the nation. In order to fully achieve the sustainable development goals of ending extreme poverty including hunger and also promoting economic growth in the South East States of Nigeria, integrating some of the sustainable development issues into the curriculum should be one of the top priorities of educational planners. Also, Government shall take necessary measures to ensure that quality of instruction at all levels of education shall be oriented towards acquisition of functional skills and competencies necessary for self-employment which will eventually lead to sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria. Business education is an indispensable tool in achieving development and its sustainability. It is against this backdrop that the researchers seek to determine how business education programmme could be an indispensable tool for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria. Statement of Problem Most countries of the world especially developing countries are facing economic recession. At a critical time like this, what the nation needs is a theoretical and skill oriented programme that can equip the products with skills relevant for sustainable development. This will help to end extreme poverty, hunger, create jobs and promote economic growth and finally achieve sustainable development. Without a functional education program like business education, achieving the sustainable development goal of ending extreme poverty including hunger and promoting economic growth and decent jobs within the planetary boundaries will be a mirage.

Purpose of the study The general purpose of the study is to determine how business education programme could be an indispensable tool for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria. Specifically, the study tends to determine the: 1. Relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development in South East States of Nigeria and 2. Strategies for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria through business Education program in Universities. Research Questions The following research questions were answered by the study: 1. What is the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development in South East States of Nigeria?

21 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) 2. What are the strategies for achieving sustainable development in South East States of Nigeria through business education programme

Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance

Ho1: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female business educators in Universities in the South East on the relevance of business education programme in achieving sustainable development in the south East States of Nigeria

Ho2: A Significant difference does not exist between the mean responses of male and female business educators teaching Universities in the South East on the strategies for achieving sustainable development through business education programme

METHOD A descriptive survey research design was used to carry out this study. The study was carried out in the South East States of Nigeria with a population of 46 business educators made up of 18 male and 28 female business educators teaching in public Universities in the South East States of Nigeria offering business education programme. The instrument used for the study was a self- structured questionnaire developed by the researchers. The items had a 4-point rating scales of strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree with a corresponding values of 4, 3, 2 and 1. The instrument was validated by three experts from Faculty of Education, Enugu State University of Science and Technology. The instrument consists of 25 questionnaire items. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while t- test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Any item with a mean of 2.50 or above was regarded as agree while any item with a mean score below 2.50 was regarded as disagree. The hypothesis of no significance difference was upheld if t- calculated value was greater than the t-table value of 1.96 value at 0.05 level of significance and at 44 degree of freedom. However, the hypothesis was not upheld if the t. calculated value was less than the t. table value of 1.96 but not upheld if the t. calculated value was less than the t.table 1.96 and at 0.5 level of significance.

RESULTS The results of the study were obtained from the two research questions answered by the study and two hypotheses tested and analyzed

Research question 1 1. What are the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development in the south East States of Nigeria Data collected in the respect of this research question is presented in the Table 1

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Table 1: Mean ratings of male and female business educators on the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development

S/N The relevance of Business Education programme in achieving sustainable development include: X SD Dec.

1 Provides the needed manpower in industries 3.72 0.46 Agree 2 Promotes economic growth 3.54 0.50 Agree 3 Provides the recipients’ with necessary skill for transition into labour market 3.59 0.50 Agree 4 Increase the overall productivity of the labour force 3.11 0.92 Agree 5 Provides effective learning for the recipient for lifelong 6 livelihood 3.48 0.75 Agree Produce graduates that are job creators 3.46 0.50 Agree 7 Ensures that school teaching is relevant to the skills required of industries 3.30 0.70 Agree 8 Meet the labour market needs of business and industries 3.35 0.74 9 Educates individuals for and about business 3.74 0.44 Agree 10 Help the recipients to be producers and distributors of 3.11 1.04 Agree goods and services 11 Help the products of the programme to use the results 3.13 0.81 Agree of production as consumers 12 Help the recipients to make judicious socio-economic 3.20 0.69 Agree decisions as citizens 13 Help the recipients to contribute maximally to the social 3.46 0.72 Agree and economic development of his nation GRAND MEAN/SD 3.40 0.67 Agree

Table 1 shows that all the 13 items with corresponding mean of 3.27,3.54,3.59,3.11,3.48,3.46,3.30,3.85,3.74,3.11,3.13,3.20,and 3.46 are the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development in South East States of Nigeria. The low standard deviation shows the homogeneity of the respondents in their responses

Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female business educators in Universities in the South East on the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development Table2: t. test analysis of Male and Female Business Educators on the relevance of the business education in achieving sustainable development in South East

Variable N X SD Df t.cal crit. t Dec. Male 18 3.40 0.68 Do not Female 28 3.40 0.69 44 0.00 1.96 Reject Table 2 denotes the summary of t. test analysis of items 1-13 in Table 1. Table 2 shows that t. calculated of 0.00 are less than the critical table value of 1.96 at .05 level of significance and

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44 degree of freedom. Therefore the null hypothesis (Ho1) is not rejected. This shows that there is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female business educators on the relevance of business education in achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria.

Research Question Two: What are the strategies for achieving sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria through business education programme. Table 3: Mean ratings of male and female business educators on the strategies for achieving sustainable development through business education programme. S/N Item statement X SD Dec. 1 Integrating climate change into the curriculum 2.33 0.97 Disagree 2 Integrating sustainable consumption into the 2.63 1.00 Agree curriculum 3 Integrating disaster risk consumption into the 3.00 0.84 Agree curriculum 4 Integrating biodiversity into the curriculum 2.67 1.01 Agree 5 Integrating poverty reduction into the curriculum. 3.07 1.00 Agree 6 Ensuring that the school curriculum content is Agree relevant to the skills required of industry 3.67 0.47 7 Improving the programme through upgrading of 3.67 0.47 Agree facilities or equipment 8 Integration of new technologies in teaching and 3.63 0.49 Agree learning of business education 9 workshops and conferences that promote sustainable 3.54 0.50 Agree development need to be organized for the students 10 Provision of grants from the government and 3.52 0.51 Agree international organisation 11 Proper mentoring of students on sustainable 3.46 0.50 Agree development issues 12 Participatory teaching that motivate learners to 3.59 0.50 Agree change their behaviour and take action for sustainable development GRAND MEAN/SD 3.23 0.68 Agree

Table 3 indicates that out of the 12 items on strategies for achieving sustainable development through business education programme, business educators disagree on item number one with a corresponding mean of 2.33, that is,( integrating climatic change into the curriculum )

Ho2: Significant difference does not exist in the mean responses of male and female business educator s in the South East States of Nigeria on the strategies for achieving sustainable development

24 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Table 4: t-test analysis of male and female business educators on the strategies for achieving sustainable development in South East States of Nigeria

Variable N X SD Df t.cal Crit. t Dec. Male 18 3.24 0.73 Do not Female 28 3.11 0.75 42 0.27 1.96 Reject Table 4 shows that the t.cal is 0.27 while t. table is 1.96. Since the t.cal is less than the t.table, the null hypothesis is upheld. Therefore significant difference does not exist in the mean responses of male and female business educators in Universities in the South East States of Nigeria on strategies for achieving sustainable development through business education programme.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The result of the findings in table 1 revealed that business education is very relevant in achieving sustainable development in the South East because business educates individuals for and about business and also it provides the needed manpower in industry. According to Osuala ( 2004), education for business is for technology and vocational education students. It helps them to develop personal skills such as recording retrieving, co-ordinating, analyzing, organizing and reporting data used for business decisions. It also help business education student s to develop personal use skills related to business occupation. The skills acquired in business education can help the recipients to establish small scale business and run it successfully. By doing this, it may likely end poverty and hunger leading to good health and sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria. Nwokike (2015) Citing Azih & Nwosu ( 2012) noted that business education at all levels is aimed at providing training that will equip the recipients with business skills that will enable them function optimally in their working environment. Equally, Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013) affirmed that one of the objectives of TVET is to produce manpower required in industry, commerce and agriculture. From the findings of the study, it is therefore worthy to note that business education programme is an indispensable tool for national development. From the findings of research question 2, it was found that some of the strategies for achieving sustainable development through business education programme include among others, to ensure that the school curriculum is relevant to the skills required of industry and also improving the programme through upgrading of facilities or equipment. The findings is in uniformity with the findings made by Nwokike and Okoli (2015) that one of the ways of improving the quality and relevance of business education programme in universities is by institutions laying more emphasis on the manpower need of the industry. Nwokike and Okoli, also affirmed that quality mechanism should be put in place so that students are not taught with outdated equipment. The researchers are of the opinion that if the recipients are taught with modern technological equipment, the graduates of the programme will acquire the relevant skills required of industry and for self-employment.

25 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) CONCLUSION From the findings of the study, it could be concluded that business education is an indispensable tool in achieving sustainable development because of its relevance in providing the needed manpower in industries. The skill acquired by the recipient could help them to be self employed by establishing small scale business. By doing so, the sustainable development goals of ending poverty and promoting the well-being of individuals could be achieved through business education programme which will eventually lead to sustainable development in the South East States of Nigeria. Recommendations: Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended that: 1. The curriculum planners should ensure that the school curriculum content is relevant to the skill required of industry because of the relevance of the programme in providing the needed manpower in industries for sustainable development. 2. Policy measure should be put in place to improve the quality of the training facilities for proper acquisition of skills by the recipient for sustainable development.

REFERENCES China M.A, Lilly G. Igbemi, M.J (2017). Sustainable development: A case for female headed households in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. International journal of scientific research in Education. 10(2)145-155. Retrieved from http/www.ijsre.com Deborah, S. (2003). Objectives of business programme. Retrieved from study.com/academy/lesson/objectivesofbusiness-education-programme html on 3rd May, 2017. Francis, U.U. & Moneblaise, A.S. (2016). Entrepreneurship education: An Imperative tool for economy diversification in a mono sector economy. Journal of economics and sustainable development. Received from www.iiste.org/ Journa. index . Php / JEDS/article / download/ 3122 / 32067 Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013).National policy on education. NERDC. Abuja Hansa, M. (2014). Features of sustainable development. Canada. Ohawa policy research Retrieved from www.cccla-ace.9c.ca. on 18th may 2017. International institute for sustainable development (1992).Business strategy for sustainable development. Retrieved from https:// www. org/business / Pdf/ business strategy.pdf. Leadership council of the sustainable development solution network (2014). indicators for sustainable development goals. Retrieved from unds sn.org/wp – content uploads/2014/05/140522 – SDN – indicator –report .pdf Muhammed, M.U.(2014). Nigeria economy and diversification strategy. Retrieved from https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/daily/national-conference/23974-nigeria-s-economy- and-diversification-strategy. Nwokike, F.O. & Okoli, B.E. (2015). Improving the quality and relevance business education programme through collaboration with co-operate sector. Nigeria Vocational Association journal. 20(1)322-331 Onajite, G.O. (2016). Challenges of utilizing information an d communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning of business education in Delta State. International Journal of educational foundations and management.10(1)246-258

26 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.19-27, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) United Nations Development programme (2015). Sustainable development goals (SDGS). Retrieved from www.undp.en/home/s. on 10th may, 2017 Sampson, O.C. & Godwin O.O. (2014). Mechanism for developing industrial and Technological manpower via Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for national development. Nigeria vocational Association journal 19(1) 101-111. Ukairo, M.U. (2017). The place of business education in addressing the economic recession in Nigeria for sustainable development. Association of business educators of Nigeria conference proceedings 4(1)447-454 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2012). Business education partnerships. Retrieved from en Wikipedia .org/wiki/business. Education partnerships Wikipedia, the free encyclopeadia (2015).Sustainable development goals Retrieved from ww.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sustainable D.

27 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) THE STATE PRINCIPAL AS AN EFFECTIVE LEADER OF LEARNER DISCIPLINE MANAGEMENT Louis Jinot Belle, D.Ed Department of Education, Open University of , Reduit, Mauritius

ABSTRACT: State secondary school principals in Mauritius are struggling to address the learner discipline problem successfully. They have limited authority since all decisions concerning school matters are taken by the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, and Scientific Research and imposed on them to implement. This constitutes a major barrier for principals to manage learner discipline effectively. This paper examines the leadership qualities that they must have in order to become an effective leader of learner discipline management. The literature on leadership is reviewed and analysed in the context of learner discipline. The paper concludes by stating that state secondary school principal should rethink their leadership in a holistic and collaborative manner. KEYWORDS: State Secondary School Principals, Learner Discipline Management, Leadership Qualities, Effective Leader.

INTRODUCTION Secondary school learners’ lack of discipline is a major problem in public schools in many countries. It is as old as education, yet it has become one of the most contentious problem in schools (Mohapi, 2013; Edinyang, 2017), to such an extent that it is a matter of great concern for researchers, -makers, educators, parents, principals and the local media (Marais & Meier, 2010; Ramjanally, 2015). Mauritius is not an exception to this alarming school situation. In a study on educator motivation in the educational zone 2, Belle (2007) found that learner indiscipline is one among the demotivating factors among state secondary school educators. In addition, in the 2007 and 2011 reports, the Global School-based Student Health Survey indicated that on average of 34% of secondary school learners have recourse to physical aggression at least once in an academic year (Jeannot, 2015). Beebeejaun-Muslum (2014) confirms that there has been an increasingly deteriorated teaching-learning environment in schools due to various forms of learner indiscipline and the absence of effective learner behaviour management strategies. A study carried out by the Mauritius Research Council in 2012 found the following manifestations of a lack of discipline among secondary school learners: writing or using foul language in class, lateness, classwork and homework not done, smoking, verbal aggression, using mobile phone in class lessons, bullying, class disruption, stealing, unjustified absences from school and bunking classes (Ramharai, Curpen & Mariaye, 2012). Jeeroburkhan (2016) found improper dressing, damaging property, hooliganism, alcohol and drug abuse and immoral acts as additional acts of indiscipline in Mauritian schools. Limited research has been done in the field of learner discipline management in Mauritius over the past decade. So, it is evident that learner discipline is a complex school problem as it may be manifested differently. The various causes of learner indiscipline in Mauritius are the obsolescence of the curriculum which is academically biased, lack of professional commitment from educators , a laissez-faire

43 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) attitude of the school principal and the school administration , and a biased implementation of disciplinary actions by the latter; the demise of the educational authorities and parents, the pervading influence of the media and social networks, and a decrease in the educators’ authority to discipline learners who lack respect for them (Ramharai, et al, 2012). Beebeejaun- Muslum (2014) states that the main cause of the alarming situation of learner discipline in state secondary schools is the lack of leadership and power of the school principal; principals are not in a position to take the most appropriate disciplinary actions and strategies at the school level to deal with learners who misbehave since they have to refer each case of misbehaviour to the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research. Newcomer and Lewis (2016) recommend the implementation of school-wide strategies since learner indiscipline occurs due to contextual factors that primarily lead to problem behaviour. According to the School Behaviour Policy document, the state secondary school principal is primarily responsible for learner discipline in the school. He/she is required to: “stimulate a school-wide approach in preventing indiscipline; lead by example by being regular and punctual; work in partnership with parents to develop and support the social and emotional skills of students; promote a positive school culture; acts promptly against all forms of student indiscipline; develop a sense of belonging to the school among the students; provide support to educators in their attempt to sustain high behaviour standards; arrange in-house sharing experiences and good practices; and organise and facilitate training of staff to successfully manage challenging behaviour.” (Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research, 2015). The state secondary school principal is the school leader who can analyse school and student-level data that guide him/her to make decisions about how disciplinary strategies may be implemented at the school level and the impact of these strategies on learner discipline (Kim, 2016). Within the Mauritian education system, the principal is accountable to the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research in dealing with cases of a lack of learner discipline. In fact, the Education Act (1957), which still has the force of law and which imposes the legal framework within the education system, stipulates that “The Minister shall have control of the educational system of Mauritius and shall be responsible for the general progress and development of such system.” Besides, the School Management Manual for Principals in State Secondary Schools states that “the principal is responsible for the school under his or her responsibilities but he or she has to send reports to the Zone Director who is responsible for the proper functioning of all the state secondary schools in the Zone; the Director of Zone should keep the Ministry informed of all happenings and performance of schools; and the principal will report all the matters pertaining to the decentralisation of procedures and services.” (Ministry of Education, Culture and Human Resources, 2009). Reporting school procedures and matters take much time of the principal and this may be a barrier to his effectiveness. The content analysis of the main policy documents illustrates the findings of Beebeejaun- Muslum (2014) and Ramharai, Curpen and Mariaye (2012) that the principal should use his/her leadership and authority to instil positive learner discipline in schools. He/she should adopt a holistic approach to maintaining discipline and the principal’s main objective should be the socialisation and preparation of the adolescents to become better citizens.

44 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Purpose of the study This paper reviews the general literature on the role of the principal in laying the foundation of positive learner discipline among learners. Within the legal and education context of Mauritius, the principal has a limited authority in learner discipline management; yet he/she is responsible and accountable to the Ministry of Education, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research and the Director of Zone for learner discipline. However, principals must not fail in this fundamental function as Barr and Saltmarsh (2014) maintain that “principals are accountable in an unprecedented manner” and they have to endure “the stress of working in a fishing bowl under the eye of the other stakeholders” (Watson, 2009). In this context, McDargh (2015) points out that the principal, as the leader, should be like “a conductor or the principal performer in an orchestra”. The purpose of this paper is therefore to review the literature on the leadership of the principal in creating a collaborative team approach whereby all the educators, learners, parents and superintendents are contributing towards a safe and saner school learning environment with learners manifesting positive behaviour (Way, 2011). Such an attempt aims at providing insights into the possible ways that the principal should lead to be more effective within the Mauritian education context. The paper highlights the nature of the leadership that he/she must adopt for effective learner discipline management in a more positive and successful manner.

LITERATURE REVIEW The literature review focus on the role of the principal by taking into account the seven “P’s” for leadership – People, Planning, Personality, Performance, Proficiencies, Purpose and Persuasion (Sloan: 2015) and the seven “F’s” of leadership – Focus, Factual, Fairness, Flexible, Friendly, Fearless and Futuristic (Mathew, 2015). It also centres around the ambidextrous leadership of the principal: he/she should strike a balance between daily administrative matters and devising and implementing effective disciplinary strategies to promote a healthy organisational climate and culture (Smyth, 2015). Visionary leadership The school principal must be driven by his/her vision and mission for the school and be outcome-oriented. The three main tasks of a visionary principal in an attempt to promote positive learner discipline are: (a) he/she must craft his/her vision about his/her goals in terms of discipline, (b) align the educators, learners, parents and superintendent with his/her vision by communicating effectively, building coalition and empowering them in the process, and (c) inspire learners by making a list of good and socially acceptable behaviour, supporting and recognising them through development and constructive feedback and praise (Modiba, 2015; Wyatt, 2015; Teckchandani & Schultz, 2014; Macharia, Thinguri & Kiongo, 2014). Vision is essential in an organisation in order to empower, develop, care for and inspire others (Maldonado, 2015). This will ensure a fair exchange between the principal, educators, learners and the superintendent, and the principal thus directs and recognises the learners who in exchange respond positively to the principal by manifesting positive behaviour (Malaykan, 2014). The learners will develop an emotional attachment to the school and be willing to get involved in the school activities (Wyatt, 2015; Cheng, Jiang, Riley, Cheng & Jen, 2014) and behave to the principal’s expectations about their behaviour – the Pygmalion effect (Basford

45 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) & Molberg, 2013). Everyone, therefore, is involved in the collective goal of promoting effective learner discipline (Berson, Halevy, Shamir & Erez, 2015).

