Putting Qumran, Jesus and His Movement Into Relief

Home , Jesus the Man, The Bible and violence

HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies ISSN: (Online) 2072-8050, (Print) 0259-9422

Page 1 of 10 Original Research

Putting Qumran, Jesus and his movement into relief

Author: After referring briefly to the fantasies regarding the origins of Christianity as elicited by the 1 Eben Scheffler discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 (Dupont-Sommer, Allegro, Thiering), the purpose of Affiliation: the contribution is to put the Jesus movement into relief in the context of first-century Judaism. 1Department of Biblical and The identity of the Qumranites is argued to be Essene scribes. The identity, ideology and Ancient Studies, University of practices of the latter are compared with those of Jesus of Nazareth and the movement he South Africa, South Africa elicited using the following rubrics: (1) Jesus, the teacher of righteousness and the powers that Corresponding author: be; (2) asceticism versus itinerary charismaticism; (3) caring versus lack of caring for the sick, Eben Scheffler, poor and marginalised; (4) elitist priests and scribes versus lower-class peasants; (5) the [email protected] interpretation of the law; (6) religious and daily practices (baptism, ritual meal, sacrifice, prayer, community of possessions, scribal activity); (7) religious views or ideology (kingdom Dates: Received: 10 May 2016 of God, the new covenant, light and darkness, politics). The result is a picture of Jesus (with his Accepted: 12 Aug. 2016 focus on human suffering) in sharp relief versus Qumran and facets of the early church. Published: 17 Nov. 2016

How to cite this article: Scheffler, E., 2016, ‘Putting Introduction Qumran, Jesus and his I intentionally chose not to title this article ‘Qumran and Jesus’ (cf. Flint 2006, 2014; Horsley 2006; movement into relief’, HTS Teologiese Studies/ Stauffer 1959:13–16) but instead ‘Qumran, Jesus and his movement’, to include the beliefs and Theological Studies 72(4), practices of the earliest followers of Jesus or the Urgemeinde (Conzelmann 1978:30–42; Reicke a3479. http://dx.doi. 1957). One may ask why such a reflection is necessary. The purpose is twofold, firstly to counter org/10.4102/hts.v72i4.3479 fantasies regarding the Jesus movement and Qumran that seem to recur constantly, even today, Copyright: and secondly to get a better relief of Jesus and the movement he elicited within the context of first- © 2016. The Authors. century Judaism. In order to make such a comparison, one should have an operational point of Licensee: AOSIS. This work departure1 about the identity of the Qumranites and their relation to the scrolls. After spelling out is licensed under the my position in this regard, I compare the Qumran community and the Jesus movement under Creative Commons Attribution License. several rubrics, followed by some statements in conclusion. Speculations regarding Qumran, Jesus and the early church When the first seven scrolls were discovered in 1947 in Cave 1 by Mohammed ed-Dhib (De Vaux 1973), many popular speculations followed regarding their relationship with early Christianity. Some of these speculations were interpreted as a threat to Christian beliefs as such, and the fact that there had been an interruption in the publication of the scrolls (which in fact had more to do with personal problems than anything else) was interpreted by many as an embargo put on the publication by the Roman Catholic Church for fear of its faith being undermined. I will not give attention to the more popular publications now, except for two that came from ‘scholarly circles’ and one popular one of recent years.2

Within five years of the discovery of the scrolls, the French New Testament scholar Andre Dupont- Sommer associated the Qumran community with the Jesus movement, by referring to resemblances he distinguished on the basis of studying some literature (the first discovered scrolls). In 1952 he argued that Jesus was an ‘astonishing reincarnation’ of the Hebrew ‘Teacher of Righteousness’ (or what he labelled the ‘Master of Justice’): Everything in the Jewish New Covenant heralds and prepares the way for the Christian New Covenant. The Galilean Master, as He is presented in the writings of the New Testament, appears in many respects as an astonishing reincarnation of the Master of Justice [the Teacher of Righteousness]. Like the latter He Read online: preached penitence, poverty, humility, love of one’s neighbour, chastity. Like him, He prescribed the Scan this QR code with your 1.‘Operational point of departure’ implies certain propositions that should be well-argued but need not be totally verified, in terms of smart phone or which the research is undertaken. Arguments that follow may strengthen the point of departure or weaken it. In case of the latter, the mobile device relevant data should be reassessed. to read online. 2.Those who are interested in the popular furore are referred to numerous websites (cf. also Vermes 1977:24).

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 2 of 10 Original Research

observance of the Law of Moses, the whole Law, but the Law However, I, for my part, am of the opinion that honest finished and perfected, thanks to His own revelations. Like him comparison between the Qumranites and the Jesus movement He was the Elect and the Messiah of God, the Messiah redeemer also provides many interesting insights. of the world. Like him He was the object of the hostility of the priests, the party of the Sadducees. Like him He was condemned and put to death. Like him He pronounced judgment on The Qumranites as Essene scribes Jerusalem, which was taken and destroyed by the Romans for Important for the relationship between Jesus and his having put Him to death. Like him, at the end of time He will be movement and Qumran is the simple question of who lived the supreme judge. (Dupont-Sommer 1952:99; Flint 2006) at Qumran, in other words the identity of the Qumranites. If one follows the methodology to relate the Serek Hayachad The second publication that caused a sensation is that of John (Community Rule, 1QS) and Damascus Rule (CD) to the Allegro, whose work elicited all the more attention since he excavations done by De Vaux and his team (De Vaux 1973; was one of the official editors of the publication of the scrolls De Vaux & Broshi 1993:1235–1241; Scheffler 2000:185–188), (see Allegro 1968). In his book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross (1970; cf. also 1979), he asserted that there grew a which most scholars do, to my mind the question can, to a specific mushroom at Qumran, which once ingested caused great extent, be answered. A comparison between 1QS, CD the Qumranites to experience delusions resulting in religious and Pliny and Josephus on the Essenes renders enough fantasies, of which the whole Jesus story was the result. similarities to conclude that the Qumranites were part of the Allegro therefore became one of the most prominent Jesus broader Essene movement. For the sake of comparison I deniers or what are today called ‘mythicists’. Allegro’s book quote the relevant texts from Pliny (see Table 1) and Josephus suggested that the discoveries at Qumran (excavations as (Table 2).5 well as scrolls) revealed that Jesus did not exist and that Christianity is a scam. Today fantasies like that of Allegro still The most widely accepted assessment on the identity of appeal to some would-be sceptics (discussion in cf. Ehrman the Qumranites is thus that they were an ascetic Essene 2012). It is also understandable that Christians supposing sect (Albright 1960:222–223; Baumbach 1969:226; Bimson Allegro to be right were shocked in their faith. & Kane 1985:59; Bornkamm [1956] 1975:39–40; Botha 2001:67–76; Bruce 1974:169–175; Burrows 1961:740; Casey However, Flint (2006:111) is correct in stating that the 2010:121–123; Crossan & Reed 2001:7; Davies 1989:340–342; resemblances that Dupont-Sommer detected do not represent Du Randt 1998; Eshel 2009:26–27; Farrington 2003:114; Flint real connections between Qumran and early Christianity. 2013:127–152; Gal 2010:18–19; Gunneweg 1972:161; Hengel Dupont-Sommer indeed put points of comparison on the 1988:394; Hermann 1980:473; Jagersma 1985:102–110; Keller table (he compared but did not identify Jesus as the Master 1981:423–4316; Kravitz 1973; Meeks 1986:75–81; Metzger of Justice), but as discussed below a close scrutiny of 1983; Millard 1990:102–114; Murphy O’Connor 2008:46; these points of comparison reveal differences of cardinal Noth 1960; Pfeiffer 1957:85; Reicke 1968:125–126; Ringgren importance. 1963:314–315; Schonfield 1984; Stauffer 1959; Stegemann 1998; Tenney 1967:95–106; Thompson 1989:269–287; Van In 1992 Barbara Thiering of the University of Sydney der Ploeg 1957:68; VanderKam 2010:127–156; Vermes published her book Jesus the Man, which is described on the 1977:125–130, 1998:46–48; Vriezen & Van der Woude title page as ‘the controversial bestseller that will change 1973:367–369; Wright 1962:216–220, 235–238). However, forever your view of Christianity’. According to her Jesus this conclusion, based on the quoted texts, is not without was the ‘Wicked Priest’ of Qumran, opposing the ‘Teacher of problems and refinement of the thesis is needed (see Righteousness’, who in her view was John the Baptist. Jesus discussion in Fensham 1976:25–35; Golb 1995:1157; Maier led a radical faction of Essene priests, was not born of a virgin, did not die on the cross, was married to Mary 1972:57–63; VanderKam 2010:97–126). Pliny the Elder (who Magdalene, fathered a family and later divorced. He died took part in the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE and learned a after AD 64 (Thiering 1992). What to Kazantzakis was a great deal about Palestine) gives much geographical ‘temptation’ in his novel The Last Temptation of Christ,3 for information in his Natural History that seems to coincide Thiering became real history. According to her the Gospels with Khirbet Qumran. For only one place corresponds with were encoded to be read with the Qumran pesher method4 of the geographical location that Pliny gives for the Essenes, exegesis, an assumption that obviously enables one to prove namely Qumran and the Ain Feschka community. In anything from a text (like in allegorical exegesis). Her views Wadi Murabbat (to the south of Qumran) there were also can easily be dismissed on scholarly grounds (cf. Flint a few caves with traces of human settlement, including 2014:269–271). What is disturbing is the fact that the sensation a few texts, but not to the extent that one can speak of a of her work caused it to be widely disseminated, with the community. result that it remains the task of more honest (and 5.Further ancient texts dealing with the Essenes are: Josephus’s Bell.Jud. 2122 and economically deprived!) scholars to be the spoilsports and Philo Quod omnis probus liber sit, Par. 12. see to the dilution of her fantasies. 6.In spite of the fact that Keller’s book reveals (as the title suggests) a fundamentalist bias, the section on the Dead Sea Scrolls makes for vivid reading. 3.A highly successful film (with the same title) based on the book was produced in 1989. 7.Golb’s hypothesis that the site was a military fortress and should not be linked to the scrolls at all has not found significant support. For an informative discussion of the 4.For a discussion of the method, see Barret (1970:386–389). Essenes before the 1947 scrolls were discovered see Oesterley (1932:323–328).

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 3 of 10 Original Research

TABLE 1: Pliny the Elder on the Essenes. Natural history, 5, 73 (Latin) Natural history, 5, 73 (English) Ab occidente litora Esseni fugiunt usque qua nocent, gens sola et in On its west side [of the Dead Sea – EHS], just far enough from the shore to avoid its baneful influences, toto orbe praeter ceteras mira, sine ulla femina, omni venere live the Essenes. They form a solitary community, and they inspire our admiration more than any other abdicata, sine pecunia, socia palmarum. in diem ex aequo community in the whole world. They live without women (for they have renounced all sexual life), they convenarum turba renascitur, large frequentantibus quos vita live without money, and without any company save that of the palm trees. From day to day their numbers fessos ad mores eorum fortuna fluctibus agit. ita per saeculorum are maintained by the stream of people that seek them out and join them from far and wide. These milia — incredibile dictu — gens aeterna est, in qua nemo people are driven to adopt the Essenes’ way of life through weariness of ordinary life and by reasons of nascitur. tam fecunda illis aliorum vitae paenitentia est! infra hos the changes of fortune. Thus, through thousands of generations – incredible to relate – this community Engada oppidum fuit, secundum ab Hierosolymis fertilitate into which no one is ever born continues without dying; other people’s weariness of life is the secret of palmettorumque nemoribus, nunc alterum bustum. inde Masada their abiding fertility! Below their headquarters was the town of En-gedi, whose fertility and palm-groves castellum in rupe, et ipsum haut procul Asphaltite. formerly made it second only to Jerusalem; but now, like Jerusalem itself, a heap of ashes. Next comes Masada, a fortress on a rock, itself not far from the Dead Sea. Source: www.thelatinlibrary.com/pliny.nh5.html#73

TABLE 2: Josephus on the Essenes. Antiquitates 18:18 (Greek) Antiquitates 18:18 (English) 18 Ἐσσηνοῖς δὲ ἐπὶ μὲν θεῷ καταλείπειν φιλεῖ τὰ πάντα ὁ λόγος 18 The doctrine of the Essenes is this: – That all things are best ascribed to God. They teach the ἀθανατίζουσιν δὲ τὰς ψυχὰς περιμάχητον ἡγούμενοι τοῦ δικαίου τὴν immortality of souls, and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for; πρόσοδον 19 εἰς δὲ τὸ ἱερὸν ἀναθήματα στέλλοντες θυσίας ἐπιτελοῦσιν διαφορότητι 19 and when they send what they have dedicated to God into the temple, they do not offer sacrifices, ἁγνειῶν ἃς νομίζοιεν καὶ δι᾽ αὐτὸ εἰργόμενοι τοῦ κοινοῦ τεμενίσματος ἐφ᾽ because they have more pure lustrations of their own; on which account they are excluded from the αὑτῶν τὰς θυσίας ἐπιτελοῦσιν βέλτιστοι δὲ ἄλλως [ἄνδρες] τὸν τρόπον common court of the temple, but offer their sacrifices themselves; yet is their course of life better καὶ τὸ πᾶν πονεῖν ἐπὶ γεωργίᾳ τετραμμένοι than that of other men; and they entirely give themselves over to husbandry. 20 ἄξιον δ᾽ αὐτῶν θαυμάσαι παρὰ πάντας τοὺς ἀρετῆς μεταποιουμένους 20 It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men that give themselves over to τόδε διὰ τὸ μηδαμῶς ὑπάρξαν Ἑλλήνων ἢ βαρβάρων τισίν ἀλλὰ μηδ᾽ εἰς virtue, and this in righteousness: and indeed to such a degree, that as it has never appeared among ὀλίγον ἐκείνοις ἐκ παλαιοῦ συνελθὸν ἐν τῷ ἐπιτηδεύεσθαι μὴ any other men, neither Greeks nor barbarians, no, not for a little time, so has it endured a long time κεκωλῦσθαι τὰ χρήματά τε κοινά ἐστιν αὐτοῖς ἀπολαύε ι δὲ οὐδὲν ὁ among them. This is demonstrated by that institution of theirs, which will not allow anything to πλούσιος τῶν οἰκείων μειζόνως ἢ ὁ μηδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν κεκτημένος καὶ τάδε hinder them from having all things in common; so that a rich man enjoys no more of his own wealth πράσσουσιν ἄνδρες ὑπὲρ τετρακισχίλιοι τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὄντες than he who has nothing at all. There are about four thousand men that live in this way, 21 καὶ οὔτε γαμετὰς εἰσάγονται οὔτε δούλων ἐπιτηδεύουσιν κτῆσιν τὸ μὲν 21 and neither marry wives, nor are desirous to keep servants; as thinking the latter tempts men to be εἰς ἀδικίαν φέρειν ὑπειληφότες τὸ δὲ στάσεως ἐνδιδόναι ποίησιν αὐτοὶ δ᾽ unjust, and the former gives the handle to domestic quarrels; but as they live by themselves, they ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτῶν ζῶντες διακονίᾳ τῇ ἐπ᾽ ἀλλήλοις ἐπιχρῶνται minister one to another. 22 ἀποδέκτας δὲ τῶν προσόδων χειροτονοῦντες καὶ ὁπόσα ἡ γῆ φέροι 22 They also appoint certain stewards to receive the incomes of their revenues, and of the fruits of the ἄνδρας ἀγαθούς ἱερεῖς δὲ ἐπὶ ποιήσει σίτου τε καὶ βρωμάτων ζῶσι. ground; such as are good men and priests, who are to get their grain and their food ready for them. Source: Text from BibleWorks for Windows