The ethical role-model The Bandura Social Learning Theory (1977) stresses that children learn by observing, copying and watching the attitudes and behaviour of adults (Adigeb & Mbua, 2015). So, the principal, who is the father-figure in the school, should interact with the learners with trustworthiness, honesty, integrity and by modelling positive behaviour and self-discipline (Temitayo, Nayaya & Lukman, 2013; Mjoroge & Nyabuto, 2014). Besides, the Best Practices Language Model urges the principal to use words of high expectations, love, respect, relationship, accountability, hope, guidance, understanding unity and guidance (Holloman & Yates, 2012). As a matter of fact, learners have the feeling of being empowered and valued, and manifest positive emotions (Fox, Cong & Attoh, 2015). By being the role model to learners, principals transmit their authenticity and learners trust them as their leader (Sehring, 2015; Smithgall, 2016). They transfer the ownership of positive learner behaviour to the learners and this becomes the latter’s responsibility in the school setting. Hence, the learners develop the accountability for their own behaviour, and therefore, according to Govender and Sookrajh, (2014), they become self-discipline, as theorised by the Glasser’s model of control discipline (Glasser, 2009). Instructional leadership Instructional leadership focuses on the core mission of the school – effective teaching and learning - by creating a healthy school climate (Manaseh, 2016; Belle, 2015). The principal is the one who shapes a vision of academic success and manage people to improve the school (The Wallace Foundation, 2013). Indeed, the Contingency Model of Principals’ Pedagogical Beliefs suggests that the instructional role of the principal has a positive influence on learners’ behaviour (Peariso, 2011). Ensuring that instruction is effective brings about an improvement in the behavioural climate of the school (Putnam, Horner & Algozzine, 2016). As an instructional leader, the principal has the responsibility to ensure the most conducive physical learning environment; establish clearly what is expected of the learners in terms of academic success and behaviour; organise their time; ensure that teaching and learning materials are available; involve them actively in the relevant activities; provide them with feedback on their behaviour; teach and reinforce appropriate behaviour skills; use sanctions as an opportunity for them to learn to improve their behaviour; teach replacement behaviour; and closely monitor the work of learners through the student journal (Olley, Cohn & Cowan, 2010). Also, he/she must encourage the use of interactive teaching techniques such as mobile learning and use the social media to increase the learners’ interest in their learning (Shantal, Halttunen & Pekka, 2014) and create a technology-rich environment (Schleicher, 2015). The principal must lead learner in the digital age to reduce the gap between the teaching styles and the learning styles with a view to reduce learner misbehaviour (Meade, 2016). This type of leadership is essential since, according to Lukman and Hamadi (2014), learners manifest acts of indiscipline when the curriculum is not relevant to the learners’ needs and expectations. Schooling is becoming a complex system as far as purpose, organisational change and development and structure are concerned; so more possibilities should be given to the educator

46 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) and the learner to be leaders (Naicker & Mestry, 2013). The secondary school principal must eliminate the asymmetrical relationship that exists between educators and them (O’Brien, 2015) so that there is a collective efficacy (Nicholaides, LaPort, Chen, Tomassetti, Weis, Zaccaro & Cortina, 2014). He/she should therefore redistribute power, authority and leadership about learner discipline: He/she must set up collaborative meetings in which the school superintendents, educators and the principal discuss about the problem of learner behaviour and how to restore or maintain socially desirable behaviour in a multidisciplinary dialogue (Malaykan, 2014; Berg-Panitz, 2014; Gorder, 2015; Smithgall, 2016). Bawany (2015) maintains that the principal must coach educators about the best practices in dealing with learners’ lack of discipline and give them the opportunity to work collaboratively to develop a framework for comprehensive positive school discipline, which includes mainly partnership, planning and acting; this helps to improve practices of school discipline and address underlying factors such as academic deficits, mental health and behavioural issues (Bershad & Hudson, 2017). Besides, by using relationship-building and community-building approaches with educators and learners, in partnership with school districts, mental health providers, law enforcement and juvenile justice and families (Bershad & Hudson, 2017), social capital is positively built and wrongdoing is responded through participatory learning and decision-making about learner discipline (Kim, 2016). With all the school stakeholders having a voice in learner discipline management, the school environment is more energising than intimidating for the learners, in particular, and for the educators, the principal and the school superintendent, in general (Pietler, 2015).

Learner leadership The success of the school head in maintaining effective learner discipline depends largely on participatory leadership he/she delves onto the learners to eliminate misbehaviour (Ugboko & Adediwura, 2012). Indeed, He/she has to listen to learners in devising and implementing the school disciplinary plan (Macharia et al, 2014). Learners should be treated as equal partners and trusted collaborators in learner behaviour (Learning and Skills Improvement Service, 2010) since it is their matter of concern and they have their voice about it. In so doing, principals act as leadership capacity builders in learners (Huggins, Klar, Harmmonds & Buskey, 2017). This is likely to motivate learners to respond and abide by the school disciplinary procedures, practices and policies (Macharia et al, 2014). The principal must play a vital role in developing learner leadership in state secondary schools. Learners should be taught leader attitude, leadership knowledge, decision-making, will and desire, critical thinking, reasoning, intra and interpersonal relationships and written and oral communication (Rehm, 2014). The Ministry of Education, culture and Human Resources (2009) stipulates that the Prefects Body, which consists of learners, should help the principal in maintaining discipline inside and outside the school premises. So, the school head may include the Prefects Body in all school structures so that the learners may share their opinions and provide solutions about learner discipline and he/she must recognise these learners as leaders in the school.

Professional development and growth The principal has the responsibility to change the school culture in order to promote positive learner discipline. However, change is not an individual but a collective process (Edinyang, 2017), and therefore, he/she needs to have educators who are well formed in learner discipline

47 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) management skills. Professional development of educators should be emphasised to bring the required change (Friedman, 2012). The skills and abilities of the educators as well as of the principal in dealing with behaviour problem should be improved (Lunenburg, 2011). Staff development workshops on conflict management and resolution, social skills development, technology-enhanced teaching and learning approaches and relationships with learners may be organised by the school principal and other external resource persons (Magwa & Ngara, 2014). Besides, educators should be trained in applying school policies, procedures and practices in a fair way in order to avoid disproportionate use of punitive disciplinary strategies to the socially disadvantaged learners (US Department of Education, 2014). This helps the de-criminalisation of school discipline (Raufu, 2017). The principal should also recommend the young uncertified educators, known as the supply educators in Mauritius, for pre-service training at the Mauritius Institute of Education and the Open since they face many forms of learner indiscipline (Manguvo, Whitney & Chareka, 2011) which they are unable to manage (Ozben, 2010). The principal may undergo training in effective school discipline to enable him/her to create a safe and saner teaching and learning environment for learners. Shantal, Halttunen & Pekka (2014) mention that the basic sources of leadership practices in terms of school discipline are theory, practice, networking and leadership. Ibukun, Oyole and Abe (2011) add that through conferences, professional development programmes and workshops, principals may improve their practice about how to respond to individual learner’s needs by using shared leadership, leadership by listening, teamwork, the setting up of a technology rich environment, and mentoring skills. Govinda-Seenauth (2016) argue that when principals and educators undergo professional development programmes, they lead with more trust and collaboration. There is, thus, a no-drama leadership, where each individual in the school is accountable for his/her own actions, attitudes and behaviour (Chism, 2015).

The school-parents’ partnership The principal can only share his/her goals and values in terms of learner discipline when the school parents are involved in the functioning of the school (Barr & Saltmarsh, 2014). Okeke (2014) and the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research (2014) concur that when parents are involved in their children’s education at home and at school, the latter’s cognitive and abilities are positively influenced, and this ensures the learners of more psycho-social and behavioural competencies. Ali, Dada, Isiaka & Salmon (2014) and Seegopaul (2016) affirm that when the principal involves parents in the School Governing Body, the school disciplinary committee and the Parents-Teachers Association, they are more willing and participate actively in helping the former and the educators to deal with academic and behavioural problems of learners. Moreover, Okeke (2014) states that the principal must accommodate parents in the Board of Management so that they are involved in the process of any school disciplinary plan and they provide support to the school in the implementation phase. Parents may also be involved in curriculum matters, parent-educator games, speech days, parents’ evenings, school debates and discussions with educators on issues of learner discipline through periodic meetings (Rigby, 2011; Edinyang, 2017). The principal as well as educators may do home visits as a form of pastoral care in an attempt to better understand the learner’s family situation and hence deal with behaviour problems in a more effective manner (Panchoo, 2016).

48 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Leadership by relationships The school principal should aim at developing trust, relationship and rapport with all the stakeholders of the school (Perruci & McManus, 2015; Gendron, 2015) since relationship- building ranked tenth out of sixteen leadership competencies, according to the Creative Centre for Leadership Studies (Rao, 2015). The principal has a relational function as he/she operates in a social organisation (Bates & Weighart, 2015). The leadership of the principal is therefore intensely interpersonal (Fox, Cong & Attah, 2015). This is the social justice dimension of where the school head values the principles of equality and solidarity, values and understands human rights and recognises each individual through care, empathy and respect (Mafora, 2013). The principal must demonstrate his/her commitment to serve the others as a servant leader (Cook, 2015) who establishes quality relationships (Staats, 2015) in terms of listening, persuasion, foresight, fostering collaboration, moral development, humility, developing people, building community, capacity of reciprocity, valuing people, influencing, delegating, altruism, encouraging, providing leadership, credibility, resourcing visible presence, integrity and delegating (Focht & Ponton, 2015). Basically, when the principal leads learners by relationships, the latter feel more safe and secured at school; besides, it promotes the learner autonomy and self-discipline (Van der Vyyer, Van der Westhuizen & Meyer, 2014).

RECOMMENDATIONS From the foregoing section, it is obvious that the state secondary school principal is the key agent, as the school head, to develop certain specific leadership qualities that would enable him/her to be successful in maintaining positive discipline among learners. He/she has to be an authentic leader, an instructional leader, a servant leader, an inspirational leader, an ethical leader, a moral leader, a collective leader, a visionary leader and an ambidextrous leader. His/her leadership should not be linked to his/her position, authority or hierarchy, but to his/her abilities to effectively practice the most appropriate disciplinary strategies. So, the “hero- paradigm” of leadership should be ignored. The leadership of the principal should be learner- focused and learner-inclusive. This may allow him/her to deal with school matters from a holistic view. The principal should stop from being a school manager who looks into the administrative aspects of the school in his/her office (his/her comfort zone), leaving little time to work with the learners, educators, parents, educators and the school superintendent. Though, maintaining learner discipline is a management task, yet the principal must lead the school from the nexus of a web of interpersonal relationships (Belle, 2015). Learner discipline problem arises due to the existence of relational problems of the learners with their parents, educators, other learners and the family (Belle, 2014). So, he/she must manage the different relations that prevail in the school which is indeed the social setting. There should be a construal fit between the principal and the learners as well as the educators, parents and the superintendent (Berson, Halevy, Shamir & Erez, 2015) so that the social and temporal distances between them are reduced. This will allow the creation of a community of practice among all of them who will be working towards the goal of achieving sustainable positive learner discipline management. Once learner discipline is no more a school problem, the teaching and learning process becomes effective. School effectiveness should be the main objective of the principal. It should not only be

49 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.43-54, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) measured in terms of the success pass rate at the Cambridge School Certificate and the Higher School Certificate examinations. Learner discipline management is one of the variables to be considered and monitored effectively. The Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research of Mauritius should rethink about the traditional approach of centralisation in education and introduce a decentralisation policy where the school principal may autonomously take decisions about learner discipline management at the school level, by for instance, setting up a school discipline management plan that takes into consideration the specificity of the school: each state secondary school has its unique characteristics. So, the disciplinary measures adopted by the principal in a particular school should be context-bound, and not imposed upon all state schools by the Minister of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research, as stipulated in the Education Act (1957) and all amended Education Acts of Mauritius.

CONCLUSION This paper analysed and discussed the possible leadership approaches that the state secondary school principal may adopt and implement in order to maintain effective learner discipline. Given the legal and political framework in which the principal operates currently, learners’ lack of discipline is worsening in Mauritius. So, the school head should be able to strike a balance between what disciplinary strategies he/she may adopt and implement and what the different education laws allow his/her to do. It is only by so doing that he/she may attempt to maintain discipline in the best possible manner. The principal’s task is not to accept status quo, but to influence his/her followers to bring change to the school climate and culture. The principal should therefore rethink about his/her leadership in a holistic and collective manner.

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54 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) USING CRT-BASED FORUMS TO DEVELOP SELF-EFFICACY OF SECONDARY EFL TEACHERS’ IN KUWAIT Dr. Anam Al-fadley Assistant Professor in curriculum and instruction department, College of Basic Education, Public Authority for Applied Education and Training

ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of critical reflective thinking (CRT)-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ self-efficacy in Kuwait. Subsidiary aims of the study include: ascertaining EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own teaching skills and motivation strategies both before and after CRT-based forums implementation. The quasi- experimental research design was seen to be the most appropriate for fulfilling the aims of the study. Data were collected over two phases. At the pre-intervention phase data were collected via two instruments. These were (1) Self-Efficacy Scale for Teaching Skills (SESTS) and (2) Self-Efficacy Scale for Motivation Strategies (SESMS). To assess the impact of CRT- based forums at the post-intervention phase, participants were asked to respond to the same scales in addition to a self-reflection form that asked them to articulate their reactions and assessments of the professional development experience they participated in. Participants’ responses to both scales were analyzed quantitatively whereas their responses to the self- reflection form were analyzed qualitatively. The study participants were 93 female secondary school EFL teachers in Kuwait. They belonged to fairly common academic, social and cultural backgrounds. The CRT-based forums addressed thinking maps as a teaching learning strategy that could be successfully implemented in EFL contexts. Analysis of data indicated a positive impact of the CRT-based forums on developing female secondary school EFL teachers’ self-efficacy as for their own language teaching skills and motivation strategies. Findings of the study were discussed and a set of implications and recommendations were highlighted. KEYWORDS: Critical-Reflective Thinking (CRT), Self-Efficacy, Thinking Maps, Language Teaching Skills, Motivation Strategies

INTRODUCTION It is claimed by McKernan (1991) that all teaching ought to be based on research but that research and curriculum development should be the preserve of teachers who gain understanding of their work through studying their own problems and effects. This means that teachers should reflect on what they do and how to do it in a critical way since part of effective teaching is the ability to reflect on what is happening in the classroom, and to identify any differences in what was planned and what actually occurred. By conducting “systematic, intentional inquiry” within his/her own classroom, the instructor builds a better understanding of his/her own practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993, p. 7). As this understanding develops, different teaching strategies may be suggested to better support student learning. Critical reflection is advocated in many areas of professional development and practice including TEFL contexts, as it encourages practitioners to gain insight into their own professionalism through their experiences. EFL education programs generally require some

55 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) form of fieldwork to be closely integrated with academic study. Consequently, there is wide variation in the techniques and approaches used in the practice of critical reflection. Approaches may range from informal discussions to highly structured formats. Guidelines in the literature on how to determine, facilitate and assess critical reflection in practice appear to be limited (Leijen et al., 2012; Smith, 2011). Critical reflection is used in education to encourage the integration of theory and practice while enhancing teachers’ performance, and consequently student learning. This suggests there is scope to explore the role of critical reflection in and the development of a theoretical basis in cooperative education. There is increasing interest in the concept of critical reflection (Boud & Walker, 1998) in work-integrated education and research (Brookfield, 2009). Context of the Problem It is strongly believed that most of EFL teachers in Kuwait have entered the teaching service with unexamined beliefs and assumptions of problematic conceptions of the academic role of teacher in both teaching and motivation. It is widely, yet mistakenly, believed that graduating from any university institution, and holding a university certificate in a specific language is a guarantee to teach that language and motivate its learners as well. Therefore, seeking solutions requires a critical reflective process from educators that extends beyond strategy implementation in case these teachers have taken for granted that teaching skills and motivation strategies are just routines, individual practices and standing explanations. For the researcher, as a teacher educator having considerable expertise in initial , efforts to promote critically reflective practice with EFL teachers’ field practices would help support the development of their teaching skills as well as motivation strategies via a number of a CRT- based forums. The Pilot study Feeling this problematic situation, the researcher conducted a pilot study to ascertain the difficulties or the issues that helped to create this dilemma. Two types of surveys were conducted. The first was a survey named a Self-Efficacy Scale (SESTS) to ascertain female secondary school EFL teachers’- in Kuwait- training needs for teaching skills, and a Self- Efficacy Scale (SESMS) to ascertain their motivation strategies from their viewpoints. Results of data analysis of both types of surveys were consistent in most cases highlighting a need to train EFL teachers on both teaching skills and motivation strategies. Results of analysis indicated the following: 1. They lack both knowledge of different teaching strategies and how to use them. 2. EFL teachers lack both the knowledge and skills needed to relate visual language learning to students’ lives by providing them with concrete language learning experiences through language activities. 3. They lack both knowledge and skills of using Thinking Maps in teaching and knowledge of how to enable learners with different learning styles to communicate what and how they are thinking. 4. They lack knowledge of adapting their lessons to match students’ target language background.

56 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) As far as motivation strategies are concerned, results of analysis indicated the following: 1. EFL teachers lack knowledge of how to create supportive and warm climate in the EFL classroom so that their learners can participate more effectively. 2. They do not know how to use wait time appropriately. 3. They lack both knowledge and skills needed to address students’ language errors/mistakes and the appropriate feedback/correction strategies that would help. 4. Their knowledge of different types of questions and questioning strategies is insufficient. Besides, their attempts to use them appropriately and maintain interest and momentum in the EFL classroom are inadequate. 5. They hold misconceptions related to feedback provision strategies. 6. Inability to use a variety of student grouping strategies in the EFL classroom. 7. Inability to use different motivation strategies to meet students’ individual differences. 8. Inability to direct and pace students’ activities in the target language. 9. Facilitate student participation in the target language classroom. Statement of the problem Female secondary school EFL teachers in Kuwait lack the language teaching skills and motivation strategies due to different reasons including lack of knowledge and skills owing to their deeply held conceptions about different aspects of language teaching skills and motivation strategies. This emphasizes EFL teachers’ needs for training on language teaching and motivation. The weaving of critical reflective thinking has proved effective in teacher training, especially when the training initiatives seek to induce change both in trainees’ classroom teaching behaviours and their deeply held conceptions (e.g. Carrington & Selva, 2008; Harrington, et al., 1996; Lay & McGuire, 2010; Shandomo, 2010; Smith, 2011; Thompson & Pascal, 2012; van Woerkom, 2010; etc.). This justifies this study’s use of CRT- based forums to develop EFL teachers’ language teaching skills and motivation strategies. Following are the research questions of the study.

Research questions This study aimed to find answers to the following research questions: 1. What are EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own language teaching skills? 2. How effective is the use of critical reflective thinking (CRT)-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their language teaching skills? 3. What are EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own motivation strategies? 4. How effective is the use of CRT-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their motivation strategies.

57 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) 5. How effective is the use of CRT-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ motivation strategies? 6. What are EFL teachers’ reactions to CRT-based forums? Purpose of the study This study aimed to: 1. Ascertain EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own language teaching skills and motivation strategies. 2. Assess the effectiveness of using critical reflective thinking (CRT)-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their language teaching skills and motivation strategies. 3. Ascertain EFL teachers’ reactions to CRT-based forums. Significance of the study

 The marriage between teaching and motivation adopted by this study is significant since it is based on a strong conviction that teaching and motivation are inseparable. Most of teacher education research addressed both aspects discretely. Namely, it focuses on one aspect apart from the other and disregards the interconnectivity based between both.

 In-service teacher training courses have always focused on the method-fashion and disregarded the role of the thought processes that teachers have at their potential to develop their own teaching and motivation. This study is using critical reflective thinking as an interventionist variable to induce change in EFL teachers’ classroom teaching skills and motivation strategies and not as an end. This is because teachers’ critical reflection on their own beliefs and deeply held conceptions and practices have more sustainable impact on their professional development than any external enterprise that would aim to induce change in teachers’ classroom practices.

 Learning is enhanced by critical reflection, which involves the “creation of meaning and conceptualization from experience” (Brockbank & McGill, 1998, p. 56). Teacher educators need to facilitate critical reflection to enable trainee teachers to move beyond a superficial understanding of their world. For Mezirow (1990), “reflection enables us to correct distortions in our beliefs and errors in problem solving. Critical reflection involves a critique of the presuppositions on which our beliefs have been built” (p.1). By creating a reflective environment for and with trainee EFL teachers, the educational experience will lay the foundations of a critically reflective member of the teaching community.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE Since the study seeks the relationship between critical reflective thinking and EFL teachers’ self-efficacy via what can be called CRT-based forums, this review will shed light upon three dimensions, namely (1) critical reflective thinking and its role in teacher professional development, (2) EFL teachers’ self-efficacy and the factors affecting it, (3) CRT-based

58 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) forums and the whys behind using forums specifically as an interactional intervention for developing self-efficacy of the secondary school EFL teachers’ self-efficacy in Kuwait. Critical reflective thinking (CRT) and teacher professional development Critical reflection can be seen from different lenses to mean very different things and fulfill varied objectives (Boyd & Fales, 1983; Brookfield, 2009; Gardner, 2009; Harvey, et al., 2010; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Smith, 2011; and van Woerkom, 2010), and it varies within individuals and contexts. Critical reflection … - Is recognized as a key component in the learning processes of individuals and is advocated in many areas of professional practice (Brookfield, 2009; Jarvis, 2010; and Leijen, et al, 2012), especially within programs where there is rich learning possible through specific experiences (Harvey et al., 2010). - Is an “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it includes, a conscious and voluntary effort to establish belief upon a firm basis of evidence and rationality (John Dewey, 1933). - Is “a process of testing the justification or validity of taken-for-granted premises” (Mezirow, 1990). - Involves describing and questioning taken-for-granted feelings and actions and can be a means of developing a teaching philosophy and strategy (Walkington, et al., 2001). - Involves problem identification or framing, reflection on the basis of that identification (perhaps historical, social, or cultural in nature), and action planning to address the perceived problem (Brookfield, 1995; and Shandomo, 2010). - Prompts examinations of how teachers reflect on question identification and their understandings for problem solving, researchers have conceptualized CRT in a variety of ways (Loughran, 2002; Rodgers, 2002; and Shandomo, 2010). - Is complex in nature, requiring introspection about how one’s beliefs, assumptions, and experiences influence perceptions of self and the social world (Shandomo, 2010). - Is an opportunity for teachers to “reflect on the moral and ethical implications and consequences of their classroom practices” (p. 90), a process that requires examination of how one’s personal and professional belief systems might impact students and their learning ( Larrivee, 2008). - “refers to questioning the integrity of assumptions and beliefs base on prior knowledge. It often occurs in response to an awareness of a contradiction among our thoughts, feelings and actions, (p.9)” (Mezirow, 1990). - Is to “validate the long taken-for-granted meaning perspective. It is not concerned with the ‘how- to’ of action but with the ‘why’, the reasons for and consequences of what we do” (Mezirow, 1990, p.13). From the aforementioned definitions and many others, it can be deduced that there are some things in common , which is that CRT is a process of questioning our beliefs, values, and

59 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) behaviours in order to justify why we do things the way we do, and what other views or behaviours contrary to our own might be . Thus, CRT in this study is meant to refer to a process through which teachers test and question the validity of their own beliefs, values and behaviours related to language teaching skills and motivation strategies in order to justify the way they do things the way they do, and examine other views of behaviours different from their own. When they engage in this process, teachers become more aware of and control their learning by actively participating in reflective thinking- assessing what they know, what they need to know, and how they bridge that gap – during learning situations. Many teachers enter the teaching job with unexamined beliefs and assumptions of students, as well as problematic conceptions of the role of schools in society; yet it is imperative that teacher educators and recruiters develop stances that allow them to view “problems” from multiple perspectives and actively question assumptions, routines, practices, and standing explanations that are taken for granted (Carrington & Selva, 2010 and Loughran, 2002). That is, teacher trainers must help trainee teachers identify why a problem exists and examine the factors that have influenced its identification. To Brookfield (2009), critical reflection is an adult learning strategy of four processes. This first is assumption analysis which describes the activity adults engage in to bring to awareness beliefs, values, cultural practices, and social structures regulating behavior and to assess their impact on daily activities, describes how relationships should be ordered, and then makes explicit our taken-for-granted notions of reality. The second is contextual awareness, which is achieved when adult learners come to realize that their socially and personally created in a specific historical and cultural context. The third is imaginative speculation that provides an opportunity for adults to challenge prevailing ways of knowing and acting by imagining alternative ways of thinking about phenomena. The fourth is reflective skepticism which is the outcome of assumption analysis, contextual awareness and imaginative speculation. It is the questioning of any universal truth claims or examined patterns of interaction. Critical reflection then addresses the question of the justification for the very premises on which problems are posed or defined in the first place. Critical reflection is advocated in many areas of professional development and practice, including areas of professional development, initial teacher education, teaching, management, and research, as it encourages practitioners to gain insight into their own professionalism through their experiences. This generally requires some form of fieldwork to be closely integrated with academic study. Consequently there is wide variation in the techniques and approaches used in the practice of critical reflection. Approaches may range from informal discussions to highly structured formats. Guidelines in the literature on how to determine, facilitate and assess critical reflection in practice appear to be limited (Leijen et al., 2012 & Smith, 2011). In teacher education, critical reflection about teaching is important for six reasons: It (1) helps us make informed actions with a better chance of achieving desired outcomes; (2) helps us develop a rationale for practice, and the underlying principles behind our practice; (3) helps us keep perspective about limits to our abilities in the classroom; (4) enlivens our classroom; and (5) increases democratic trust enabling students to feel safe in their own opinions and beliefs (Brookfield,1988). This study is designed to foster a greater understanding of the impact of critical reflective teaching for 12 university EFL teachers, with an examination of how critical reflective thinking-based workshops help develop their perceptions of both their language teaching and language testing skills.

60 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Departing from the notion that self-efficacy beliefs are a component of human competence, and teacher self-efficacy relates to the beliefs teachers hold about their own perceived capability in undertaking certain teaching tasks, Bandura (1997, p.3) defines self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given attainments”. Consequently, thought patterns and emotions that support classroom actions are affected by self- efficacy since teacher self-efficacy is considered a powerful influence on teachers’ overall effectiveness with students. Self-efficacy is grounded in the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory, emphasizing the evolution and exercise of human agency—the idea that people can exercise some influence over what they do (Bandura, 2006). Bandura (2006) maintained that in this conception, people are self-organizing, proactive, self-regulating, and self-reflecting. He emphasized that people form intentions, set goals, anticipate likely outcomes, monitor and regulate actions, and reflect on their personal efficacy. This theory underscores the interactions among personal factors (e.g. cognitions), behaviors, and environmental conditions. From this perspective, self-efficacy affects one’s goals and behaviors and is influenced by conditions in the environment (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Efficacy beliefs determine how environmental opportunities and impediments are perceived (Bandura, 2006) and affect choice of activities, how much effort is expended on an activity, and how long people will persevere when confronting obstacles (Pajares, 1997). Bandura (1986, 1997) pointed out four major sources of self-efficacy beliefs: enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological reactions. Mastery experiences are regarded as the most influential source of self-efficacy (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Pajares, 1997). Outcomes interpreted as successful raise self-efficacy, whereas those interpreted as failures undermine it. Vicarious experiences are observations of similar others’ performance on given tasks. This source of self-efficacy is particularly influential when people are uncertain. Teacher’s self-efficacy may also contribute to promote student’s sense of efficacy fostering their involvement in class activities and their efforts in facing difficulties (Ross, 1998). Hence, it seems important for teachers and teacher educators to realize the influence of emotional arousal and encouragement on initial beliefs on how to motivate students to get involved in class activities. If teachers’ beliefs are too high, students will, therefore, get influenced when they are asked to take their share in class participations, because teachers have entered into practical experience where mastery experience and verbal persuasion act as sources for efficacy. This view is supported by Ben-Peretz (1995) when he reported that field experience is viewed as the most critical factor in the development of teaching skills. Demiralay and Karadeniz (2010) investigated and evaluated elementary student teachers’ perceived information literacy self-efficacy in terms of the use of information and communication technologies (ICT). They concluded that student teachers would strengthen their perceived information literacy level through having positive experiences on developing skills of accessing information, using information and constructing knowledge. Having positive and continuous experiences in doing researches would have effected development of teachers’ ICT skills and perceived information literacy self-efficacy. Moreover, this study revealed that student teachers’ perceived information literacy self-efficacy is affected by computer experience; skill levels; frequency of computer and internet use; and access opportunities to computer and internet.

61 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Pendergast, Garvis and Keogh (2011) studied the self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service student- teachers prior to having any practical experience in the field. They tackled teachers’ sense of efficacy. For that purpose, they developed a scale consisting of three subscales: (1) Efficacy for Instructional Strategies (To what extent can you provide an alternative explanation for example when students are confused? How well can you implement alternative teaching strategies in your classroom?); (2) Efficacy for Classroom Management (How much can you do to control disruptive behavior in the classroom?; How much can you do to calm a student who is disruptive or noisy?; and (3) Efficacy for Student Engagement (How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in schoolwork? How much can you do to get students to believe they can do well in school work?). They found out that when those prospective teachers joined the postgraduate university programs, their higher assessment of their teaching capabilities was surprising, given their lack of classroom experience as teachers. They seem to have influenced by their previous ‘apprenticeship of observation’ model of Lortie (1975), in which their beliefs were drawn from their experiences of schools as students, or by observations of their own children’s schooling, or by positive emotional arousal . Besides, the little exposure to real experience in the classroom might have contributed to the low level of self-efficacy. Ozder (2011) investigated three aspects related to self-efficacy namely : Classroom Management ( Management of Negative Student Behaviors, Student Expectations and Classroom Rules, Coordination of In-Class Activities), Ensuring Student Engagement in Class ( Student Motivation and Things Done for Motivation, Motivation of Students with Low Achievement, Ensuring Creative and Critical Thinking), and Using Instructional Strategies in Class( Alternative Strategies for Students' Misconceptions, Evaluation of What is Taught, Rendering Classes Suitable for Highly Talented Students). He found that teacher self-efficacy beliefs of the novice teachers were found to be at a sufficient level. The novice teachers reported that they frequently use “verbal reprimands” , establishing classroom rules and routines collaboratively with students”, “daily lesson planning”, “reinforcement towards student achievement”, “multiple intelligences activities”, “discussion technique”, “concrete exemplification”, “visually supported extra activities”, “oral questioning”, and “interactive teaching methods” in the classroom. Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) examined relations among teacher self-efficacy, perceived collective teacher efficacy, external control (teachers’ general beliefs about limitations to what can be achieved through education), strain factors, and teacher burnout. Besides, findings of Bernadowski, Perry and Greco’s study (2013) indicate that students’ self-efficacy improved when service learning was connected or imbedded in the context of learning and connected to a specific course. CRT-Based Forums and Self-Efficacy CRT-based forums cab be duplicated from what is known by Wright (2014) as the National Conversation Forums (NCFs) in that they are seen as academic conversations that are characterized by being sustained, purposeful and content-rich, and they contain core skills: elaborate and clarify, support ideas with examples, build on challenge a partner’s ideas, paraphrase, synthesis. For those forums to succeed, Wright presents some recommendations for teacher talk. Stressing that Initiation-Response-Evaluation (IRE) discourse often dominates the interactional situation ; the teacher or the trainer need to : (a) move IRE to IRF (Initiation-Response-Feedback) to offer students/trainees alternative interactional

62 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) moves(e.g., repetition, recasting, reformulation, prompting), and (b) provide greater independence to students/trainees and opportunities for greater output. As shown by Figure (1) below, the researcher, therefore, sees CRT-based forums as , “planned, face-to-face, systematic, reflective, deliberative, transformative, cooperative meetings focusing on the empowerment of language teaching skills and motivation strategies within a Thinking Maps - as a teaching learning strategy–context.”

Cooperative Face-to-face

Transformative CRTF’s Systematic

Reflective Deliberative

Figure: CRT-Forums as envisaged by this study Such forums make use of thinking maps specifically to - Positively affect learner retention of information, (McTighe & Layman as cited in Freiberg & Driscoll, 2000). - Promote relationships between ideas and information by questioning and discussion during mapping (Stahl Vancil, op. cit., (p. 316). - Help teachers become self-reflective through looking into their own thinking, and become self-regulated learners, (Hyerle, 2004; Hyerle in Buxton, 2009). - Give all teachers a common language for meaningfulness, (Danville Public School District, 2000). - Are tools for all teachers alike – to "read" and reflect on their own minds and thus become self-assessing, (Hyerle, 2000). - Represent the common visual language teachers use to generate and organize ideas, to reflect on sequences of events, to characterize and contrast strong elements as well as to identify causes and effects of such varied topics (Spiegel, 2000). Besides, those forums might yield rich data from different perspectives, since the researcher can have more control over the content intended to be delivered and/shared.

METHOD AND PROCEDURE This study adopted quantitative and qualitative approach to analyze the data, since such an approach seems to be the most appropriate one: first, to show the multidisciplinary and

63 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) interdisciplinary activity between CRT-based forums and EFL teacher’s self-efficacy; second, when they are integrated and applied to real issues and challenges involving language teaching skills and motivation strategies, they will be embedded in all aspects of professional life. Participants Ninety-three female secondary school EFL teachers in Kuwait, who were randomly drawn, constituted the sample of the study. They were told, when the orientation session, that they are free to communicate their views, but following the regulations and ethics of CRT-based forums.

Data sources Two main sources of data informed the study: (1) Self-Efficacy Scale for Teaching Skills (SESTS): It focused on the relationship between EFL teachers’ perceived self-efficacy and their teaching behaviours. It was administered pre- and post- using the strategy proposed named CRT-based forums. It required the participants to respond to the scale (15 items) before and after having involved in the forums practicing training on teaching skills via thinking maps. The total score of the SEQTS was 45 marks: 3 marks for each language teaching skill assessed. This scale was administered twice: before intervention and after intervention (see Appendix A). (2) Self-Efficacy Scale for Motivation Strategies (SESMS): It has 10 items. It focused on the relationship between EFL teachers’ perceived self-efficacy and motivation. It was designed to analyze the study participants’ beliefs and perceptions concerning motivation strategies and how they are affected by self-efficacy having the intervention of CRT-based forums using thinking maps. It was also implemented pre- and post- the intervention. The total score of the SESMS was 30 marks: 3 marks for each motivation strategy assessed. This scale was administered twice: before intervention and after intervention (see Appendix B). (3) Self-Reflection Form: at the post-intervention phase, participants were asked to respond a self-reflection form that asked them to articulate their reactions and assessments of the professional development experience they participated in an open-ended manner (see Appendix C).

Procedure CRT-based forums are an innovative strategy proposed to develop transferable skills, namely EFL teachers’ self-efficacy as for two dimensions: language teaching skills and motivation strategies. Using Thinking Maps as the core of CRT-based forums can elicit deeper and more ‘unedited’ personal meaning in one-to-one conversation. Each forum has three phases: (1) the introductory phase, (2) the discussion phase, and (3) the wrapping up phase. In the first phase, the researcher voices the objectives of the forum emphasizing that the discussion would be about personal views and teaching experiences, and therefore there are no right or wrong answers -, but addressing the question of the justification for the very premises on which problems are posed or defined. During the second phase, the researcher introduces some teaching skills and how they are activated via thinking maps as a teaching learning strategy. Discussions are steered concerning the role of

64 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) motivation strategies in enhancing teaching skills. Beside, beliefs and personal opinions as for the best practices in EFL context are thought about in a critical reflective way. In the third stage, trainee teachers address how their self-efficacy is shaped by the CRT-based forum. The discussion/conversation within the study group (N=93) forums provided two way communications among the participants and between the participants and the researcher over seven weeks period. However, more importantly, the participants were able to take the time they needed to prepare themselves for the weekly forum expanding scope or content of the issue raised in that forum, then to provide a coherent, objective discussion. During CRT-based forums the participants got familiar with each other, a positive, informal and relaxed learning climate was set and a code of ethics was established. Critical reflective thinking was the objective for the participants to share their beliefs, perceptions and opinions concerning the best practices in language teaching skills and the most appropriate motivation strategies for the Kuwaiti students. They had to transform, or reconstruct their experience and knowledge. They were asked to project how the learnt knowledge and skills could be utilized in a possible professional situation. The participants were also encouraged to learn from each other, to share their experiences, and to respond to the forces which shape their personal and professional lives. At the same time, shared interests, mutual understanding and positive communication were highly appreciated. Diverse interests, different perspectives and conflicting views had to be tackled objectively. Four questions were addressed in each forum of CRT: - Whether (and to what degree) a teaching skill constitutes a problem; - Whether (and to what degree) a solution is possible and feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available; - Whether (and to what degree) a specific action using a specific thinking map is appropriate in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated; - Whether (and to what degree) varied motivation strategies are used for different students of different cognitive, social and cultural backgrounds, and of different learning styles? Before the intervention, which lasted for five weeks (three hours/week), the study participants’ self-efficacy for language teaching skills and motivation strategies were assessed. Then, the intervention took place following the procedures previously defined. Having finished the intervention, the post-test was administered. Both the pre-test and post- test responses were collected and treated statistically.