Besides the geographical description, the Pliny text mentions from the archaeological records (death rates as revealed by two features of the Essenes that match the description of the the cemeteries) as well as the size of the complex that only community described in 1QS. These two features are the about 50 people could have lived at Qumran at any stage absence of women and the denunciation of wealth. However, (Bimson & Kane 1985). Some more could have lived outside the archaeological record problmatised this. the complex.

As far as women are concerned (cf. Pliny’s sine ulla femina However, can we define the Essenes even further in order to [without women]) excavations of the cemeteries to the east, know what we want to compare with the early Jesus north and south of the ruins revealed that women and movement? The word ‘Essene’ derives from the Greek for children (about 10% of about 1000 graves) also stayed at ‘pious’,8 of which the equivalent Hebrew is hassid. The Qumran (De Vaux & Broshi 1993). To maintain Pliny’s Hassidim are a well-known conservative Jewish group who ‘celibate’ thesis, one therefore has to conclude that the women emerged in the second century BCE. When the Syrian ruler of were not married to full members (as stated by Josephus οὔτε Palestine, Antiochus Epiphanes IV enforced a Hellenisation γαμετὰς εἰσάγονται [and neither marry wives]). policy in Palestine in 168 BCE, he regarded the Jewish religion as a threat to the unity of his empire, sought to eradicate As far as money is concerned (cf. Pliny’s sine pecunia [without Jewish customs and defiled the temple in Jerusalem. The money]), the coins discovered by archaeologists should be Jews resisted in what became known as the Maccabean revolt interpreted as being commonly owned by the Qumranites and regained their independence. (again Josephus seems to be more precise: μὴ κεκωλῦσθαι τὰ χρήματά τε κοινά ἐστιν [not allow anything to hinder them A split in Jewry now occurred. Some, under the leadership of from having all things in common]). Jonathan the high priest (Maccabean leader from 161 to 143 and appointed high priest by the Seleucid leader Alexander According to Pliny’s description, it seems as if only Essenes Balas), thought Hellenisation to be to the benefit of the Jews. lived at Qumran. He should therefore again be complemented On the other hand, the conservative Hassidim endeavoured with Josephus’s account. The latter, in his Judean Wars (2:8:2– to keep to the pure Mosaic tradition and the covenant. The 13) and Antiquities of the Jews (18:18), gives more information leader of the Hassidim can then probably be identified with on the Essenes’ religion and he does not limit the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness of the scrolls, who opposed the specifically to the Dead Sea. One can therefore conclude that Wicked Priest, possibly to be identified with Jonathan and his if the Qumranites were an Essene sect, it does not mean that successors in Jerusalem. According to this theory, the they were the only ones in the country. The Qumranites were Qumranites were part of the broader Essene or Hassidim Essenes, but all Essenes were not Qumranites. Josephus 8.The Greek essaioi, in turn, derives from the Aramaic chaseh, plural chasen (Oesterley estimates that there were about 4000 Essenes and we know 1932:323).

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 4 of 10 Original Research movement, who as a reaction against the Hellenisation As will become clear below, the third option still carries the process in Jerusalem withdrew to the desert. There they lived day, although I surmise that there exists a high probability in Qumran (possibly the main centre) and vicinity (Ain that after 68 CE the Qumranites (or a large portion of them) Feska, Murrabat, Ein Gedi and Masada included) for nearly joined the Jesus movement and exerted a considerable 100 years of Hellenistic rule and a further 100 of Roman rule, influence in the early Christian church. This influence may be until the community was defeated during the Jewish war of indicated in the New Testament writings, of which many 70 CE and ceased to exist (Yadin 1973:203–231). were authored late in the first century.

However, one question still needs to be answered. Why did At the outset it must be noted that neither Jesus (nor any they choose the desert? Those who have visited the ruins in other New Testament character) is mentioned in the scrolls, summer when the temperature can rise to 45 degrees Celsius nor was any New Testament text or fragment thereof found will ask this question with an exclamation mark. at Qumran (despite the presence of the term ‘New Testament’, see Vermes 1998).9 Usually scholars of the scrolls compare Stegemann (1998) argues, convincingly to my mind, that the the scrolls with the New Testament and find many similarities archaeological excavations indicated that the Essenes who in vocabulary and ideas (e.g. Fensham 1976; Flint 2014:272– settled in Qumran did not do so merely to flee from Jerusalem 282; VanderKam 2010:197–226; Vermes 1998:21–23). Very or to practise their order but especially to produce scrolls. few, when making such comparisons, make a clear and sharp There are several reasons for this. Firstly, the hot and dry distinction between the historical Jesus and the movement climate, especially the climate in the caves, was conducive he elicited or the early church, which as such is reflected in for the preservation of the scrolls, as 2000 years of preservation the New Testament.10 And this after Rudolph Bultmann testify. Secondly, there was a scriptorium in the complex with made all New Testament scholars aware of Gemeindetheologie tables and inkpots uncovered. Thirdly, the waters of the salty (1968:34–186). Ethelbert Stauffer, who wrote the book Jesus, Dead Sea facilitated a better method of preparing the leather damals und heute in 1959 before all the scrolls were discovered, for the scrolls. The Qumran scrolls are made of sheepskin is a notable exception. In what follows I scrutinise five or goatskin, and these were the only animals that could selected themes (leadership, societal role, internal hierarchy, live there. membership and ethos) in order to demonstrate the similarities but especially the clear differences between the Part and parcel of the Qumranites’ identity was therefore that Qumranites, the historical Jesus and the post-Easter church. they were scribes (like those mentioned in the Gospels) who This is followed by indicating further similarities and produced their scrolls, studied them and from there differences pertaining to religious practices and religio- distributed them all over the country. As part of the pious ideological views. Essene movement they also devoted a lot of time to study. Scrolls were obtained from the library – the latter was Social identity: Qumran, Jesus and probably discovered in Cave 4. They lived according to the the early Church strict rules of the community in accordance to their identity as Essenes, Hassidim or scribes. Jesus, the teacher of righteousness and the powers that be When the Romans occupied the site in 68 CE, the Qumranites Having discarded the notion of Jesus of Nazareth and were either killed or fled to Masada to join the Zealots, with Qumran’s Teacher of Righteousness being the same person, whom they had much in common. It is possible that some some noteworthy similarities and differences can nevertheless joined the early Christians, who survived the Jewish war be distinguished (e.g. Horsley 2006:58–60). Both preached because of their non-violent stance. Before leaving, they penitence, humility, love and justice. The Teacher of succeeded in hiding their scrolls in nearby caves, where they Righteousness demanded poverty as an (ascetic) ideal, remained for nearly 2000 years. whereas Jesus identified with the poor and acted on their behalf. For him (partial) renunciation of possessions (Lk. The New Testament writings reflect much about early 12:33) had the aim of compassionate caring for the poor Christianity (see Conzelmann 1978; Schnackenburg 1973; (Scheffler 1993:67–69; Schottroff & Stegemann 1978:136–149). Theissen 2004) and, having obtained, through the archaeological Ascetic chastity was important for the Teacher at Qumran, record, a glimpse of the identity of the Qumranites as Essenic whereas amongst non-Qumranite Essenes marriage was not scribes, comparing the two promises to provide more insight totally forbidden (comparable to Paul’s view in 1 Cor 7). For into both. Jesus celibacy was an option, but on a voluntary basis for the

9.Millard (1990:115) discussed the possibility of a papyrus fragment containing the Vermes to my mind correctly pointed out that there are three text of Mark 6:53 and concluded: ‘Although it is possible the identity is not proved. Even if some people of Qumran did read the Gospel, there is no sign of it affecting possibilities as to the relation between the Essenic scribes and the teachings of the people living there.’ the Jesus movement (1977). Firstly, there could have been 10.Of course the distinction between the views of the Jesus of history and the early church involves a complex process and will perhaps never have the claim of finality. overlap, meaning that the Qumranites were Christians; As far as the criteria used, I subscribe to those usually used (analogy, dissimilarity, secondly the Christians could have sprung from the Essene multiple attestation) but concur with Theissen and Merz (2011) with regard to the criterion of plausibility. In the end constructions of Jesus have to be scrutinised in movement; and thirdly they may have been totally separate. the public scholarly debate.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 5 of 10 Original Research sake of the kingdom (Mt 19:12), at the same time opposing ministry’, which included disciples not for studying the law divorce (Mk 10:1–12; 1 Cor 7:10) and having empathy for (like a rabbi would) but who, gripped by his person and prostitutes and adulterers (Mt 21:31–32; Lk 7:36–50; Jn 8:53– message, would minister among all Jews: 11 11, cf. Theissen & Merz 2011:494). The Teacher’s radical As a homeless itinerant preacher and healer he travelled on foot opposition to the Wicked Priest of Jerusalem can be compared through Palestine and focussed on small villages at the north- to Jesus’ opposition to the temple hierarchy as it found western end of the lake of Galilee. From simple people, from expression in the report of him ‘cleansing the temple’ (Mk fishers and peasants, he chose twelve disciples with Peter as 11:15–17; Mt 21:12–7; Lk 19:45–48; Jn 2:13–22). However, in leader, representatives of the twelve tribes of Israel. (Theissen & Jesus’ case, the opposition initially was less radical. He went Merz 2011:493) as a pilgrim to the feasts in Jerusalem, taught there but then probably became disillusioned. After Easter the disciples Jesus’ main aim was not to combat a Wicked Priest, but gathered in the temple (Ac 2:46). As the early movement poverty, sickness, psychological suffering, social ostracism spread in the Hellenistic world, the Jerusalem temple became and enmity among humans. This is clearly expressed in the less important. Christians would gather in private houses summaries in the Gospels, stating that Jesus went to all the and the temple became a metaphor for the human body, village towns healing and teaching. He was no ascetic, but a which calls to mind the Qumranic view that the community self-confessed ‘eater and drinker’, for which he was scolded as a whole functioned as a temple. In the early church, what as a ‘glutton and drunkard’, playing the flute for the children Stauffer (1959:8–11) would label the ‘Judaising’ or to dance in the marketplace (in contrary to John the Baptist, ‘Qumranising’ of the Jesus movement, hierarchies developed cf. Mt 11:16–19; Lk 7:31–24). However, when the Jesus similar to those at Qumran which contrasted with Jesus’ movement became sedentary (after Easter) many beliefs and teaching of leadership as service (Mk 10:41–45). Vermes practices were adopted that resembled those of Qumran (himself a Jew, 1998) remarkably concluded: (see below). Essenism is dead. The brittle structure of its stiff and exclusive brotherhood was unable to withstand the national catastrophe Elitism versus lower-class peasantry which struck Palestinian Judaism in 70 CE. Animated by the loftiest ideals and devoted to the observance of ‘perfect holiness’, As far as membership is concerned there is a clear distinction it yet lacked the pliant strength and the elasticity of thought and between Qumran, the historical Jesus and the church after depth of spiritual vision which enabled rabbinic Judaism to Easter. The Qumranites were elitist, considering themselves survive and flourish. And although the Teacher of Righteousness chosen ones and belonging to the Zadokite high priest clearly sensed the deeper obligations implicit in the Mosaic Law, nobility, the difference from the Jerusalem high priests being he was without the genius of Jesus the Jew who succeeded in that they were against cooperation with Rome. To become a uncovering the essence of religion as an existential relationship full member of the community took 3 years of initiation, and between man and man and man and God. (p. 25) a pious lifestyle had to first be proven (1QS 5:1–3). In the community there was also a strict hierarchy as expressed in Asceticism versus itinerary 1QS 5:20, 23–24 (cf. also 1QS2:19–24): charismaticism But when one enters the covenant … they shall inscribe them in The Qumranites withdrew from society whereas Jesus order, one after another, according to the understanding of their entered into it. It is consensus amongst scholars that the deeds, that everyone may obey his companion, the man of lesser Qumranites constituted an ascetic movement with strict rank obeying his superior. And they shall examine their spirit and deeds yearly, so that each man may be advanced in rules. The Teacher’s opposition to the temple after Alexander accordance with his understanding and perfection of way, or Janneus became high priest (cf. above) caused the Essenes to moved down in accordance with his distortions. (1QS 5:20, 23–24) withdraw to the desert to live a kind of ascetic life, fully devoting themselves to what they regarded as the true Any idea of rank amongst his followers was nipped in the Mosaic religion. Their asceticism and strict lifestyle are bud by the historical Jesus, as can be seen from James and clearly reflected in the Serek Hayachad (Community Rule, 1QS John’s request in this regard (Mk 9:33–37; 10:35–45; Mt 20:35– and 4QSd = 4Q258), the so-called Rule of the Congregation 45; Lk 22:24–27) and his washing of his disciples’ feet in (1QSa) and the Damaskus Document (CD, 4Q265–273).12 John’s Gospel (Jn 13:4–5,12–17). Stauffer (1959:13) expressed it appropriately: ‘In the community of Jesus’ followers, noble Theissen (2004:33–98) argued, to my mind correctly, that predicates and ancestral passports meant absolutely Jesus and his first followers were itinerant charismatics nothing’.13 To the contrary, to the Jesus movement belonged who did not withdraw from what Jesus would regard as what Crossan (1991:266–276, 1994:54–74) typified as evil in society but rather confronted it. Schnackenburg ‘nobodies’: the poor, peasants, fisherman, illiterates, (1973:288–292) referred to Jesus’ ‘charismatic-prophetic prostitutes, toll collectors and sinners: the scum of the 11.Although the comma Johanneum was only inserted later in the Johannine text, it earth. For Jesus the repentance of sinners was important nevertheless to my mind reflects theintentio Jesu. (Mk 1:14–15), but it was preceded by their unconditional social 12.Numerous translations have been made to date, of which Lohse– (1971:4 107) (Hebrew with German parallels), Martínez and Tigchelaar (1999) (Hebrew with acceptance (Mk 2:13–17; Lk 15:1–2, 20–24; Lk 19:1–10; cf. English parallels) and Vermes (1998:125–143, English) are to my mind the most useful. Unless otherwise stated in this article I quote from the translation of 13.The author’s English translation of the following: ‘In der Jüngergemeinde bedeuten Vermes (1998). Adelsprädikate und Ahnenpässe überhaupt nichts’.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 6 of 10 Original Research