RESULTS The data obtained from both types of scales were statistically processed using SPSS (version 22). Both descriptive and inferential statistical procedures were used. Presentation of the results will follow the same order of the research questions posed earlier. Research question no. 1:

65 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) What are EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own language teaching skills? As shown by the figures in Table (1) analysis of teachers’ responses to the Self-Efficacy Scale for Teaching Skills (SESTS) indicates that teachers’ mean scores in the SESTS after intervention are higher compared to their SESTS scores before intervention. This can be clearly observed from the wide difference between the figures representing the teachers’ overall total mean scores in both occasions as well as the differences between the mean scores of the individual items representing their teaching skills in both occasions. Table (1): EFL Teachers’ Perceived Levels of Self-Efficacy in Language Teaching Skills

Item As a teacher of English at the secondary PRETEST POSTTEST no. school, I can… MEAN SD MEAN SD 1 Determine the academic needs of my 1.31 .53117 2.78 .43861 students. 2 Develop a coherent and comprehensive 1.40 .61041 2.41 .79723 lesson plan with behavioral objectives. 3 Have a review for the content parts 1.27 .57369 2.78 .43861 previously covered. 4 Incorporate different activities and tasks 1.58 .71205 2.52 .73148 into English teaching. 5 Design varied student-centered activities. 1.33 .59588 2.71 .54335 6 Teach grammar and vocabulary in an 1.76 .71320 2.72 .51848 effective and interesting way. 7 Use cooperative learning to help students 1.32 .57410 2.43 .78571 help each other. 8 Implement a variety of language teaching 1.55 .74478 2.76 .45200 strategies. 9 Use life-like situations to connect English 1.25 .54486 2.57 .66591 learning to students’ life. 10 Evaluate student understanding of what I 1.61 .67618 2.69 .55125 have taught. 11 Pose well-planned questions for different 1.32 .57410 2.76 .47544 purposes. 12 Vary the way of delivering questions to 1.65 .58319 2.35 .82942 meet different levels of individual students. 13 Use plain language to help students when 1.32 .57410 2.75 .43379 confused. 14 Provoke divergent challenging questions for 1.55 .74478 2.58 .66468 more capable students. 15 Use a variety of assessment techniques 1.25 .54486 2.69 .55125 Total 21.47 2.8506 39.52 2.49

This emphasized the positive impact of CRT-based forums in developing teachers’ teaching skills. Research question no. (2):

66 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) How effective is the use of critical reflective thinking (CRT)-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their language teaching skills? In order to assess how far the use of CRT-based forums is effective in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their language teaching skills, t-test for significance was used. Comparing participants’ SESTS scores before intervention to their SESTS scores after intervention, as shown in Table (2), indicates that CRT-forums were statistically significant in promoting their perceptions of their own teaching skills and hence their self-efficacy related to teaching skills was promoted. Table (2): Comparing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their teaching skills before intervention to their perceptions of their perceptions of their teaching skills after intervention

95% Confidence Sig. Interval of the Mean (2-tailed) Mean Difference T df (p <.01) Difference Lower Upper Perceptions of own 21.47 teaching skills 72.567 92 .000 21.47312 20.8854 22.0608 before intervention Perceptions of own 39.52 teaching skills after 153.21 92 .000 39.51613 39.0039 40.0284 intervention

Research question no. (3):

What are EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own motivation strategies? As shown by the figures in Table (3) analysis of teachers’ responses to the Self-Efficacy Scale for Motivation Strategies (SESMS) indicates that teachers’ mean scores in the SESMS after intervention are higher compared to their SESMS scores before intervention. This can be clearly observed from the wide difference between the figures representing the teachers’ overall total mean scores in both occasions as well as the differences between the mean scores of the individual items representing their motivation strategies in both occasions.

Table (3): EFL Teachers’ Perceived Levels of Self-Efficacy in Motivation Strategies

Item As a teacher of English at the secondary no. PRETEST POSTTEST school, I can… Mean SD Mean SD 1 Prepare a safe, non-threatening learning 1.58 .71205 2.49 .77493 atmosphere. 2 Facilitate student participation in 1.33 .59588 2.61 .55231 classroom activities. 3 Vary the motivation strategies for 1.76 .71320 2.53 .71614 different students. 4 Develop learning interests in students 1.32 .57410 2.72 .51848 smoothly

67 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) 5 Tell students about the extent of the 1.55 .74478 2.42 .81190 progress they achieve. 6 Vary questioning techniques to involve 1.25 .54486 2.78 .43861 more students. 7 Provide real-like situations that appeal to 1.61 .67618 2.41 .79723 students. 8 Use wait-time effectively. 1.32 .57410 2.78 .43861 9 Call students by their names. 1.64 .58319 2.52 .73148 10 Use different techniques for correcting 1.32 .57410 2.71 .54335 errors/mistakes. Total 14.70 2.04 25.98 2.090

Research question no. (4): How effective is the use of CRT-based forums in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their motivation strategies. In order to assess how far the use of CRT-based forums is effective in developing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their strategies to motivate students, t-test for significance was used. Comparing participants’ SESMS scores before intervention to their SESMS scores after intervention, figures in Table (4) below show that CRT-forums were statistically significant in promoting their perceptions of their own self-efficacy to motivate students. Table (4): Comparing EFL teachers’ perceptions of their motivation strategies before intervention to their perceptions of their motivation strategies after intervention

Mean 95% Confidence Sig. Interval of the (2-tailed) Men Difference t df (p <.01) Difference Lower Upper Perceptions of own motivation strategies 14.70 69.42 92 .000 14.69892 14.278 15.119 before intervention Perceptions of own motivation strategies 25.99 119.86 92 .000 25.97849 25.548 26.409 after intervention Research question no. (5):

What are EFL teachers’ reactions to CRT-based forums? At the post-intervention stage, participants were asked to articulate their reactions to the CRT-based forums. For this purpose self-reflection open-ended questions were used and responses to which were analyzed qualitatively. Responses, which were overall positive in favor of the CRT-based workshops in general, were categorized and quantified in terms of frequencies, as represented in Table (5) below.

68 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Table (5): Trainees’ Reactions to CRT-based Forums

No Trainees’ positive reactions to CRT-based workshops Frequency of Participation in CRT-based forums provided me with the mentions* following…. 1 Awareness of areas of personal strengths and weaknesses. 73 2 Self-appraisal process and techniques. 54 3 Motivation to take part in professional development training in the future. 4 Awareness of how to use CRT principles and techniques in teaching EFL in the classroom. 5 Awareness of the necessity of paying attention to my students’ 83 learning styles and needs. 6 More ability to monitor and assess students’ progress. 62 7 How to use a variety of classroom grouping strategies. 79 8 Ability to match my instruction to students’ achievement levels and 44 needs. 9 Ability to reflect on and in my teaching in order to improve it. 47 10 Participation in collegial activities. 72 11 Ability to teach metacognitive strategies to support reflection on 83 learning progress. 12 Different techniques and instructional strategies. 96 13 Setting clearly articulated high expectations for my students in 68 order to motivate them. 14 Providing students with meaningful, clear, specific, and timely 67 feedback. 15 Varying question type to maintain interest, motivation and 59 momentum. 16 Using wait time more effectively during questioning. 51 17 Creating a supportive and warm climate for all students in the EFL 63 classroom. (*N.B. As the participants often made multiple responses to each question, the number reported in the table above can sum to more than the number of respondents) Discussion, implications and suggestions for further research Findings of the study indicate that EFL teachers’ sense of self-efficacy related to both teaching skills and student motivation strategies could be improved through CRT-forums. This was echoed by other related research studies though not through CRT-forums. Thus, this finding can be considered a contribution since it adds a new dimension which CRT-based forums. This also adds to literature related to EFL teacher professional development. While traditional teacher professional development are based on the belief that EFL teachers can be merely tuned to teach textbooks that are thrown to them by the Ministry of Education, constructivist teacher professional are based on exploring what teachers already know or are able to do so as to move to what they should know or they need to be able to do, something that this study could achieve. The information obtained about teachers' perceived self- efficacy beliefs could be the basis for future planning and implementation of teacher development programmes. The Kuwaiti social and cultural context in general and the research context in particular are rich with contextual factors that have their bearings on the

69 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) methodology of research studies in human sciences. It has always been the case in in Kuwait that educational phenomena are expectedly divisible, measurable, always objective and devoid of personal bias. Initial results of SESTS indicated that EFL teachers perceived themselves to have had low levels of self-efficacy in teaching skills and motivation strategies. This finding contrasts with other research conducted somewhere else (e.g. Eslami & Fatahi, 2008; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007; Thu Hà, 2011; Mashhady, Fallah & Gaskaree, 2012; Jafarigohar & Ganjabi, 2012; Heidari et al. 2012; Ozder, 2011; Huangfu, 2012; Hastings, 2012; etc). For example, Eslami and Fatahi (2008) examined the efficacy beliefs of Iranian EFL teachers. The results showed that the teachers perceived themselves to be highly efficacious. In Vietnam Thu Hà's (2011) study showed that both native and non-native English speaker teachers have high self- efficacy beliefs. Heidari et al.'s (2012) study of Iranian EFL teachers' teaching styles showed that EFL teachers hold high sense of self-efficacy. Jahin and Al-Hadi (2014) explored EFL teachers’ sense of self-efficacy which results showed to be high. The findings of the study carry a range of implications for EFL teacher quality and curriculum development in Kuwait. The positive impact recorded by this study of using CRT- based forums highlights an essential asset that can be used for EFL teacher professional development. Basically this positive impact implies the possibility of inducing change within teachers’ perceptions or beliefs about their capabilities. The change can be induced if teachers are involved in a process of reflection and critical thinking. This finding can be taken as a call for in-service EFL teacher education enterprises to involve teachers’ beliefs or images about themselves as teachers and about their students. This would help enlighten the way towards more effective professional development. However, all attempts to effect a change in EFL teachers must be based on a careful understanding of the atmosphere that teachers work in. This implies that to address teachers’ knowledge of teaching methodologies apart from their social and cultural values is naïve and impractical. As a result of participating in CRT-based forums, EFL teachers’ sense of self-efficacy has improved. To further assess the transfer of training, further research is needed to assess the impact of teacher training on their students’ achievement and attitudes towards learning EFL. This study was conducted with only female EFL teachers in Kuwait. Therefore, further studies are needed to investigate male EFL teachers’ sense of self-efficacy and the impact that CRT-based forums might have on their teaching skills and motivation strategies and assess the extent to which there are differences between male and female teachers due to gender. Findings of this study highlighted the positive impact of CRT-based forums on enhancing EFL teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. However, this is based on teachers’ self-reported evaluations. This necessitates a further study to investigate the extent to which EFL teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs related to teaching skills and student motivation are enacted upon in their classrooms. An observational study would be needed to assess the extent to which teachers’ espoused beliefs are drawn upon in their daily teaching situations. Results of the study indicated that teachers rated themselves as low in using instructional strategies and in using motivation strategies. Thus, in-service training is needed to upgrade these teachers' capabilities in using instructional strategies and in motivation strategies.

70 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) The results of this study emphasize the significance of exploring the perceived self-efficacy of a small portion of secondary school EFL teachers'. In this respect, wider scale research studies are needed to investigate EFL teacher self-efficacy at all school levels. Besides, investigation in this study was limited to EFL teachers' self-efficacy. More research studies are needed to include teachers of other foreign languages in Kuwaiti secondary schools. This study did not investigate the sources of EFL teachers' perceived self-efficacy. Thus, further research is needed to explore the potential sources of EFL teacher self-efficacy and the variety of factors that form, shape and reshape them. Besides, the findings in this study are based on self-reported data, which implies certain built-in limitations. The desirability factor, meaning that teachers may have reported what they perceived to be desirable, is a limitation of this self-reported data.

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71 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Cochran-Smith, M. and Lytle, S. (1993). Inside/Outside: Teacher Research and Knowledge. New York: Teachers College Press. Danvile Public School District (2007). Thinking Maps. Available from Demiralay, R. & Karadeniz, S. (2010). The Effect of Use of Information and Communication Technologies on Elementary Student Teachers’ Perceived Information Literacy Self-Efficacy. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 2 (10): 841-851. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. New York: D.C. Heath and Company. Eslami, Z. R., & Fatahi, A. (2008). Teachers' sense of self-efficacy, English proficiency, and instructional strategies: A study of nonnative EFL teachers in Iran. TESL-EJ,11 (4):March. Retrieved December 22, 2016 from < https://tesl- ej.org/~teslejor/ej44/a1.html Jerome, H. J., Driscoll, A. (2000). Universal Teaching Strategies, 3rd ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Harvey, M., Coulson, D., Mackaway, J., & Winchester-Seeto, T. (2010). Aligning reflection in the cooperative education curriculum. Asia- Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 11(3):137-152. Hastings, P. (2012). Early career teachers’ self-efficacy for balanced instruction. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(6), Article 5. Retrieved March 12, 2017 from Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1):33-49 . Heidari, F., Nourmohammadi, E., & Nowrouzi, H. (2012). On the Relationship between Iranian EFL Teachers’ Self-efficacy Beliefs and their Teaching Styles. International Journal of Linguistics, 4(3):536- 550. Retrieved January 22, 2017 from Higgins, D. (2011). Why reflect? Recognizing the link between learning and reflection. Reflective Practice, 12(5):583-584. Huangfu, W. (2012). Effects of EFL Teachers’ Self-efficacy on Motivational Teaching Behaviours. Asian Social Science, 8(15). Retrieved December 12, 2016 from Hyerle, D. (2004). Thinking Maps as a Transformational Language for Learning. New York: Corwin press. Hyerle, D. (2000). A Field Guide to Using Visual Tools. Alexandria VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Jafarigohar, M., & Ganjabi, G. (2012). The relationship between teaching self-efficacy and perceived proficiency among Iranian language teachers. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 12(8):1119- 1124. Jahin, J. H., & Al-Hadi, T. M. (2013). Secondary School EFL Teachers' Self-Efficacy: Relationship to their Teaching Behaviours and Student Achievement. Journal of the Faculty of Education, Mansoura University, 85(1), 1-36. (October, 2013) Jarvis, P. (2010). and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice (4th Ed.). New York: Routledge . Larrivee, B. (2008). Meeting the challenge of preparing reflective practitioners. The New Educator, 4(2):87–106. Leijen, A., Valtna, K., Leijen, D. A. J., & Pedaste, M. (2012). How to determine the quality of students' reflections? Studies in Higher Education, 37(2): 203-217.

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73 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) APPENDICES OF THE STUDY Appendix A: Self-Efficacy Scale for Teaching Skills (SESTS) Dear participant This is a scale to assess your perceived levels of self-efficacy related to the language teaching skills that you practice in your EFL classes, called SESTS. You are kindly required to check (√) under the option you find most appropriate.

Item Untru Neutra True Items no. e of l of me As a teacher of English at a secondary school, I can… me (1) (2) (3) 1 Determine the academic needs of my students. 2 Develop a coherent and comprehensive lesson plan with behavioral objectives. 3 Have a review for the content parts previously covered. 4 Incorporate different activities and tasks into English teaching. 5 Design varied student-centered activities. 6 Teach grammar and vocabulary in an effective and interesting way. 7 Use cooperative learning to help students help each other. 8 Implement a variety of language teaching strategies. 9 Use life-like situations to connect English learning to students’ life. 10 Evaluate student understanding of what I have taught. 11 Pose well-planned questions for different purposes. 12 Vary the way of delivering questions to meet different levels of individual students. 13 Use plain language to help students when confused. 14 Provoke divergent challenging questions for more capable students. 15 Use a variety of assessment techniques Total

74 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.55-75, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Appendix B: Self-Efficacy Scale for Motivation Strategies (SESMS) Dear participant Below is a scale to assess your levels of self-efficacy perceived as for the motivation strategies that you use in your EFL classes called SESMS. You are kindly required to check (√) under the option you find most appropriate

Item Untru Neutra True Items no. e of l of me As a teacher of English at a secondary school, I can… me (1) (2) (3) 1 Prepare a safe, non-threatening learning atmosphere. 2 Facilitate student participation in classroom activities. 3 Vary the motivation strategies for different students. 4 Develop learning interests in students smoothly 5 Tell students about the extent of the progress they achieve. 6 Vary questioning techniques to involve more students. 7 Provide real-like situations that appeal to students. 8 Use wait time effectively. 9 Call students by their names. 10 Use different techniques for correcting errors/mistakes. Total

Appendix (C): Self-Reflection Form Dear participant, Based on your experience with CRT-based forums, respond to the questions below. Feel free to use extra blank paper sheets.

1. What do you think you benefited most from the CRT-based forums? Give examples. 2. Concerning your professional career, how do you think the CRT-based forums were useful to you? Give reasons. 3. Concerning your daily-life teaching context, How far were the CRT-based forums useful? How, do you think, did they add to you as a teacher? Give examples. 4. Concerning motivation, do you think the forums promoted your attitude towards your students? Give examples of how the CRT-based forums enhanced your approach towards motivating your students.