Scheffler 1993:99–102). This social acceptance on an existential significant that the post-Easter church, although not putting level (expressed concretely in table fellowship) preceded it in the same focus as Jesus, never lost their concern for the conversion. sick and handicapped (cf. the report on healings in Acts).

In Acts, Luke portrays the early church as continuing social Apodictic keeping of the law and acceptance and open table fellowship (Ac 2:43–47; 4:32–37). Although believers were popular among the common people, surpassing freedom implying an open relationship with society, the voluntary For the Qumranites, obedience to the stipulations of Mosaic ‘open commensality’ (Crossan 1994:66–70) became a feature Law was of the utmost importance and constituted the essence of the believers themselves and their gatherings, apart from of their religion (see Harrington 2000). Keeping the law was a the people. Soon in the post-Easter church, as can be seen in precondition for entrance into the community and a strict (deutero-)Pauline literature and even the Gospels, moralistic penal code was applied for even minor transgressions (1QS virtue became a prerequisite (1 Cor 6:9–10; Gl 5:19–21; 6:25–7:25). According to 1QS 5:7–9 (cf. also 1QS 1:7–9; 5:21): Eph 5:3–5; Mt 5:27–30; 18:15–16; 1 Th 2:12; Rv 16;10–11). And Whoever approaches the Council of the Community shall enter as more and more middle-class people joined the church the Covenant of God in the presence of all who have freely (whom Luke addresses in his Gospel14) and doctrinal disputes pledged themselves. He shall undertake by a binding oath to increased, the poor were increasingly neglected (implied in return with all his heart and soul to every commandment of the Gal 2:10). Law of Moses in accordance with all that has been revealed of it to the sons of Zadok, the Priests, Keepers of the Covenant and Seekers of his will …. 1QS 5:7–9 Exclusivism versus care for the sick and the marginalised Jesus was not against the law and Matthew 5:17–20 (‘not a iota, not a dot, will pass away from the law until all is Despite the Community Rule quoting Psalm 146:7–9 (God accomplished’) may suggest that he was just as strict as the caring for the oppressed, prisoners, the blind, the bowed down, view expressed in the Community Rule. However, what strangers, widows and orphans), the Qumran community ‘accomplish’ implies should be understood in terms of the had the following stipulation regarding membership: antitheses that follow in the Matthean text (Mt 5:21–48), No man smitten in his flesh, or paralysed in his feet or hands, or where the mere literal meaning of law stipulations is lame, or blind, or deaf, or dumb, or smitten in his flesh with a surpassed. Jesus emphasised those aspects of the law that visible blemish; no old and tottery man unable to stay still in the enhance love, compassion and justice amongst human midst of the congregation; none of these shall come to hold office among the congregation of the men of renown … (1QSa 2:4–8) beings. For that reason, the sabbath was interpreted as being for the benefit of humans (Mk 2:28), some purity laws could … no madman, or lunatic shall enter, no simpleton, or fool, no be ignored (Mk 7:1–23) and the bringing of sacrifices blind man, or maimed, or lame, or deaf man, and no minor, none of these shall enter the community… (CD 15:15; constructed relativised in view of the love commandment (Mk 12:33). from 4Q266, 8i:6–9) To keep the tradition as expressed in the Jewish scriptures Children and women were also mostly excluded. This was central to Qumranites – therefore they produced and constitutes a cardinal difference from Jesus, who devoted his studied the scrolls. The scribes counted as Jesus’ opponents whole life to serve the sick and the marginalised (e.g. women because salvation for him was not to be found in the study of and children) directly (cf. e.g. Mk 1:32–34; 3:7–12; Lk 7:21–22). the scriptures but in God’s direct unconditional acceptance Although scholars who study the historical Jesus may have and forgiveness of sinners, and people accepting the kingdom debated the miraculousness of his healings since the time of like children (even faith being not so important, Lk 18:15–17). Strauss (1835, cf. also Schweitzer [1906] 2001:74–90; Theissen However, despite Paul’s adage in 1 Corinthians 13:13 that & Merz 2011:260–264), all would agree that he acted as a love is greater than faith, in the post-Easter church, faith in compassionate (traditional) healer among his contemporaries certain tenets (for instance the sacrificial interpretation of (see Craffert 2008:213–308; Crossan 1994:75–101; Davies 1995; Jesus’ death, confessing him as kurios and Messiah, and Scheffler 1993:87–90; Theissen & Merz 2011:265–282). For baptism) became the criterion to become a member of the Jesus, the gospel was good news because exactly these people church. Jesus had freedom in his interpretation of scripture, were targeted. Women (e.g. Lk 8:1–3; 23:28, cf. Dreyer with the love command as his criterion (the law and the 1999:70–96) and especially children (Mk 10:13–16; Mt 19:13–15; prophets depending on it, Mt 22:14), whereas in the emerging Lk 18:15–17, cf. Crossan 1994:62–64) took a central place in Christianity the Jewish scriptures increasingly regained their his ministry. It is amazing that some scholars who compared absolute authority as inspired scripture (2 Tm 3:16). the scrolls with the New Testament often would not pay attention to this important contrast between the Qumran Religious practices and views community and the historical Jesus (e.g. Flint 2014; Horsley Constraints of space do not allow us to explore the similarities 2006; Pfeiffer 1957:44–46,85–87; Van der Ploeg 1957:165–194; and clear differences between the Qumranites, Jesus and the VanderKam 2010:197–226; Vermes 1977:2011–2221). It is also early church to the full. In what follows, differences are 14.Cf. his dedication to Theophilus in Luke 1:1–4. briefly indicated regarding religious practices and

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 7 of 10 Original Research religio-ideological views, which to my mind corroborates the full members) had their daily meal, blessed by the priest and picture that has emerged thus far. regarded as sacred (1QS 6:2–3; 1QSa 2:17–21). The function was to express the unity of the community. The historical Ritual washings and (no) baptism Jesus also had a similar meal, but one of open table fellowship, especially for crowds who had nothing to eat (Mk 6; Lk At Qumran ritual washings took place on a daily basis for 14:15–24; Thomas 64, Crossan 1995:66–70). As early as in 1901, purification (as several excavated ritual baths testify) but also the great Albert Schweitzer (Schweitzer 1901; see critical on entrance into the community (proselyte baptism, cf. 1QS). discussion in Grässer 1979:45–64) indicated that what later Jesus of Nazareth was baptised by John the Baptist, but he became the Eucharist derived from Jesus’ eating and drinking himself was never baptised (Jn 4:1–2). Paul baptised only a with his disciples, as can also clearly be derived from his few people and he used the concept of baptism as a metaphor original remark during the Last Supper (Lk 22:18): ‘… from to express the believers sharing in the death of Jesus. In the now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the post-Easter church, baptism became standard practice kingdom of God comes’. After his death the early Christians (probably because of the movement of John the Baptist that ‘broke the bread from house to house’ (Ac 2:43–47; 4:32–36), merged with early Christianity) and was prescriptive after in a sense continuing Jesus’ practice of open commensality conversion, similar to the proselyte baptism of the (as was also meant to be the case with the ‘love meals’ of 1 Qumranites. The latter’s daily baptisms were absent in the Cor 11:20–21). When Jesus’ death was interpreted by the church. In comparison to Qumran, John the Baptist and the post-Easter church as a sacrificial death, the Eucharist became early church, Jesus refraining from baptising people was a cultic ritual (as in Qumran, but with the bread and wine remarkably unique. symbolising Jesus’ blood and body). The primary concern to feed the literary poor faded into the background. One cannot Sharing of possessions but think that if the priority of the historical Jesus had remained the primary concern in Christianity, the bitter After a trial period of about three years, on becoming a full doctrinal disputes regarding the Eucharist during the member of the community, a novice would submit his wealth Reformation would have been unnecessary. to the common treasury of the community, which would then look after his needs (1QS 1:11–13; 7:6–7; 6:25). In this way 15 Animal sacrifices, Jesus’ death, and love poverty was eradicated amongst community members. and reconciliation This ruling remarkably resembles Luke’s view of the earliest church directly after Easter (Ac 2:43–47; 4:32–36; cf. Reicke After the Qumranites withdrew from the temple, no animal 1957:60), the difference being that in Qumran it was sacrifices were made in the community because they regarded compulsory, whereas in Acts the first Christians were themselves as sacrifices to God (Kugler 2000:90–112). portrayed as having shared their possessions voluntarily. According to 1QS 9:3–5, ‘atonement will be made for the land The historical Jesus probably was a carpenter (Mk 6:3) and his more effectively than by the flesh of whole burnt offerings disciples fishermen (Mk 2), neither profession representing and the fat of sacrifices’ (translation by Pfeiffer 1957). Jesus of the poorest of the poor. During his itinerant ministry he was Nazareth did not forbid sacrifices (Mk 1:44) but deprioritised cared for by his female followers (Lk 8:1–3) and directed his them (Mk 12:33). Crossan (1994:168) commented on Matthew message to the poor (Lk 6:20), prompting the haves to share 5:23–24: ‘Gift, altar, and even God must wait for peace and with the have-nots (Mk 10:21; Lk 12; 16:19–30, Gospel of forgiveness. Reconciliation on earth precedes ablation to Thomas 54, 69b, cf. Crossan 1994:154). Jesus did not establish heaven.’16 In post-Easter Christianity the sacrificial congregations but urged his followers to enter society and interpretation of Jesus’ death abolished animal sacrifices preach the kingdom (which included healing of the sick and (Rm 5:6–10; 12:1; Heb 10:1–10). Noteworthy, in the case of the ministering to the poor; Lk 7:21–22). Despite Galations 2:10, historical Jesus, the abolishment or relativisation of animal where Paul committed himself to caring for the poor, the sacrifice was linked to love, peace and reconciliation among liberation of the poor was not his main focus. The Letter to humans (Mk 12:33). the Romans reflected Paul’s main interest as salvation through faith in Jesus as the Christ (Rom 1:17). The poor Prayers long and short functioned as an ‘afterthought’ (cf. Gal 2:10) in Paul’s project to collect money in the Asian churches to be sent to the poor For the Qumran community, prayer was of the utmost in Jerusalem (cf. 2 Cor 8–9). A more positive attitude importance. The refectory was not only a dining hall but a 17 (reflecting more the stance of the historical Jesus) is to be prayer room (Schuller 2000:29–45). The prayers were long found in the letter to James (chapter 2). and took place at sunrise and sunset (Vermes 1997:78). The hymn scroll (1QH) contains about 25 thanksgiving hymns of Ritual meal, open commensality and some length. Furthermore there were liturgical prayers, daily the Eucharist prayers and prayers for festivals (e.g. 1Q34, 4Q503 and 4Q507, respectively; cf. Vermes 1998:368–373). Jesus warned In the refectory in the Qumran complex (excavated by De 16.This is reminiscent of a remarkable verse from the Tanak, Psalm 85:13: ‘Justice will Vaux, cf. 1973; Scheffler 2000:197–199) the Qumranites (only go before him [that is YHWH], and make a way for his footsteps’. 15.Cf. especially with regard to the mutual sharing Philo’s Quod Omnis Probus Liber, 17.It also functioned as an assembly hall, where deliberations took place regarding 85–86. the general life of the community.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 8 of 10 Original Research against long prayers to impress others and presented to his righteous having the victory (VanderKam 2010:2015–2219). disciples a relatively short prayer. Whereas the Our Father 1QS 3:13–4:26 spells out Qumran’s deterministic doctrine of reflects Jesus’ message of the kingdom of God and emphasises two spirits (of truth and injustice, both created by God!) that forgiveness and/or cancelling of debts (cf. Crossan 2010:143– dwell in the ‘sons of light’ and ‘sons of darkness’, respectively. 162), the Qumranite prayers often focus on the distress and Finally, after the sons of light have lived according to the trouble of the supplicant. Jesus also advocated private prayer, precepts of the law, the spirit of truth will win when the two as was his own practice when he withdrew into nature (not Messiahs (priestly and political) appear and effect atonement only the desert but also mountains). Luke’s Gospel pictured (1QSa 9:9–11; Evans 2000). The political Messiah will execute a Jesus who also advocated longer prayers (cf. the parable of righteous judgement and kill the wicked (CD 14:19). John the the widow and the judge; Lk 18:1–8), which seems to imply Baptist’s view about the kingdom of God and the judgement that Jesus also allowed for longer prayers (if the parable was to come compares well with the view of the Qumranites (Mt not the creation of the evangelist). In the post-Easter church, 3:1–12; Lk 3:1–9). From the days of Weiss ([1892] 1971) and Christians were also prompted to pray for all people, Schweitzer ([1906] 2001:315–354) up to Crossan (1994:149), it especially for the authorities (1 Tim 2:1–2). The latter can be has been debated in studies of the historical Jesus whether viewed as reflecting an alternative view of that of the earthly Jesus had an imminent (cf. Mt 10:23) or realised expectation Jesus, whose petition for God’s rule to be realised actually (kingdom as permanent possibility, Lk 17:20–21) of the constituted a subversive criticism of oppressive earthly kingdom of God. A possibility is that he initially shared the governments (cf. Lk 22:25). Baptist’s view but then began to differ from it, because for him the kingdom was associated with liberation for Scribal activity versus creative humankind here and now and not judgement (e.g. Mt 4:15– 17; 6:10–13; Mt 12:28; Lk 4:42–43; Lk 7:22; 11:20). This accords teaching and societal engagement well with what we have established thus far: the basic As already noted, the Qumranites were scribes (Stegemann attitude of Jesus was love and compassion, and this very fact 1998), who not only copied scrolls but studied them in order also predisposed his view of the kingdom of God as a possible to live scrupulously according to the stipulations of Mosaic present as well as future reality. For the post-Easter church, Law. The pesher commentaries on Habbakuk and Nahum the focus of kingdom again shifted to a future reality that (1QpeshHab and 4Q169 [4QpNah]), where the text is would arrive at the second coming of Jesus as the Messiah (a interpreted in terms of their own context, testify to this. The title used after Easter, which the historical Jesus in all study of scripture was part of their religious services, which probability never used for himself, probably because of included the singing of hymns and prayer (cf. Eph 18:19–20). possible misunderstandings, cf. Casey 2010:392–398). Jesus Throughout the Gospels, Jesus of Nazareth (who most did not seek titles for himself and constantly referred to probably was (semi-)illiterate) stood in opposition to the himself as the ‘Son of man’, which need not be interpreted in scribes, who, because of their strict observance of the law, terms of Daniel 7 but could simply refer to his humanity. took offence at Jesus’ free interaction with the scriptures with Jesus’ preaching and ministry focussed on this world without love and mercy as the ultimate criterion (cf. Mk 10:3–7; Mt denying an ultimate end, whereas Qumran and the early 5:21–47, 22:37–40). In the post-Easter church the meticulous church focussed their hope on the final salvation (heaven). As study of scripture became more important, as can be seen soon as such a view is adopted the alleviation of global from Paul’s letters, in which he endeavours to motivate his poverty, sickness and suffering seems to become a side issue. kerygma by referring to the Old Testament (see Scheffler 2011). No wonder the ‘apocalypticised’ Essene community could The Old Testament also played a significant role in Luke’s have a rule excluding physically handicapped people (1QSa Gospel, although his use of scripture can be typified as 2:48; 4Q266 [CD 15:15]).18 ‘creative interpretation’, reflecting more the practice of the historical Jesus (Scheffler 2013:118–125). According to 2 Timothy 3:16, ‘all scripture is regarded as inspired by God’ Politics, violence and peace and of great value ‘for training in righteousness’ – a view that As we have noted above, the Qumranites withdrew to the echoes the stance of the Qumran community. It can be desert (avoiding military service) because they were concluded that Jesus of Nazareth, in an oral context, lived in unsatisfied with the Hellenistic sentiments of Alexander free interaction with the scriptural tradition of the Old Janneus in Jerusalem. Their motive may have been religious Testament, but he was not bound by it and never became (to preserve pious Judaism), but the consequences were sedentary to study it. He went into society and could motivate intensely political. Their doctrine of the New Covenant his teaching from the Old Testament if he so wished (Mk entered into by the sons of light (who were themselves) 10:3–7), but as his parables show, he could even creatively presupposed that ‘the sons of darkness’ (their enemies) invent his own teaching. were hated (1QS 1:8–9). The latter would in the end be eradicated in the final cosmic battle under the leadership of The kingdom of God: apocalyptic the Davidic political Messiah, who would defeat the Wicked Priest (the opponent of the Teacher of Righteousness). This and/or present reality? enmity against the sons of darkness (although the battle in The Qumranites had an apocalyptic expectation of the end of 18.Caring for the poor and the sick was restricted to members of the community (CD days, in which there would be a cosmic battle with the 14:14–16).