Many thanks for your cooperation

75 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) ADJUSTMENT STRATEGIES OF WIDOWS TO WIDOWHOOD STRESS BASED ON THEIR AGE: THE CASE OF RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA Dr. (Mrs.) Betty-Ruth Ngozi Iruloh and Williams Elsie Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance & Counselling, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT: This study was aimed at investigating influence of age on adjustment strategies employed by widows in coping with widowhood stress in Rivers State, Nigeria. Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. Two research questions and one hypothesis guided the conduct of the study at 0.05 probability level. A sample of 370 widows in Rivers State was drawn from the population via proportional stratified random sampling technique. Two instruments namely; Stress Level Scale for Widows (SLSW) and Questionnaire for Widows Adjustment Strategies (QWAS), both developed by the researcher were used for data collection. Data were analysed with mean, standard deviation and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance and the statistical package known as SPSS for widows was employed for the analyses. Results showed that; all the eight adjustment strategies (problem solving, cognitive restructuring, express emotion, social support, problem avoidance, wishful thinking, self-criticism and social withdrawal) are adopted by widows in ameliorating widowhood stress; there are slight differences among the mean values of the different age groups with regards to all the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress. Based on the findings of this study, recommendations were made accordingly. KEYWORDS: Adjustment, Strategies, Widowhood, Stress, Age, Rivers State

INTRODUCTION Widows are bound to experience various dimensions of stress, which invariably constitute stress level in their lives. For example, lack of necessary emotional support and financial assistance at an age when their earning power is gradually on the decline is a source of stress for widows, thus Abdulsalam (2005) exclaimed, ‘how do widows cope with life in a society which is ordinarily cruel to the “weaker sex”?. Stress has been defined as the body’s and mind’s way of meeting a challenge. Stress leads to a build-up of tension that if not relieved, can cause anxiety-a fear of what might happen even when no threat exists (Missouri Advisory, Council for Comprehensive Psychiatric Services, 2003). The symptoms and resultant effects of stress for the individual and by extension larger society are many. For instance it has been established that the disappointment or frustration that causes stress also can lead to depression, a serious mental illness characterized by fatigue, insomnia, boredom, restlessness, lack of interest in life, and withdrawal which if left untreated can lead to feelings of unworthiness, isolation and even suicide. Oniye (2000) viewed stress as the state of being, manifested by an individual (especially widows), as a result of perceived inability to cope with demands of living or other life situations following the death of a spouse. In addition, stress or life stress could manifest itself in psychological, physiological or behavioural symptoms. Thus, with reference to widows and widowhood, stress could imply

76 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) any life situation, event or demand that appears threatening or beyond their innate resources be it intellectual, emotional and socio-economic ability or resources. Also, it has been observed that among the causes of stress for people, is the incidence of having too much or too little responsibilities, whether for people or things. Thus a widow with too much or too little responsibilities could become stressed, especially if the new situation looks tasking or challenging to her or appear to be beyond her resource out rightly (Cooper, 2001). Accordingly, widowhood stress in the light of this research can be described as life situations, events and demands that appear threatening and beyond the innate resources of a widow (a woman whose husband had died and she has not remarried) be it intellectual, emotional and socio-economic resources. However, the factors likely to engender stress in an individual are mainly personal because different people react differently to different stimuli depending on their generic and environmental influences. Specifically, stress as it relates to widowhood is believed to be caused by a number of factors such as the uniqueness of the husband-wife relationship, culture aggravated stigma that the widow is instrumental to the death of her husband, in-laws negative actions and inactions, care for the children if any and the host of others. Nevertheless, some widows as observed by the researcher can cope with widowhood stress while some others are challenged. This clearly raises the question of the adjustment strategies adopted by widows’ to cope with widowhood stress. The development of useful adjustment strategies has been found to be dependent on certain factors like the age of the widow or length of marriage, her religious background or inclination, ethnic group, social-economic status and level of educational attainment among others. Adjustment strategies have been described as an individual’s coping strategies, behaviours, which are consciously used by an individual (e.g. widow) to handle or control the effects of anticipated or experienced stressful situations. Adjustment or coping strategies for the management of any kind of stress are quite replete in literature. Some of the strategies include: controlling adrenalin arousal, self-talk, attention diversion strategy, insensitivity technique, relaxation, transcendental meditation, biofeedback, stress diary, sleeping technique, laughing technique, crying technique, gentle behaviour technique, positive thinking, problem solving strategy, confrontive coping strategy, social support strategy, assertive strategy, prevention strategy, calmness, body exercise, cognitive restructuring strategy, express emotion, wishful thinking, self criticism, social withdrawal strategy, problem avoidance strategy, faith strategy, group discussion technique, seeking counsellor’s help and the host of others. Nevertheless, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) had earlier stressed that people attend to or cope with their stress in two different dimensions namely; problem focused coping and emotion focused coping. According to Lazarus and Folkman, the problem focused coping is the strategy that is directed towards solving the problem that cause stress while, the emotion focused coping is the strategy that attends to the feelings or emotions of stress rather than the source (stressor) itself. Research findings have shown that a number of factors combine in one way or the other to influence the use and benefit derivable from various adjustment strategies. These factors include income, attitude towards present living situation, perceived health status and presence of a confidant (Tate, 2001). In the views of Stroebe and Stroebe (2007), factors likely to influence a widow’s adjustment to bereavement stress include age of the widow, her religious

77 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) inclination and socio-economic status, number of siblings and support from children and their families. Nonetheless, studies have shown that there is significant relationship between bereaved people (widow’s especially) participation in Bereavement Support Groups (BSGS) and their subsequent adjustment to bereavement. In Nigeria, we have associations with widow’s adjustment as their main or part of their focus and they include Widowed Groups of Nigeria (WGN), Widow Organization International (WOI), Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria (FOMWAN) and National Council of Women Societies (NCWS). According to Lieberman and Sherman (2009), positive change occurred only among widows who have participated actively in the programmes of self-help groups. Essentially, a number of works have been carried out on nature of widowhood and plight of widows within and outside Nigeria. Bala (2015) investigated the plight and adjustment strategies of widows in Danko Wasagu local government area of Kebbi state. The target population for the study was widows in four selected areas of Danko Wasagu local government area of Kebbi State (that is, Ribah, Danko, Yar’ali and Rambo). Purposive sampling technique was employed for selecting a sample of 500 respondents. The research instrument used was tagged “Problems and Adjustment Needs of Widows Questionnaire (PANWQ)”. It was developed by the researcher to collect relevant information from the respondents. Data collected were analyzed using frequencies and percentage. The main findings of the study showed that psychological problems were the most serious for widows in Danko Wasagu local government area of Kebbi state. The results showed that economic problems and social problems have an effect on the adjustment strategies of widows. Based on the findings, it was recommended that widows should be provided with work opportunities to help them establish small enterprises and train them to manage these projects. It was also suggested that higher education should be obtained by widows through counseling services and lastly counselors should try to counsel married men to write their wills and make their wives and children as their next of kin in order to avoid these problems that were found to be faced by widows. Uche (2015) sought to determine the extent of adjustment among widows in Bayelsa State. The ex-post facto design was used and a sample size of 200 was derived through probability sampling technique. Two hypotheses were formulated and data collected using questionnaire were analysed using Independent t-test. Results revealed that widowhood adjustment significantly differed on the bases of Spirituality and Age. It was concluded that adjustment tend to be easier for widows of higher spiritual level and those who are older. It was recommended for counsellors to be aware of the spiritual and other issues in their widow clients’ lives and assist them to capitalize on these areas of strengths. Mathias, Jacob and Shivakumara (2014) investigated the psycho-social adjustments faced by young widows. Descriptive survey design with 100 widows was selected from Mangalore district through purposive sampling. A 3-point scale to assess the Psycho-social adjustments was developed with 35 items. The tool was given to seven experts for the content validation. Reliability of the tool was established by using Cronbach Alpha (r = 0.75).The tool was translated into Kannada. Furthermore, the collected data were analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings showed that 69% of the young widows have average adjustment and 31% have poor adjustments. Occupation and living with children had significant association with psycho-social problems among young widows. In conclusion, it was recommended that assessing the psycho-social problems among young widows will help to develop strategic welfare schemes to young widows, an area totally neglected by our society.

78 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Akinlabi (2013) examined the differences that existed between young and old widows and their amenability to coping mechanism and resources. The researcher made use of descriptive research design of the survey type. All the widows in South West Nigeria were surveyed. A self-designed instrument titled ‘Young and Old Vulnerable Widows Questionnaire’ (YOVWQ) was administered on randomly selected widows. A sample of one hundred young and old widows was randomly selected using multistage sampling technique involving stratified and purposive sampling techniques. The instruments validity was ensured facially, content-wise and construct-wise by subjecting it to relevant experts. A reliability co-efficient of 0.78 was obtained from Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis using test retest reliability method. Copies of the instrument were personally administered by the researcher and trained research assistants in the various locations of the respondents. The data generated were analysed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. The analysis of the data revealed that respondents (old and young) widows did not differ in their coping strategies and mechanisms. Based on the findings curriculum planner should incorporate into the national curriculum areas to be taught to students that will change orientation and reduce agonies of mourning widows. Also the culture of Will writing should be incorporated to couples life to alleviate the agonies of widows. In the same year, Akinlabi (2013) investigated the influence of length of marriage on grief experience of widows in Yoruba land, Nigeria. The study adopted descriptive research design of the survey type. A self-designed instrument titled ‘Widowhood Experience Questionnaire; (WEQ) was used for gathering data from the widows. One thousand, five hundred and sixteen (1,516) respondents were chosen using multistage sampling technique. The validity of the instrument was done by experts in Guidance and Counselling, Test and Measurement and Human Kinetics. The test retest reliability of the instrument yielded 0.78 reliability coefficient using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis and found significant at 0.05 levels. The data generated from the responses was analysed using frequency counts percentages and t-test. The result showed that respondents (old and young widows) don’t differ in their experience of grief. Based on the findings, it was recommended that caregivers, teachers and counsellors should be equipped with the tools of handling widows in Yoruba land. The religious leaders should preach and discourage areas of Yoruba culture that elongates grief experience. The area of the culture that promotes tenacity of grief should be discouraged. Amaru (2012), conducted a research on counseling needs of widows in Rivers state; implication for counseling. The sample size used in the study was 2000 widows from Rivers state. The study showed that when a woman loses her husband, the relatives of the husband deny her the inheritance she should have gotten from the late husband. She is accused of having a hand in the death of her husband and made to pass through agonizing rituals to prove her innocence. In such situations, widows tend to suffer a lot of the loss of a partner, and this has socio-economic and health implications for the widows. They are at tremendous risk of physical and several abuses. It was shown that widows in Rivers state are undergoing storms of economic deprivations or distress, dehumanizing physiological and mental torture counseling needs of the widows in Rivers state is characterized by all forms of physical, economical, psychological and emotional counseling activities to help the widows to understand their new situation and consequently make adjustment. The study identified some counseling needs of widows in Rivers state area of Nigeria such as economic, psychological, socio-cultural and educational practice counselors and psychologists should rely on economic, psychological, social-cultural level to render her counseling needs to the widows in Rivers state. Further result showed that young and elderly widows have equal tendencies of

79 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) involvement in the counseling services in Rivers state since both age, was found to have equal counseling needs in the study. Kayode (2011) conducted a research on the problems associated with widows as expressed by widows in Ilorin metropolis. 108 widows were used for that study, from the survey carried out it was shown that the negative attitude of the extended family to the widows in the society cannot be over emphasized. The study showed that the concern of the family immediately after the internment of the deceased is how the property of the late husband will be shared among them without due consideration for the welfare of both the widow and her children. The finding of the study also showed that widows are branded as devils, who master-minded the death of their husband and at end of the day they may be frustrated out of their matrimonial homes to move away for easy acquisition of deceased property. The study also stated that national council of women society have not made any meaningful impact said of the religions bodies and their weakly individual in the society he said it is as a result of the fact that most of this organizations are political in nature and they are devoid of welfare policy for the less fortunate members of the society. Although most of the religious bodies tend to follow the function of Holy books in the area of assisting the widows in their midst, however such assistance are grossly inadequate. However, from the findings of Kayode (2011), he concluded that widows in Ilorin metropolis do have financial or economic problems as they are face alone with meeting the financial need of the children e.g. not able to hold birthday parties as usual, inability to buy new clothes, feed well, pay children’s school fees etc. it is also shown in his finding that widows do have family relationship problems as they find it difficult to confide in husband’s house relation due to insult being received from her or their in-laws. Ushe (2011) also conducted a study on the plight of widows in Nigeria: the paradox for traditional counseling of the bereaved. In his study the Historical studies showed that widowhood in pre-Christian and Islamic periods were a natural phenomenon which carries with the risk of conjugal bereavement due to the death of one spouse. However, the situation changed immediately the society started subjecting widows into various tortures and mistreatments (especially from 1970s), leading to distrust amongst families and eventually violence amongst the people. The study, therefore examined the plight of widows in Nigeria as a paradox for traditional counseling of the bereaved in pre-colonial times and the Nigerian situations today. In the study it showed that in Nigeria today, the plight of widows’ rages from immediate relatives and families of deceased husband to members of his community. Many widows are suspected by family members of deceased spouse for been responsible or the death of the departed husbands’. When the death is sudden and without any sign of protracted illness, it is believed that such death might have been caused by the wife, who is the ghost associate. The findings of the study showed that many widows who suffered such plights are likely to experience psychic and emotional breakdown. Furthermore it was also shown that, it is clear that widowhood is a bitter experience not only in the Nigeria society but in the globally system, which creates a state of mind and behavioural characteristic that can be measured and known within the socio-economic structure and adjustment system. The prevailing socio-economic conditions with very demanding finances makes Nigerian widows to find it difficult to adjust mentally and socially in modern times. The study also indicated that the problem of widows in Nigerian society can best be interpreted in relation to the socio-economic structure rather than

80 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) concentrating on individual treatment of widows. A widow needs care and financial assistance but unfortunately, the supports given to them are mostly in terms of moral aspects. In the study it was, concluded that negative attitude of most Nigerian communities towards widows needs re-orientation and cultural integration. The introductions of social and religious programmes are necessary in this regards. Thus, traditional way of helping the bereaved to adjust economically and socially would serve as a departure from other counseling services operating in Nigerian society which yield marginal impacts on the lives of the bereaved in contemporary times. Suleiman (2010) conducted a study on the problems and adjustment needs of literate widows in kwara state. The study examined the problems encountered by widows and the adjustment needs of widows on the basis of age when married, bereavement period, religion, type of family, type of job and highest educational qualification. The target population used in that study was literate widows in three senatorial districts of kwara state. Purposive sampling technique was employed for selecting a sample of 400 respondents for the study. The research instrument used was tagged “problems and Adjustment Needs of Widows Questionnaire” (PANWQ). Generally, it was discovered in the study that widows in kwara state have acute problem and adjustment needs. The main findings of the study showed that psychological problems are the most serious or commonest problem confronting widows. It involved feeling of sadness on remembrance of their later husbands, followed by financial problems, social and then health problems. Suleiman also indicated in his finding that widow needs adjustment in all area of their lives that is in the area of social, health, financial and psychological issues. The finding also revealed that significant differences were found on the basis of age when married, type of family, type of job and highest educational qualifications. However, on the basis of length of bereavement and religion no significant difference was found in the problems encountered by widows. Elegbeleye and Oyedeji (2003) investigated the perception of death by the bereaved, the process of mourning and grief, the psychological and social malfunctioning which arise as a result of bereavement and the process of ‘grief work’ and the coping ability displayed by various victims of bereavement, particularly widow/ers. The study employed the instrumentation of quantitative and qualitative research strategy to gather relevant data from the study. The data were analysed using the appropriate statistical methods. Results obtained from the research study revealed major findings in support of the psychological and social dysfunctions that arise as a result of the loss of a spouse, but no significant difference existed between the coping strategies adopted by both middle aged and old aged widows. However a significant difference existed in the coping abilities of the middle age and old age widow/ers. Similarly, a significant gender variation was recorded in the coping abilities of the old age widow/ers. Widow/ers did express conviction that the coping strategy adopted by them actually worked and were therefore considered effective. Oniye (2001) conducted a research on the adjustment strategies of Nigeria widows to widowhood stress; issue for rehabilitation counseling. The research investigated into the adjustment strategies of Nigerian widows as they strive to overcome the stress inherent in our society’s widowhood practice. Eight hundred and six five (865) widows were purposefully sampled from the three main ethnic groups in Nigeria, i.e., Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. The problems stated in the study showed that widowhood affects more women than men financially, psychologically and socially. Our traditional socialization which emphasizes dependence and passivity hinder women’s attempts to adjust to widowhood and crate new life for themselves

81 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) the main focus of the study was to examine the adjustment strategies often employed by Nigerian widows towards widowhood stress. The research design adopted for that study was the descriptive survey method. The instruments used in the study were the Stress Rating Scale for widows (SRSW) and Widows Adjustment Strategies Questionnaire (WASQ) developed by the researcher. The result of the investigation revealed that five broad categories of adjustment strategies were acknowledged by Nigerian widows. Majority of Nigerian widows (218 = 59.9%) reported experiencing stress at medium level; 258 (29.85%) and 89 (10.35%) confirmed experiencing stress at low and high levels respectively. It was discovered that Nigerian widows differ significantly in their stress level and adjustment strategies on the bases of selected personality variables. It was recommended among other things that relatives, society, government and counselor should mount intervention strategies like abolition of injurious widowhood practices, legislation against oppressive mourning and widowhood rites and establishment of National commission for widow’s affair. It was also recommended in the paper that rehabilitation counselling should be provided by counselors. This should include re-orienting the widows’ cognition about their state of being and its attendant stress. The rehabilitation counselling advocated should focus at restoring total personality well being of the widows and maximization of their potentials for optimal integration into the larger society. Consequently, it can be observed from the studies presented earlier that none of them per se concentrated mainly on the adjustment strategies of widows. In addition, the researcher has not found any particular work that has been conducted on the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress in Rivers State, with data supplied by widows themselves and this created a gap, yearning to be filled. Accordingly, it is against this background that the researcher deemed it fit to embark on this scholarly venture with the main thrust of identifying the adjustment strategies of widows towards widowhood stress based on their age.

METHODOLOGY Descriptive survey was adopted for the study. The population for the study consisted of widows in Rivers State, particularly, widows of the land of three major ethnic groups of Rivers State (i.e. Ikwerre, Kalabari and Ogoni). These three ethnic groups are found in 11 local government Areas of the 23 Local Government Areas (LGA) of the state. Nevertheless, as at the time of the study, the estimated population of widows in the 11 LGAs as reported by the Social Welfare Office of the State Ministry of Women Affairs is 3700, (Rivers State Ministry of Women Affairs, 2016). A sample of 370 widows (10% of the official population size of 3700) was selected for the study through proportional stratified random sampling technique. Two instruments were used for data gathering in this study namely; Stress Level Scale for Widows (SLSW) and Questionnaire for Widows Adjustment Strategies (QWAS), both developed by the researcher. The first instrument, SLSW was made up of two parts i.e. sections A and B. While section A sought demographic information such as age, and highest educational level, section B consisted of 15 items meant to assess widowhood stress in the areas of socio-psychological stressors, financial stressors, health and emotional stressors and authority and responsibility stressors. The response format for the SLSW was a four point response format of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4points, Agree (A) = 3points, Disagree (D) = 2points and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1point.

82 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) The maximum and minimum point obtainable from the SLSW was 60points and 15points respectively. The second questionnaire that is; Questionnaire for Widows Adjustment Strategies (QWAS) was a 40 items questionnaire consisting of eight parts i.e. A-H meant to elicit information on widow’s adjustment strategies for managing stressful situations, events, circumstances, person or objects. The sub-headings for this particular instrument are: (i) problem solving strategies; (ii) cognitive restructuring strategies; (iii) express emotions strategies; (iv)social support strategies; (v) problem avoidance strategies; (vi) wishful thinking strategies; (vii) self-criticism strategies and (viii) social withdrawal strategies. Each of these parts of the QWAS consists of five items. The response format for the QWAS was a five point response format of Not at all = 1point, A little = 2points, somewhat = 3points, Much = 4points and Very much = 5points. The maximum and minimum point obtainable from the QWAS is 200points and 40points respectively. Data were analysed with mean, standard deviation and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance and the statistical package known as SPSS for widows was employed for the analyses. Presentation and Discussion of Findings Research Question 1: What are the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress? Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Adjustment Strategies of Widows to Widowhood Stress

S/N Adjustment Strategies N Mean SD

1 Self Criticism 370 22.37 3.216 2 Express Emotion 370 22.37 3.006 3 Social Support 370 22.25 3.426 4 Problem Avoidance 370 22.17 3.443 5 Social Withdrawal 370 22.17 3.579 6 Problem Solving 370 22.13 4.067 7 Wishful Thinking 370 21.92 3.700 8 Cognitive Restructuring 370 21.91 3.899

The results in Table 1 showed that the range of the means for the eight adjustment strategies was from 21.91 to 22.37; whereas the standard deviation ranged from 3.006 to 4.067. The close values of the means and the low values of the standard deviations are indications of homogeneity among the respondents. Hence, research findings from these data could be relied upon, and generalizations could be accepted with minimal error. An examination of Table 1 showed that all eight adjustment strategies were adopted by widows in ameliorating widowhood stress as revealed by the mean values which show no remarkable difference in terms of whole numbers. However, in order of preference, self criticism strategies came first, followed by express emotion; social support; problem avoidance; social withdrawal; problem solving; wishful thinking and cognitive restructuring been the last adjustment strategies.

83 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Research Question 2: What is the influence of widows’ ages on their adjustment strategies to widowhood stress? Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress on the basis of their age. Table 2: Means and Standard Deviation of Adjustment Strategies of Widows to Widowhood Stress on the basis of Age Adjustment Strategies N Mean SD

Problem solving 370 22.13 4.067 20-30years 83 21.33 5.338 31-40years 168 22.68 3.745 41 and above years 119 21.92 3.338 Cognitive restructuring 370 21.91 3.899 20-30years 83 21.66 4.275 31-40years 168 22.26 3.720 41 and above years 119 21.59 3.865 Express emotion 370 22.37 3.006 20-30years 83 22.58 3.482 31-40years 168 22.63 2.783 41 and above years 119 21.86 2.912 Social support 370 22.25 3.426 20-30years 83 21.83 3.960 31-40years 168 22.67 3.216 41 and above years 119 21.96 3.274 Problem avoidance 370 22.17 3.443 20-30years 83 21.48 4.275 31-40years 168 22.72 2.977 41 and above years 119 21.88 3.315 Wishful thinking 370 21.92 3.700 20-30years 83 22.16 3.785 31-40years 168 22.16 3.384 41 and above years 119 21.42 4.035 Self criticism 370 22.37 3.216 20-30years 83 22.41 3.166 31-40years 168 22.58 3.115 41 and above years 119 22.04 3.386 Social withdrawal 370 22.17 3.579 20-30years 83 22.65 3.337 31-40years 168 22.13 3.540 41 and above years 119 21.89 3.788 Total Widows Adjustment 370 177.30 20.972 20-30years 83 176.10 25.426 31-40years 168 179.83 19.056 41 and above years 119 174.55 19.860

84 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Table 3: Summary of ANOVA of the influence of Age on Adjustment Strategies of Widows to Widowhood Stress

AS SV SS df MS F

Problem solving Between groups 110.855 2 55.427 3.394* Within groups 5993.656 367 16.331 Total 6104.511 369 Cognitive restructuring Between groups 38.203 2 19.101 1.258 Within groups 5571.854 367 15.182 Total 5610.057 369 Express emotion Between groups 45.823 2 22.912 2.557 Within groups 3288.187 367 8.960 Total 3334.011 369 Social support Between groups 54.696 2 27.348 2.346 Within groups 4277.423 367 11.655 Total 4332.119 369 Problem avoidance Between groups 100.003 2 50.001 4.293* Within groups 4274.927 367 11.648 Total 4374.930 369 Wishful thinking Between groups 44.111 2 22.055 1.616 Within groups 5008.616 367 13.647 Total 5052.727 369 Self criticism Between groups 20.577 2 10.289 .995 Within groups 3795.696 367 10.342 Total 3816.273 369 Social withdrawal Between groups 28.789 2 14.394 1.124 Within groups 4698.822 367 12.803 Total 4727.611 369 Total Widows Adjustment Between groups 2095.340 2 1047.670 2.400 Within groups 160194.0 367 436.496 Total 162289.3 369

*Significant at 0.05 level of significance Table 2 showed that there were slight differences among the mean values of the different age groups with regards to all the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress. This means that age influences the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress. Nevertheless, on further statistical analysis through the application of analysis of variance the influence of age were found to be significant in problem solving strategies [F(2,367) = 3.394] and problem avoidance strategies [F(2,367) = 4.293] at 0.05 level significance (Table 3). Therefore, with

85 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) regards to these two strategies the null hypothesis was rejected and accepted for the remaining strategies (cognitive restructuring, express emotion, social support, wishful thinking, self criticism and social withdrawal). The result was that, there is significant difference in the adjustment strategies (problem solving and problem avoidance) of widows to widowhood stress on the basis of their age. Conversely, there was no significant difference in the adjustment strategies (cognitive restructuring, express emotion, social support, wishful thinking, self criticism and social withdrawal, as well as overall adjustment strategies) of widows to widowhood stress on the basis of their age. Thus given the significant F-values of problem solving strategies and problem avoidance strategies, a detailed multiple comparison analysis using Scheffe analysis was done to determine exactly which group (20-30years; 31-40years; 41 and above) differed significantly from each other in terms of problem solving strategies and problem avoidance strategies among the widows under investigation. The results of these analyses were presented in Table 3. Examination of Table 4 showed that the significant difference is between widows within the age range 20-30years and 31-40years in both problem solving strategies and problem avoidance strategies. That is the difference in adjustment strategies (problem solving and problem avoidance) of widows to widowhood stress was between these two age ranges but all in favour of widows within the age range of 20-30years. Table 4: Summary of Post Hoc Test via Scheffe Analysis

AS Age MD Std Error Sig

Problem solving 20-30years Vs -1.359* .542 .044 31-40years 20-30years Vs -.591 .578 .594 41 and above 31-40years Vs .769 .484 .285 41 and above Problem avoidance 20-30years Vs -1.238* .458 .027 31-40years 20-30years Vs -.400 .488 .714 41 and above 31-40years Vs .838 .409 .124 41 and above AS = Adjustment Strategies; MD = Mean Difference

86 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress The finding of this study showed that all the eight adjustment strategies (problem solving, cognitive restructuring, express emotion, social support, problem avoidance, wishful thinking, self criticism and social withdrawal) were adopted by widows in ameliorating widowhood stress. However, in order of preference, self criticism strategies came first, followed by express emotion; social support; problem avoidance; social withdrawal; problem solving; wishful thinking and cognitive restructuring been the last adjustment strategies. This was indicative of the fact that the adjustment strategies to widowhood stress investigated in the study were all applied by widows in Rivers State irrespective of their age, educational levels, ethnic groups and even their religious affiliation. What was significantly different, like in any phenomenon involving humans, was the degree to which each of these adjustment strategies were applied by the widows. Nevertheless, it was quite surprising to not that self criticism strategies came tops among the strategies used by widows to ameliorate widowhood stress while, cognitive restructuring strategies came least. This could be as a result of the fact that, widows may be blaming their stressful situations on themselves rather than being optimistic by facing their situation head-on. Another, reason for cognitive restructuring strategies coming last and self criticism strategies been first, may be as a result of the cultural believes of the widows that nothing happens naturally something artificial or unnatural may be the course of their predicament (widowhood stress), especially in an African setting. The above findings are similar to the findings made by Kayode (2011), ushe (2011) and Oniye (2001) who in their separate studies also found out that social support strategy, cognitive restructuring and social withdrawals are some of the common strategies adopted by widows to address problems and stressful situations confronting them. However, due to the scanty nature of literature related to the present study, the researcher could not find works with findings that are in disconcordance with the present findings of this study with regards to adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress.

Widows’ age and their adjustment strategies to widowhood stress The result concerning widow’s age and their adjustment strategies to widowhood stress indicated that, there were slight differences among the mean values of the different age groups with regards to all the adjustment strategies of widows to widowhood stress. On further statistical analysis there was significant difference in the adjustment strategies (problem solving and problem avoidance) of widows to widowhood stress on the basis of their age. Conversely, there was no significant difference in the adjustment strategies (cognitive restructuring, express emotion, social support, wishful thinking, self criticism and social withdrawal, as well as overall adjustment strategies) of widows to widowhood stress on the basis of their age. Nevertheless, the difference in adjustment strategies (problem solving and problem avoidance) of widows to widowhood stress was between 20-30years and 31-40years ranges but all in favour of widows within the age range of 20-30years.The present result was in agreement with some past research findings. For example, Uche (2015) in a study to determine the extent of adjustment among widows in Bayelsa State, found out that the adjustment strategies adopted by young widows differ significantly from those of middle age widows and even among older widows. Similar results were found in related studies by Mathias, Jacob and Shivakumara (2014), Suleiman (2010) and Elegbeleye and Oyedeji (2003).

87 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.76-91, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) However, the studies by Akinlabi (2013) and Amaru (2012) revealed findings inconsistent with the present one. Their results showed that widows (young and old) do not differ significantly in their adjustment or coping strategies or mechanism.

CONCLUSION It could be concluded from the findings of this study that: (1) All the adjustment strategies (problem solving, cognitive restructuring, express emotion, social support, problem avoidance, wishful thinking self criticism and social withdrawal) investigated in this study are adopted by widows to ameliorate widowhood stress. In addition, self criticism strategies came top while cognitive restructuring strategies came last in the order of strategies adopted by widows. (2) Widows in Rivers State differ significantly in their adjustment strategies to widowhood stress on the basis of age

RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of this work, the following recommendations would be very useful to ameliorate widowhood stress among widows in Rivers State: 1) Counsellors could systematically use the adjustment strategies studied in this research to help widows to cope with widowhood stress. 2) Apart from the above, bereavement counselling should emphasize the need for widows to acquire skills needed for securing gainful employment either in public/private or personal enterprise. For instance, they should be oriented to appreciate the usefulness of possessing impressive academic qualifications, basic know-how of transacting business, saving for old age and future investment among others. 3) Finally, the bereavement counselling to be provided should appropriately orientate young widows towards the imperativeness of remarriage especially for those widowed before the age of thirty five (35years). This is crucial, if their physiological and psychological needs like sexual gratification, provision of emotional support and social support are to be legitimately satisfied.

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91 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) PREDICTIVE POWERS OF SOCIAL SKILLS ON ORAL PRESENTATION SKILLS OF MASTER OF EDUCATION STUDENTS IN UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA Orluwene, Goodness W. and Ugwu, Chinelo J. Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt Rivers State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT: The study explored the predictive power of social skills subscales of social expressivity, (SE) social sensitivity (SS), social control (SC), emotional expressivity (EE), emotional sensitivity (ES) and emotional control (EC) on oral presentation skills of 231 Master of Education (M.Ed) students. The study was guided with 2 research questions and 2 null hypotheses which were tested at 0.05 alpha level. The sample of 231 M.Ed students was drawn using multi-stage sampling method via purposive and accidental/sampling technique. Collection of data was done using two instruments tagged students’ social skills assessment scale (SSSAS) and students’ oral presentation skills assessment scale (SOPSAS). Using Cronbach Alpha method, the Internal consistency coefficients obtained for the subscales of SSAS are 0.82, 0.73, 0.78, 0.77, 0.78 and 0.81 respectively for SE, SS, SC, EE, ES and EC while the overall SSSAS had an internal consistency of 0.81 and the SOPSAS had 0.87. The SSSAS was administered using direct-delivery approach while SOPSAS was used as observation tool during the students’ seminar/proposal defense. Daata collected were analysed using stepwise multiple linear regression analysis. It was found that SC, SE, EE, EC and SS jointly and independently made significant prediction on oral presentation skills of students’ at the exclusion of ES. It was also found that the hierarchical order of social skills predictive power is SC > SE > EE > EC > SS > ES, Following the findings, recommendations and conclusion were drawn. KEYWORDS: Social Skills, Social Control, Social Expressivity, Social Sensitivity, Emotional Expression, Emotional Sensitivity, Emotional Control and Oral Presentation Skills.

INTRODUCTION The word university is derived from the Latin word “univeritas” which means a “whole”. This implies that the role of universities is to produce well-balanced all-round knowledge among individuals. To produce a well-balanced and holistic knowledge means that in universities, it is not only the cognitive behaviours that need to be developed but also the moral and social. West (2016) asserted that to equip university graduates with the appropriate skills, it is not adequate for universities to teach only the functional skills but also to teach the real-world learning experiences that will enable students to be adaptable, enterprising and employable. So our standards-driven educational system require students to demonstrate their learning in various real life dimension. That is there are different types of learning outcome expected from students, in order to apply the acquired knowledge and skills in variety of ways that reflect the world within and outside classrooms. These learning targets include mastery of facts and information, ability to use knowledge to reason and solve problem, demonstration of achievement-related skills such as reading aloud, writing reports, oral presentations,

111 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) interpersonal interaction, operating equipment correctly and safe conducting of experiment to mention but a few. To support this Berliner in Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook and Travers (2000) identified various activities that regularly take place in the classroom setting. These activities include reading cycle, seatwork, oral presentation (one-way presentations and two-way presentations), use of media, silent reading construction, games, play, transitions and housekeeping. However, among the multiple-ways learning can be demonstrated, oral presentation is the focus of this study. Oral presentation is a short talk on a given tutorial or seminar topic. It is a formal speech or vocal performance presented to a given audience, hence it is also known as speaking skills. On this basis, the current researchers view oral presentation as a platform where students translate their knowledge, ideas, thinking, understanding and views into oral action that is delivered to an audience. In addition, oral presentation is one of the product learning targets used to demonstrate acquired knowledge, reasoning and skills in a real world situation (Airasian, 2005 and Macmillian, 1997). Oral presentation helps students to use the acquired skills and knowledge in relevant problem contexts (Elliot, et al 2000). To Woolfolk, Hughes and Walkup (2008) oral presentation helps to promote effective reciprocal questioning, reciprocal teaching, pair-share and jigsaw strategies. This is because when these strategies are used appropriately by the students, they are encouraged to be more involved in extensive interactions and thoughts even in a more complex situation. This mean that oral presentation stimulates open-ended techniques among students. Putting this differently, oral presentation creates avenue for effective interactive classroom. An interactive classroom is a student-centred classroom which helps to connect students to their learning and also to apply their knowledge in real-world tasks. It is an environment where students partner with teachers in the development/learning and assessment processes). In addition, an interactive classroom promotes an enabling environment where competent readers, writers, presenters and problem-solvers are developed (Canter, 2008). Furthermore, oral presentation enhances the sound development of social-emotional functioning of the students through the development of inter-and intrapersonal skills (Elliot et al, 2000) Downey and Merriel in Yahaya and Jamaludin (2009) opined that students’ acquisition of interpersonal communication skills promotes effective communication, discussion and exchange of ideas with teachers and peers. This interpersonal communication skills among students is determined by the way the students interact with their environment (teachers and peers). Oral presentation is one of the platforms that enables students to interact well with their environment. To this end, Zirkovic and Stojkovic (2011) stated that oral presentation stimulates the constructive opportunity where students and teachers share their ideas and experiences boldly and confidently. Zivkovic (2014) viewed oral presentation to be centred towards achieving two main goals such as preparing students for successful academic career and enabling them to function effectively in future workplaces. Excellent and successful academic performance of students is not only measured by their achievement level in relation to what they know but also in relation to what they can do or their level of knowledge/skill applicability in real world tasks; which oral presentation is one. Yahaya and Jamaludin (2009) posited that for excellent academic performance, students must show competence in the understanding of the subject matter and also in the ability to interact effectively in the environment. So in a nutshell, effective

112 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) interaction which hinges on oral presentation in the classroom is among the essential components of academic performance. Hence Yahaya and Nordin (2006) asserted that it is essential that students acquire interpersonal communication skills. Lack of interpersonal communication skills lead to communication problem, learning difficulties and socio- emotional malfunctioning. For instance, it has been observed that some students are unable to answer oral questions even when they know the right answers. This is often attributed to their inability to interact well with their environment possibly as a result of poor oral presentation skills. King (2002) asserted that through oral presentation skills, boldness, confidence and communication skills to present seminar papers to the public and answer oral questions in the classroom are built. Nevertheless, Zivkovic and Stojkovic (2011) opined that oral presentation skills help students to fully participate in their studies, as well as demonstrate strong ability to communicate effectively. It also help them to develop competencies in their present and future endeavours. Where the students’ present endeavour is determined by their performance in their studies, their future endeavour is determined by their professional duties in the workplace. So oral presentation serve very important roles to both students and career personnels. Based on the importance of oral presentation in both school and non-school settings, it is placed among the common requirements in almost all the levels of education, from pre-nursery, nursery, primary, secondary and tertiary levels. This is because oral presentation creates avenue where professionals, scholars, students and pupils disseminate established or newly acquired knowledge or understanding. It is accomplished at the pre-nursery and nursery levels of education in the form of recitation of rhyme, fictional passages and poem. At the primary and secondary levels of education, oral presentation is carried out in the form of recitation of rhyme and poem, debate, presentation of speech, addressing the public etc. For the tertiary level, it is carried out through delivery of symposium, oral defense of term paper, thesis and dissertation, seminar presentation, presentation of conference paper, delivery public/inaugural lectures etc. For instance project writing/research work is among the partial requirements for the award of undergraduate and graduate degrees such as Bachelor, Post Graduate Diploma, Masters and Doctoral. Students are first required to conduct an original work and at the end of the research they present their research orally study often through power point presentations. Unfortunately, despite the crucial roles of oral presentation in educational and corporate settings, it is still observed that some students possess commendable oral presentation skills while others lack appropriate oral presentation skills. This is evidenced in the ways they relate with teachers and peers or respond to oral questions. This poor oral presentation skills is also evidenced in their disjointed transition, shaky tone, poor eye contact with audience, inappropriate body postures and the use of “fillers” such as ‘ah-uh’, ‘I mean’ and ‘so on’ during oral presentation exercise. To some students, making oral presentation is uncomfortable, while to others it is not. All these variations may suggest differences in the levels to which they possess oral presentation skills. Oral presentation skills refers to the ability to effectively communicate to one’s audience. Oral presentation require adequate planning, practicing and presenting. Therefore, it is not a single- dimensional skill, but involves various components. For proper acquisition of oral presentation skills, abilities such as communicative skills are indispensable. More so, oral presentation skills can be developed through exposure and practice. On this basis, the present researchers found it very cogent to determine if the variations in the oral presentation skills among students enrolled in Master of Education programme is a function of their social skills.