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 9 of 10 Original Research the interim should be waged by strict adherence to the Christian communities, which became sedentary, although Mosaic Law) included military fantasies (expressed in the not exactly like the Qumranites. It is therefore not implausible War Scroll [1QM], cf. Maier 2000:40–46), which in the end that as the Baptist movement merged with early Christianity, also meant military conflict and defeat during the Jewish the Essenes after the Jewish war also merged with the early war in 68 CE.19 church in a similar way, even influencing them. No wonder that in recent scholarship the term ‘monastery’ (a term from Jesus of Nazareth’s teaching of love for the enemy, conquering Christianity) could be used to typify the Qumranite the latter through good deeds and love (Mt 5:38–48; Lk 6:27– community. A comparison such as the one here therefore 36, cf. Scheffler 2016:91–115), which correlates with his challenges modern Christianities in terms of assessing to teaching on peace-making (Mk 9:49–50; Mt 5:9; 5:23–24; Lk what extent their values and existence can still be related to 2:14, 29; 7:50; 8:48; 10:5–6; 24:36) is well known. Jesus never Jesus of Nazareth, whom they venerate and to whom they advocated violence or war; on the contrary he polemised owe their existence. Can it be that one throw of a stone by against it. He was sceptical about power politics (Lk 22:24– Muhammad ed-Dhib, an Arab Bedouin, has had a ripple 27). Paul resonated these sentiments (Rom 12, cf. also 1 Pet effect of eliciting a renewed profound insight into the radical 3:8–12). The early Christians did not participate in the Jewish message of Jesus of Nazareth, for the benefit of the suffering war, and unlike the Qumranites they survived it. Interestingly, world of the twenty-first century? in the Book of Revelation, where a final cosmic battle is envisaged, we again find apocalyptic thinking similar to that Acknowledgements at Qumran (Rev 19:11–21). Competing interests Again we conclude that the historical Jesus, ruled by his basic The author declares that he has no financial or personal attitude of love and compassion, did not distinguish between relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him the sons of light and the sons of darkness. For him God’s sun in writing this article. rose over good and evil, the just and the unjust (Mt 5:45). His politics in this regard are diametrically opposed to those of References the Qumranites (cf. Yoder 1972). Albright, W., 1960, The archaeology of Palestine, rev. edn., Pelican, Middlesex. Allegro, J.M., 1968, Qumran cave 4, I (4Q158-4q186), Discoveries in the Judaean Conclusion desert of Jordan 5, Clarendon, Oxford. Allegro, J.M., 1970, The sacred mushroom and the cross: A study of the nature and From the above comparison emerges not so much the origins of Christianity within the fertility cults of the ancient near East, Hodder & uniqueness but the radicalness of the message of Jesus of Stoughton, London. Allegro, J.M., 1979, The Dead Sea scrolls and the Christian myth, Redwood Burn, Nazareth. His was a ministry and movement that challenged Newton Abbot. the institutionalisation of religion. This calls to mind the Barret, C.K., 1970, ‘The interpretation of the Old Testament in the New’, in P.R. well-known adage of Alfred Loisy early in the twentieth Ackroyd & C.F. Evans (eds.), The Cambridge history of the Bible: Volume 1: From the beginnings to Jerome, pp. 377–411, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. century that ‘Jesus preached the kingdom of God and his Baumbach, G., 1969, s v ‘Qumran’, BHH. followers established the church’. In the same vein, George Bimson, J.J. & Kane, J.P. (eds.), 1985, New Bible atlas, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester. Bernard Shaw remarked that ‘Jesus preached that the Bornkamm, G., [1956] 1975, Jesus von Nazareth, 10. Aufl., Kohlhammer, Stuttgart. kingdom of God is amongst you … Ever since the church has Botha, P.J.J., 2001, ‘Judaism in the Graeco-Roman world’, in G. van den Heever & E. Scheffler (eds.), From Jesus Christ to Christianity: Early Christian literature in looked for it somewhere else’. Jesus’ message implied context, pp. 42–88, Unisa Press, Pretoria. involved action for the benefit of the marginalised in society, Bruce, F.F., 1974. s v ‘Qumran’, in Israel pocket library: Archaeology. whereas in Qumran we are confronted with an elitist group Bultmann, R., 1968, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 6. Aufl., Mohr, Tübingen. religion that was basically directed towards the self, but Burrows, M., 1961. sv ‘Qumran’, RGG. 3rd edn. simultaneously believed that God was thereby honoured and Casey, M., 2010, Jesus of Nazareth: An independent historian’s account of his life and served. teaching, T & T Clarke, London. Conzelmann, H., 1978. Geschichte des Urchristentums, Vandenhoeck, Göttingen. Craffert, P.F., 2008,The life of a Galilean shaman: Jesus of Nazareth in anthropological- The Qumran community’s practices and views differed historical perspective, Cascade books, Eugene, OR. sharply from those of the historical Jesus but bore more Crossan, J.D., 1991, The historical Jesus: The life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, resemblance to post-Easter Christianity (e.g. baptism, ritual T & T Clarke, Edinburgh. Crossan, J.D., 1994, The essential Jesus: Original sayings and earliest ,images meal and Messianic views). A comparison thus reveals the HarperSanFrancisco, New York. development that took place after the historical Jesus in the Crossan, J.D., 1995, Jesus: A revolutionary biography, HarperSanFrancisco, New York. establishment of the church. Jesus of Nazareth stands out as a Crossan, J.D., 2010, The greatest prayer: Rediscovering the revolutionary message of distinctive figurevis-à-vis the Qumran community. However, the Lord’s prayer, HarperSanFransisco, New York. Crossan, J.D. & Reed, J.L., 2001, Excavating Jesus: Beneath the stones, behind the even as far as the post-Easter church is concerned significant texts, HarperSanFrancisco, New York. differences can be noted. The movement Jesus elicited, Davies, P., 1989, ‘Beyond the Old Testament’, in J. Rogerson & P. Davies (eds.), The Old despite its initial itinerancy, developed into the early Testament world, Canbridge University Press, Cambridge. Davies, S.L., 1995, Jesus the healer: Possession, trance and the origins of Christianity, 19.The War Scroll contains information on the proclamation of the war (1QM1), the SCM, London. programme of the 40-year war (1QM2), disposition and weapon of the front De Vaux, R., 1973, Archaeology and the Dead Sea scrolls, Oxford University Press, formations (5), movements of the attacking infantry (6), disposition and London. movements of the cavalry (6), age of soldiers (6–7), addresses and prayers of the battle liturgy (10–12), a prayer recited at the moment of victory (13) and the battle De Vaux, R. & Broshi, M., 1993, ‘Qumran, Khirbet and ‘Ein Feshka’, The New against the Kittim (15–19). Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 4, 1235–1241.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Page 10 of 10 Original Research