113 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Social skills are components of behaviors that enables people to comprehend and suitably adjust across different social environments (Steedily, Schiwartz, Levin & Luke 2011). To Zins, Weissbert, Wang and Walberg (2004), social skills is the ability to identify, recognize, manage and regulate emotion, as well as develop and maintain good relationship with others. Similarly, Wu (2008) regarded social skills as the group of knowledge and abilities that stimulate effective interaction between an individual and others. Social skills are the set of competencies utilized by people to interact and communicate well with one another (Feitosa, Del Prette & Del Prette 2012). Sequel to all these, these researchers conceptualized social skills as a group of distinct, but interrelated competencies or abilities that enable people to initiate, direct and maintain effective interaction with others in the environment. Appropriate social skills are vital to overall successful functioning in life. They direct individual on what to say, how to say it and when to say it. They also equip individuals on how to make good decisions, act in different settings, and are very important to academic performance, school and family relationship (National Association of School Psychologists NASP, 2002). Social skills are important to individuals’ physical and emotional well-being (Lawson, 2003). Good social skills contributes to healthier interactions in all aspects of life, hence social skills are an integral part of effective functioning in the society. From the literature, various models of social skills exist. This includes Riggio (1989) model designed for adolescents and adults (14 years and above); Gresham and Elliot (1990) model for 3-18 years; Quill (2000) model for young autistic children;, Constantino and Gruber (2005) designed for children; and Bellini (2006) model designed for 6-17 years. However, in the present study Riggios (1989) model was adopted. This is because the model was developed for individuals who are 14 years and above, which also includes M.Ed students. In Riggio’s conceptualization, social skills are considered as a set of skills that are made up of verbal (social) and non-verbal (emotional) components of communication skills. Each component of Riggio’s model of social skills presumes that three basic skills make up social skills. These three basic types of skills/abilities are expressive (encoding) skills, sensitivity (decoding) skills and control (regulatory) skills. This model further posits six fundamental components of effective communication in which three different basic abilities make up each of the two components social (verbal) and emotional (nonverbal) skills. Both the social and emotional components of communication include expressivity, sensitivity and control skills leading to social expressivity (SE), social sensitivity (SS), social control (SC), emotional expressivity (EE), emotional sensitivity (ES) and emotional control (EC) (Riggio, 2003). Social expressivity is the ability to initiate and guide social discourse like public speaking. People who are high in social expressivity enjoy engaging other people in social situation, they are lively, socially bold, forthright and open to change they also enjoy trying out new things, meeting new people and novel experiences. Social expressive people bear most of the hallmarks of extrovert (Bedwell, Fiore & Salas, 2011). Social sensitivity is an empathic ability to correctly understand and interpret the feeling and thoughts of others (Bender, Walia, Kambhampathy, Nygard & Nyggard 2012). To Riggio and Carney (2003), the ability used to discover the general knowledge of social norms and roles is social sensitivity. Socially sensitive people are very perceptive to the feelings of others, they are good listeners and they tend to be warm and caring in their social relationship. They readily express deep concern about the appropriateness of people’s behavior, so they are easily upset by negative events or stressful situation (Riggio, 1986). Wolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi

114 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) and Morlorie (2010) asserted that social sensitivity influences group performance; that is it relate highly with team effectiveness and members satisfaction. Socially sensitive people are also very shy, they spend more time and effort to monitor and critically understand the meaning of complicated information given by other people while they spend little effort on expressing their own thought and feelings. They are easily frustrated hence, they are not comfortable with social interaction (Riggio 1986). For social control, it is the ability to be effectively involve in role-playing and social self- presentation (Riggio & Carney, 2003). It is synonymous to savior-faired or knowing what to do (Eaton, Funder & Riggio 2007). Individuals high in social control easily adjust their behavior to a given social situation. People high in social control are very assertive, bold, open to changes perfectionistic and trusting. They love exerting control over their social environment and they also have high self-presentation skill. Furthermore, emotional expressivity is the ability of individuals to outwardly display their emotions irrespective of the direction and place (Kring, Smith & Neale in Burgin, Brown, Royal, Silvia Barrentes-vidal & Kwapil 2012). To Riggio and Carney (2003), emotional expressivity is the skill used in sending non-verbal signals/messages of ones affect, attitudes and interpersonal orientation. People with high level of emotional expressivity are very assertive, bold, and forthright. High emotional expressive individuals derived greater joy from social interaction and they are highly related to extroverts (Riggio & Riggio 2002). Emotional expressivity is the ability of one to display one’s feeling non-verbally using facial movements such as smiling, laughing, crying, and scowling. Emotional sensitivity is the skill utilized in receiving, understanding and interpreting non- verbal signals/messages from one’s feeling and that of others. It is display in the form of being hurt, sorrowful, worried, embarrassed, afraid, angry and empathetic. Emotional sensitive people are warm and open, they can be overwhelmed when they encounter emotionally- charged topics or scenes e.g. watching frightening movie and other people’s ugly situation. Due to these, individual high in emotional sensitivity excel in careers related to helping professions like teaching and nursing. Considering emotional control, Lazamu and Folkman in Skinner (2013) viewed it as the ability to exert influence over emotion through the use of cognitive or behavioural strategies. It is also the ability of an individual to manage the production, experience or display of emotion (Gross in Skinner 2013). To Riggio and Carney (2003), emotional control is the competence used in controlling and regulating one’s own emotional display. Emotional control is the ability of one to regulate and manage the experience and expression of one’s own emotions (Riggio, 2010). To this end, emotional control is the ability of an individual to reappraise or suppress emotions. Reappraisal of emotion involves altering the experience and expression of an emotion while suppression involves the inhibition of emotional expressive behaviour. Individuals high in emotional control are very confident in themselves and also view themselves positively. High emotional controlled individuals have high social competence and are good at expressing socially appropriate emotions. Riggio (2006) stated that high level of emotional control helps individuals to succeed in activities related to formal social settings such as in public speaking, workplace and sometimes in positions where one exercise authority under crises or stressful situations. This is because emotional control assist an individual to regulate inappropriate emotions, as well as mask or stop the expression of strong emotional feeling from becoming obvious.

115 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) These various components of social skills depend on wide range of innate and developed foundational processes (Riggio, 2006) which made it possible for some students to easily acquire good social skills while others do not. This is seen in most students’ behaviour in the classroom. For instance, it has been observed that sometimes, some students’ failure to respond to their teachers’ questions in the class is due to their inability to express themselves and not lack of the correct responses. This inability to express themselves may result from lack of oral presentation skills as a result of ineffective communication skills. Effective communication skills may be hampered by poor social skills. Yahaya and Jamaludin (2009) reported that students’ ability to express themselves or interact effectively in the classroom is closely related to their social skills. Again Kakepoto, Habil, Omar and Said (2012) stated that oral presentation is among the important communication skills, hence changes in oral presentation skill among the M.Ed. students in the University of Port Harcourt may be spurred by their different levels of social skills. In this direction, Durlak, Weissberg, Dyminck, Taylor and Schellinger (2011) observed that better academic achievement among students depends to a great extent on their social skills and emotional reinforcement. It was also reported that three-quarter of students with learning disabilities had some difficulties in social skills which interfere with their abilities to learn and comprehend (Kavale & Forness in Steedily et al, 2011). To Steedily et al (2011), a student with good social skills will not find it difficult to learn from others and even to share ones knowledge and skills with others. In other words, students with better social skills have significant advantage in life. They do not only experience the reward of positive relationship but they also have better image and do better in school. Individuals with good social skills are much more resilient when they face life’s challenges (Shapiro, 2004). To crown this, Wilson (2013) asserted that social skills are veritable tools in understanding cognitive and behavioural abilities. Hence, social skills form the backbone of personal and professional success. From this perspective, these researchers found it very imperatives to conduct this study on the predictive powers of social skills on the oral presentation skills of the Masters of Education (M.Ed.) students in University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State Nigeria. The rationale behind this study hinges on the fact that literature within the reach of these researchers proved that little or nothing on the factors related to effective oral presentation skills had been done in our country Nigeria. Khan, Butt, Rana and Hayat (2015) reported that there is lack of empirical evidence from developing countries about quality of education in enhancing students to make effective presentation to audience. In addition, the authors found a strong positive relationship between presentation skills, knowledge of subject matter and oral presentation skills. Again, the recent challenging economic situation require university graduates to not only acquire knowledge of the subject matter, but also acquire the skills that will boost their economic prospect and employability (Fallows & Steven 2000). To Morley (2006), oral presentation skills are very important skills for employability and sound academic work as they assist them to engage in effective interaction with others. To support this Kakepoto et al (2012) stated that oral communication and presentation skills make graduate valuable for modern industry. In the same vein, Zivkovic & Stojkovic (2011) asserted that this period of globalization will be suitable for graduates who are proficient in oral communication skills as it will promote their professional efficiency and effectiveness. In support of this, Radzuan et al in Kakepoto et al (2012) opined that graduates of the present era should differ from those of the past in terms of communication and presentation skills for efficiency and high productivity

116 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) in the workplace. That is, in our standard-driven educational system, students are expected to be proficient in constructing a response, creating a product, and performing a demonstration which effective oral presentation is indispensible. However, achieving these standards is a challenging task (Canter, 2008). Then, what can educators do to enable students meet the standards? The answer to this question depends heavily on the development of inter- and intra- personal communication skills via oral classroom presentation. As Sung (2009) stated, success in school does not only require knowledge of the academic content but also on how to acquire the academic content through classroom discourse. Therefore, the demand of producing competent individuals who will succeed in life activities, within and outside classroom setting, necessitated the present study.

Significance of the Study The findings from this study will be beneficial in many ways. It is hoped that findings from this study will assist in producing well-talented graduates who will confidently transformed the acquired skills into real-life task. Oral presentation skills promote the acquisition of lifelong skills. From the finding of this study, the society will enjoy high level of productivity in the workplace. Through the findings from this study, oral presentation skills of the graduates will be enhanced and the potential skills needed for the success of individuals in the 21st century such as, the creative/critical thinking and problem-solving skills of the graduates will be improved upon. The findings from this study will bring to the open the significance of good social skills. This will instill in teachers, counselors and psychologists the importance and strategy on how to formulate adequate approaches that will improve the social skills of the students. Finally, the results from this study may spurred curriculum planners and educational administrators to infuse social skills training into the university curriculum similar to the introduction of Entrepreneurship and Management as a mandatory courses offered at the undergraduate and post graduate levels in institutions including the University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria where this study was undertaken. Aim and Objectives of the Study The study aimed at determining the predictive powers of the various sub-scales of social skills on oral presentation skills of the M.Ed. students in the University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State Nigeria. Specifically the study achieved the following objectives. 1. To determine the collective predictive power of social skills subscales (social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control) on oral presentation skills among M.Ed. students in University of Port Harcourt. 2. To determine the independent predictive power of social skills subscales of social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control on oral presentation skills of M.Ed. students in University of Port Harcourt.

117 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What is the collective predictive power of social skills subscales (social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control) on the oral presentation skills of M.Ed. students of University of Port Harcourt? 2. What is the independent predictive power of social skills of social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control on oral presentation skills of M.Ed. students in University of Port Harcourt?

Hypotheses The study was further guided by the following null hypotheses 1. Social skills sub scales of social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control do not jointly predict oral presentation skills of M.Ed. students in University of Port Harcourt. 2. Social skills subscales of social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control do not independently predict oral presentation skills of M.Ed. students in University of Port Harcourt.

METHODOLOGY The study adopted the ex-post facto research design using a sample of 231 M.Ed. students in the University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. These students were selected using multi-stage method of sampling. In the first stage, purposive sampling technique was adopted to select only five departments out of eight departments in the Faculty of Education. Purposive sampling was used since the departments were chosen on the basis that they have M.Ed. programmes. The second stage of sampling involved selecting the 231 M.Ed. students. This was done using purposive and accidental/convenience sampling technique. Purposive sample technique was again used here since the researchers only considered M.Ed. students who had finished their course work and are at their seminar and research works phase. This is because it is only during their seminar presentation, proposal defense that oral presentation becomes the major means of assessing them. The use of accidental/convenience sampling technique was based on the fact that the researchers only selected M.Ed. students who presented their seminars or proposal defense within the 3 months when the present research study was carried out. To collect data, two instruments were used. They are Students Social Skills Assessment Scale (SSSAS) and Students’ Oral Presentation Skill Assessment Scale (SOPSAS). The SSSAS is a self-report scale developed by Riggio (1986) and adapted by the researchers. The researchers adapted the instrument in relation to the number of items. In Riggio’s (1986) version of the scale, there were six subscales which were made up of 15 items each, giving a total of 90 items. However, the researchers only used 10 items from each subscale which gave a total of 60 items that were used for the study instead of the original 90 items. The items’ statement were responded on a 5-pont likert-type scale of exactly like me, very much like me, like me, a little

118 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) like me and not at all like me. These scale points were weighted 5 points, 4 points, 3 points, 2 points and 1 point respectively. Thus each subscale yielded a minimum of 10 and maximum of 50 points. The six subscales make up 6 sections of SSSAS that elicited information on students’ levels in social expressivity, social sensitivity, social control, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control. The second instrument tagged Students’ Oral Presentation Skills Assessment Scale (SOPSAS) was an observational tool adapted from Elliot (1994) Oral Presentation Rating Scale. It was adapted based on the fact that the scale developed by Elliot measured 6 different subscales that had a total of 19 items while the scale used for the present study, additional 11 items were added making a total of 32 items in the 6 subscales of oral presentation skills of physical expression, vocal expression, verbal expression, knowledge of subject matter, time management and materials used. The 32 items’ statements were assessed using 4-pont likert- type scale of mastered, competent, minimally acceptable and poor. They are weighted 4 points, 3 points, 2 point and 1 point respectively. Hence the scale provided a minimum of 32 marks and a maximum of 128 marks. Due to the subjective nature of observational tools, each student was assessed by the two researchers independently and the seminar coordinator of the students’ department, who served as the research assistant. That is each student has three sets of scores on the SOPSAS from the three different assessors. However the mean of the three scores served as the student total score on SOPSAS and was used for data analysis. The two instruments had face and content validities. These were ascertained by three experts in test and measurement who edited the items in terms of brevity, clarity and suitability to the study objectives. Furthermore, the reliability of the two instruments (SSSAS and SOPSAS) were determined using Cronbach alpha method using scores obtained from 30 M.Ed. students who were not part of the sample used for the study. SSSAS copies were pilot tested on these students who were also observed by the three observers (the two principal researchers and one research assistant) from each department during their seminar presentations to obtain their score in SOPSAS. The scores of the students on the two different instruments were used to determine the reliability coefficients of the instruments. For the SSSAS, the scores of the students on the scale was based on the 6 different subscales hence the reliabilities coefficients obtained were 0.85, 0.73, 0.78, 0.78, 0.77 and 0.81 for SE, SS, SC, EE, ES and EC respectively, while the reliability coefficient for the overall SSSAS scale is 0.81. For the second instrument (SOPSAS), reliability coefficient obtained was 0.87. So considering the reliability coefficients obtained, it was evident that the instruments were adequately reliable for the study. For the administration of the instruments, direct-delivery approach was used for SSSAS while observation technique was used for SOPSAS. After scoring and collation, the data collected were analyzed using multiple linear regression by stepwise method.

RESULTS To answer the research questions and their corresponding null hypotheses step by step multiple linear regression was conducted in relation to predicting oral presentation skills from the six subscales of social skills. So oral presentation skill was entered to step by step multiple

119 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) regression analysis as criteria (independent) variable while the 6 subscale of social skills were entered as the predictor (dependent) variables. Results of research question 1 and the corresponding null hypothesis 1 are presented in tables 1 and 2 respectively while that of research question 2 and the corresponding null hypothesis 2 are presented in table 3. On the other hand, the result showing the relative influence of the excluded variables was presented in table 4. Table 1: Model summary on the prediction of oral presentation skills on the joint impact of social skills. Model Summary Mode R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate l 1 .552a .305 .302 13.43668 2 .590b .348 .342 13.03907 3 .608c .369 .361 12.85300 4 .619d .383 .372 12.74533 5 .629e .395 .382 12.64182 a. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl b. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity c. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity, EmotionalExpressivity d. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity, EmotionalExpressivity, EmotionalControl e. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity, EmotionalExpressivity, EmotionalControl, SocialSensitivity

In table 1, it is shown that for model 1 where only social control was included and five other subscales of social skills (such as social expressivity, social sensitivity, emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity and emotional control) were excluded gave a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.552, a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.305 and an adjusted coefficient of determination (adj R2) of 0.302. This indicated that the inclusion of only social control as the predictor variable is accountable for 30.2% of the variances in the oral presentation skills of the M.Ed. students. For model 2, table 1 revealed that only social control and social expressivity were the predictor/regressor variables while emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity emotional control, and social sensitivity were excluded from the regressor variables. A multiple correlation coefficient of 0.590, coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.348 and an adjusted coefficient of determination (adj R2) of 0.342 were obtained. That means only 34.20% of the changes in the oral presentation skill of M.Ed. students can be explained using the combination of social control and social expressivity. Then in model 3, social control, social expressivity and emotional expressivity were included as the predictor/regressor variables while the other remaining three subscales of social skills (EC, SS and ES) were excluded. A multiple correlation coefficient of 0.608, coefficient of determination of 0.369 and an adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.361 were obtained. That is only 36.10% of the variations of oral presentation skills among M.Ed students can be

120 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) explained using the combination of social control, social expressivity and emotional expressivity. Table 1 also revealed that for model 4, only social control, social expressivity, emotional expressivity and emotional control were included as regressor/predictor variables, while emotional sensitivity and social sensitivity were excluded from the predictor variables. Thereafter a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.619, a coefficient of determination of 0.383 and an adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.372 were obtained. Thus, only 37.20% of the changes in the oral presentation skill among M.Ed students can be explained by the joint impact of social control, social expressivity emotional expressivity and emotional control. Finally in table 1, it was shown that in model 5 a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.629, a coefficient of determination of 0.395 and an adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.382 were obtained. These were obtained when 5 subscales of social skills such as social control, social expressivity, emotional expressivity, emotional control and social sensitivity were the predictor variables while emotional sensitivity was the only one excluded from the regressor variables. Based on the adjusted R-square value, it is deduced that only 38.2% of the variation in the oral presentation skills among M.Ed. students can be explained by the joint impact of these included social skill subscale of SC, SE, EE, EC and SS. Table 2: Summary of analysis of variance on the test of the fit for the overall regression model on the prediction of oral presentation skills. ANOVAa Model Sum of df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Regression 18128.923 1 18128.923 100.413 .000b 1 Residual 41344.636 229 180.544 Total 59473.558 230 Regression 20709.629 2 10354.814 60.904 .000c 2 Residual 38763.930 228 170.017 Total 59473.558 230 Regression 21973.222 3 7324.407 44.337 .000d 3 Residual 37500.337 227 165.200 Total 59473.558 230 Regression 22761.334 4 5690.333 35.030 .000e 4 Residual 36712.225 226 162.443 Total 59473.558 230 Regression 23515.040 5 4703.008 29.428 .000f 5 Residual 35958.519 225 159.816 Total 59473.558 230 a. Dependent Variable: OralPreSkill b. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl c. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity d. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity, EmotionalExpressivity e. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity, EmotionalExpressivity, EmotionalControl f. Predictors: (Constant), SocialControl, SocialExpressivity, EmotionalExpressivity, EmotionalControl, SocialSensitivity

121 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Information in table 2 revealed that for model 1 the inclusion of only social control statistically significantly predicted oral presentation skills, F(1,229) = 100.413, P = 0.0005 (P<0.05). In model 2, social control and social expressivity jointly predicted oral presentation skills significantly F(2,228) = 60.904, P = 0.0005 (P<0.05). Again in model 3, social control, social expressivity and emotional expressivity jointly predicted oral presentation skills of M.Ed students significantly F(3,227) = 44.34, P = 0.0005 (P<0.05). For model 4, it is shown in table 2 that social control, social expressivity, emotional expressivity and emotional control jointly predicted oral presentation skills among M.Ed students significantly F(3,226) = 35.03, P = 0.0005 (P<0.05). Table 2 further revealed that in model 5, social control, social expressivity, emotional expressivity, emotional control and social sensitivity jointly predicted oral presentation skills among M.Ed students significantly. F(5,225) = 29.428, P = 0.0005 (P<0.05). Table 3: Relative influence of the predictors (included) variables using beta and their associated t- and p-values.

Coefficientsa Model Explained Variables Unstandardized Standardized Sig. Collinearity Statistics Coefficients Coefficients t B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF (Constant) 34.318 5.371 6.390 .000 1 Social Control 2.191 .219 .552 10.021 .000 1.000 1.000 (Constant) 20.592 6.291 3.273 .001 2 Social Control 1.981 .219 .499 9.053 .000 .940 1.064 Social Expressivity .718 .184 .215 3.896 .000 .940 1.064 (Constant) 6.610 8.001 .826 .410 Social Control 2.033 .217 .512 9.387 .000 .933 1.072 3 Social Expressivity .680 .182 .203 3.732 .000 .934 1.070 Emotional .546 .198 .147 2.766 .006 .989 1.011 Expressivity (Constant) -.654 8.592 -.076 .939 Social Control 2.010 .215 .507 9.349 .000 .931 1.075 Social Expressivity .623 .183 .186 3.413 .001 .915 1.092 4 Emotional .518 .196 .139 2.640 .009 .985 1.015 Expressivity Emotional Control .380 .172 .117 2.203 .029 .968 1.033 (Constant) 17.564 11.958 1.469 .143 Social Control 1.972 .214 .497 9.218 .000 .924 1.082 Social Expressivity .572 .183 .171 3.133 .002 .900 1.111 5 Emotional .406 .202 .109 2.012 .045 .920 1.087 Expressivity Emotional Control .408 .171 .126 2.382 .018 .962 1.039 Social Sensitivity -.537 .247 -.118 -2.172 .031 .907 1.103 a. Dependent Variable: OralPreSkill

122 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Table 4: Relative influence of the excluded variable on the prediction of oral presentation skills.

Coefficientsa Mo Explained Unstandardized Standardized t Collinearity del Variables Coefficients Coefficients S Statistics B Std. Error Beta ig. Toleranc VIF e (Constant) 34.318 5.371 6.390 .000 1 Social Control 2.191 .219 .552 10.021 .000 1.000 1.000 (Constant) 20.592 6.291 3.273 .001 Social Control 1.981 .219 .499 9.053 .000 .940 1.064 2 Social .718 .184 .215 3.896 .000 .940 1.064 Expressivity (Constant) 6.610 8.001 .826 .410 Social Control 2.033 .217 .512 9.387 .000 .933 1.072 Social 3 .680 .182 .203 3.732 .000 .934 1.070 Expressivity Emotional .546 .198 .147 2.766 .006 .989 1.011 Expressivity (Constant) -.654 8.592 -.076 .939 Social Control 2.010 .215 .507 9.349 .000 .931 1.075 Social .623 .183 .186 3.413 .001 .915 1.092 Expressivity 4 Emotional .518 .196 .139 2.640 .009 .985 1.015 Expressivity Emotional .380 .172 .117 2.203 .029 .968 1.033 Control (Constant) 17.564 11.958 1.469 .143 Social Control 1.972 .214 .497 9.218 .000 .924 1.082 Social .572 .183 .171 3.133 .002 .900 1.111 Expressivity Emotional 5 .406 .202 .109 2.012 .045 .920 1.087 Expressivity Emotional .408 .171 .126 2.382 .018 .962 1.039 Control Social -.537 .247 -.118 -2.172 .031 .907 1.103 Sensitivity a. Dependent Variable: OralPreSkill

Information in table 3 shows that in model 1 where only social control was the predictor variable, the partial regression coefficient (B) is 2.191, while the intercept equivalent (constant) is 34.318. Thus the simple linear equation to predict oral presentation skills from social control is: Y = 34.318 + 2.191 x, where Y is the predicted score of oral presentation skill and x is any given score in social control. On the other hand the standardized regression coefficient (Beta) obtained for social control is 0.552, the associated t-value is 10.021 at p-value of 0.0005 (P<0.05). Hence social control significantly contributed to the prediction of oral presentation skills when other subscales are held constant. Again the data in model 1 did not show multicolinearity as indicated by the tolerance value of 1.000 and VIF value of 1.000. However as shown in table 4, five subscales of social skills such as EE, ES, EC, SE and SS were excluded because they contributed insignificantly to the prediction of oral presentation skills.

123 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Considering model 2, it is shown that the partial regression coefficients (B) obtained are 20.592 for constant, 1.981 for social control and 0.718 for social expressivity. Hence the multiple regression equation for predicting oral presentation skills from social control and social 1 1 expressivity is: Y = 20.592 + 1.981x1 + 0.718x2 where Y is the predicted score on oral presentation skill, x1 is any given score on social control and x2 is any given score on social expressivity. It is also revealed that standardized regression coefficient (Beta values) obtained for social control and social expressivity are 0.499 (t= 9.053) and 0.215 (t = 3.896) respectively and all are significant at P = 0.0005 which is less than 0.05, the chosen level of probability. Thus, SC and SE can independently predict oral presentation skill when other subscales are held constant. Moreso, the tolerance and VIF values obtained for social control and social expressivity are the same 0.940 and VIF value of 1.064. Hence the data do not show multicollinearity because tolerance value was greater than 0.1 while VIF value was less than 10. However, in model 2, four subscales of social skills were excluded from the prediction. They are emotional expressivity, emotional sensitivity, emotional, control and social sensitivity because they insignificantly impacted on the prediction of oral presentation skills. Furthermore, in table 3 it is also shown that the partial regression coefficients (B) obtained are 6.610, 2.033, 0.680 and 0.546 respectively for constant (intercept equivalent), social control, social expressivity and emotional expressivity. Thus the multiple linear equation to predict oral presentation skills from social control, social expressivity and emotional expressivity is: Y1 = 1 6.610 + 2.033x1 + o.680x2 + 0.546x3 where Y is the predicted score on oral presentation skill while x1, x2 and x3 represent any given score on social control, social expressivity and emotional expressivity respectively. The beta values obtained are 0.572, 0.203 and 0.147 for SC, SE and EE respectively and their associated t-values are 9.387, 3.732 and 2.766 respectively while their p-values which all are lesser than 0.05 are 0.0005, 0.0005 and 0.006 respectively. Thus, each of SC, SE and EE can independently predict oral presentation skill significantly when all other social skills subscales are held constant. The tolerance value obtained are 0.933, 0.934 and 0.989 (Tolerance values > 0.1) for SC, SE and EE while their VIF values are 1.072, 1.070 and 1.011 (VIF values <10). So the data in model 3 avoided multicollinearity. However in the model 3 three subscales of social skills such as EC, SS and ES were excluded in the production of oral presentation skills due to insignificant contributions. For model 4, the partial regression coefficients (B) obtained are: -0.654, 2.010, 0.623, 0.578 and 0.380 respectively for constant, SC, SE, EE and EC. Hence in predicting oral presentation 1 skill from SC, SE, EE and EC the multiple regression equation is Y = -0.654 + 2.010x1 + 1 0.623x2, 0.528x3 + 0.380x4 where Y is the predicted score on oral presentation skill while x1, x2, x3 and x4 represent any given score on SC, SE, EE and EC respectively. The standardized regression coefficients (beta) obtained for SC, SE, EE and EC are 0.507, 0.186, 0.139 and 0.117 respectively, while their corresponding t-values are 9.349, 3.413, 2.640 and 2.203 respectively then their p-values are 0.0005, 0.001, 0.009 and 0.029 (p-values <0.05) respectively. Hence SC, SE, EE and EC can independently predict oral presentation skill when other subscales of social skills are held constant. Information in table 3 also show-case that the tolerance values obtained for SC, SE, EE and EC are 0.931, 0.915, 0.985, 0.968 (Tolerance values >0.1) while the VIF values (which all are lesser than 10) are 1.075, 1.092, 1.015 and 1.033 respectively. Hence, the data in model 4 avoided, multicollinearity. On the other hand in predicting oral presentation skill in model 4, ES and SS were excluded, this is shown model 4 of table 4.

124 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Model 5 in table 3 shows that the partial regression coefficients (B) obtained for constant, SC, SE, EE, EC and SS are; 17.564, 1.972, 0.572, 0.406, 0.408 and -0.537 respectively. Thus the multiple linear regression equation for predicting oral presentation skills is Y1 = 17.564 + 1 1.972x1 + 0.572x2 + 0.406x3 + 0.408x4 – 0.537x5 where Y is the predicted score on oral presentation skills while x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5 represent any given score on SC, SE, EE, EC and SS. The standardized regression coefficients obtained for SC, SE, EE, EC, and SS are 0.497, 0.171, 0.109, 0.126 and -0.118 respectively, the corresponding t-values are 9.218, 3.133, 2.012, 2.382 and -2.172 respectively for SC, SE, EE, EC and SS were obtained at the p-values of 0.005, 0.002, 0.045, 0.018 and 0.031 respectively (which were all less than 0.05). Hence each of SC, SE, EE, EC and SS can independently predict oral presentation skills when other subscales of the social skills are held constant. A further investigation proved that table 3 shows that the tolerance value obtained for the predictor variables in model 5 are 0.924, 0.900, 0.920, 0.962 and 0.907 (all tolerance values >0.1) while their VIF values are (which are all less than 10) 1.082, 1.111, 1.087, 1.039 and 1.103 respectively for SC, SE, EE, EC and SS. Thus the data for model 5 avoided multicollinearity. Finally, as shown in table 4 it was observed that in model 5, only the emotional sensitivity was excluded in predicting oral presentation skill due to its insignificant contribution. All things been equal, it is clear that the relative contributions of the social skills subscales in predicting oral presentation skills is in this other SC > SE > EE > EC > SS > ES. Where only emotional sensitivity made an insignificant prediction on oral presentation skills.

DISCUSSION One of the results from the study indicated that the social skills subscales of SC, SE, EE, EC and SE at the exclusion ES jointly predicted oral presentation skills significantly. That is a significant model fit was observed when the skill subscales were used to predict oral presentation skills among M.Ed. students. This finding is expected because effective social skills is a survival strategy for an individual to adapt and fit in our social environment and also attract success in future life endeavour. Social skills determines our ability to navigate situations that involves a group of persons or audience. This finding is in agreement with that of Sung (2009) who reported that social skills generate the backbone of professional success since they navigate every interaction such as conversing with others people, instructing others and learning from others. The finding from the present study also corresponds with Steedly et al 2011. They found that deficit in social skills among students lead to learning disabilities. The study also found that SC, SE, EE, EC and SE at the exclusion of ES jointly contributed to 38.2% of the variations in oral presentation skills among the students. Thus only 38.2% changes in students’ oral presentation skill can be explained by the joint effort of SC, SE, EE, EC and SE, while the remaining 61.8% changes in their oral presentation skills are to be explained by other factors beyond social skills subscales. However step wisely, it was found that from model 1 to model 5, the adjusted percentage of determination increased from 30.20% to 38.20%. This is due to inclusion of more predictor variables in the regression model for predicting oral presentation skills. So considering from model 1 to model 5, the results indicated that the knowledge of the students’ level of SC will help to explain 30.20% of their variations in oral presentation skills. Then for model 2, 3, 4 and 5 the adjusted percentage of determinations obtained indicated the knowledge of the students’ levels in SE, EE, EC and SE will help to explain respectively 4%, 1.9%, 1.1% and 1% variations in their oral presentation skills. On the whole, social skills subscales of SC, SE, EE, EC and SE jointly accounted for 38.20%

125 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) variations in the oral presentation skill of the M.Ed students at the exclusion of ES subscales of the social skills due to its insignificant impact. However, the adjusted percentage of determination of the predictors included in models 2-5 were obtained by subtracting the adjusted R2 of the previous model from the new one. For instance from model 1 where only SC was included in the regression equation to model 2 when SE was included into the regression equation, the adjusted percentage of determination (adjusted R2) change from 30.20% to 34.20% so since a difference of 4% was observed, it then means that SE was responsible for the increased and so on. For independent prediction of oral presentation skills of M.Ed. students from each of the social skills subscales when other subscales are held constant. It was reported from the study that each of SC, SE, EE, EC and SS except ES independently predicted oral presentation skills of M.Ed students significantly when other subscales are held constant. However SC, SE, EE and EC had a direct significant prediction on oral presentations skills while SS had an indirect significant prediction. These are indicated by the positive beta values of SC, SE, EE and EC while SS had a negative beta value at p-values lesser then 0.05 probability level. So as the students’ level in SC, SE, EE and EC increases their level in oral presentation skills also increases and vice versa, while when the students level in SS increases their level in oral presentation skill decreases. Then for ES, its increase or decrease does not impact meaningfully on the oral presentation skills of the M.Ed. students. In another dimension, it was found that SC made the highest contribution followed by SE, EC, SS, EE and then ES, which made an insignificant contribution and was excluded as displayed in model 5 of tables 3 and 4. This finding is proven by the fact that SC was the first predictor variable to be included in the regression model. Hence, it is the key predictor of oral presentation skill. This is so because individuals high in SC are socially bold, assertive and are highly prone to exhibit high sense of confidence in social situations like oral presentation environment. This finding supports the assertion of Riggio and Carney (2003), that individuals high in SC have high self-presentation skills. Hence they like to lead and control in social gathering. For SE which made the second highest contribution, it is expected because SE entails the competence to involve oneself in public speaking, interviews and coaching. This finding is in consonance with Riggio (1986) who reported that individuals high in SE enjoy greater participation in social interaction. In the same vein, the significant contribution of EC in the prediction of oral presentation skill is traceable to the fact that individuals high in it exhibit high social competence and appropriate, social emotions. For SS which made an indirect but significant contribution, the result was not expected based on the fact that SS is one of the skills that help people to have good social relationship and adapt well in social situation. However, the result could be expected to some extent based on Riggio (1986) assertion that high SS people are more prone to anxieties, which may hinder good social interaction. Furthermore, the significant positive contribution made by EE in the prediction of student’s oral presentation skill, was expected because of the bold and assertive nature of the individuals high in EE. This finding agrees with that of Leuing et al (2010), the authors reported that high level of EE aid people to derive greater joy in social interaction. That means EE people are not intimidated in any social gathering.

126 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) Finally, from the study, it was found that ES was excluded from the regression model in predicting oral presentation skills of M.Ed students due to its insignificant contribution. ES was not able to contribute meaningfully may be due to their nature of getting up set and tensed easily. This result support the report of Chan (2014), that people high in emotional sensitivity are very reactive to criticism, very prone to anxiety, dislike team work and they are closely related to introverts.

Implications of the Finding The results of the study are implicated is some ways. The result that the subscales of social skills such as SC, SE, EE, EC and SS can jointly explained only 38.2% of the variations in oral presentation skills of students implies that the general notion that a tree cannot make a forest holds. That is effective oral presentation skills do not solely depend on the social skills of the students but also on many other factors. Again the study found that SC, SE, EE and EC at the exclusion of ES jointly and independently predicted oral presentation skills directly while SS had an indirect one. This implies that SC, SE, EE and EC skills promote oral presentation skill, SS inhibits oral presentation skills, while ES had an indifferent impact on oral presentation skills.

RECOMMENDATIONS Considering the findings of this study the following recommendations were made. 1. Social skills assessment should be part of the admission interview into any post graduates programme. This will help in giving admission to only those that have good social skills. 2. Teachers should adopt good teaching strategies that will enhance students’ social skills. Such strategies include incidental teaching, group reading and discussion, use of video, storytelling, and social skill autopsies. 3. Students should be encouraged to develop social skills that promote oral presentation skills. This can be achieved by using modeling, role-playing rehearsal and practice of good social skills during teaching-learning. It can also be achieved by engaging students in cooperative learning instead of competitive learning. 4. Social skills training scheme should be provided in the school system across all levels of education. This will help to better shape the students who have social skill deficit. 5. Educational planners and curriculum developers should integrate social skills into a special or general education. This is because this research have prove that social skills can be taught to students in order for them to overcome their deficits.

CONCLUSION The study established that social skills can promote or hinder oral presentation skill among students based on the students’ level of acquisition. Specifically, SC, SE, EE and EC are good

127 ISSN 2055-0111(Print), ISSN 2055-012X(Online) British Journal of Education Vol.6, No.1, pp.111-130, January 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) predictors of oral presentation skills, SS is an inhibitor of oral presentation skills, while ES had an indifferent impact on oral presentation skills.

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