Dreyer, Y., 1999, ‘Jesus en vroue’, HTS Theological Studies 55(1), 70–96. http://dx.doi. Reicke, B., 1957, Leben und Glauben in der Urgemeinde: Bemerkungen zu Apg.1-7, org/10.4102/hts.v55i1.1523 Zwingli-Verlag, Zürich. Dupont-Sommer, A., 1952, The Dead Sea scrolls: A preliminary survey, Blackwell, Reicke, B., 1968, Neutestamentlich Zeitgeschichte: Die biblische Welt 500v. – 100 n. Oxford. Chr. 2. Aufl., De Gruyter, Berlin. Du Rand, J.A., 1998, ‘Groups in Jewish national life in the New Testament period’, in Ringgren, H., 1963, Israelitischer religion, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart. A.B. du Toit (ed.), The New Testament Milieu, Orion, Halfway House. Scheepers, C. & Scheffler, E., 2000, From Dan to Beersheba: An archaeological tour Ehrman, B., 2012, Did Jesus exist? The historical argument for Jesus of Nazareth, through ancient Israel, Biblia Publishers, Pretoria. HaperCollins Publishers, New York. Scheffler, E., 1993,Suffering in Luke’s Gospel, Theologischer Verlag, Zürich. Qumran: Scrolls, caves, history Eshel, H., 2009, , Carta, Jerusalem. Scheffler, E., 2000, ‘Qumran – Home of the Dead Sea scrolls’, in C. Scheepers & E. Evans, C.A., 2000, ‘Qumran’s Messiah: How important is he?’, in J.J. Collins & R.A. Scheffler (eds.), From Dan to Beersheba: An archaeological tour through ancient Kugler (eds.), Religion in the Dead Sea scrolls, pp. 135–149, Eerdmans, Grand Israel, pp. 176–213, Biblia Publishers, Pretoria. Rapids, MI. Scheffler, E., 2011, ‘Paul’s (mis)use of the Old Testament in the letter to the Romans’, Farrington, K., 2003, Historical atlas of the holy lands, Thalamus, New York. Scriptura 108, 269–289. Fensham, C., 1976, Die Dooie See rolle en die Bybel, Tafelberg, Kaapstad. Scheffler, E., 2013, ‘The assaulted (man) on the Jerusalem-Jericho road: Luke’s creative interpretation of 2 Chronicles 28:15’,HTS Theological Studies 69(1), 118– Flint, P., 2006, ‘Jesus and the Dead Sea scrolls’, in A.-J. Levin, D.C. Allison & J.D. Crossan 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/hts.v69i1.2010 (eds.), Religion in the Dead Sea scrolls, pp. 110–131, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Scheffler, E., 2016, ‘The historical Jesus and (non)violence: A contemporary challenge’, Flint, P., 2013, The Dead Sea scrolls, Abingdon Press, Nashville. in J. Hunter & J. Kügler (eds.), The Bible and violence in Africa, pp. 91–115, Flint, P., 2014, ‘The Qumran scrolls and the historical Jesus’, in J.H. Charlesworth & B. University of Bamberg Press, Bamberg. Rhea (eds.), Jesus research: New methodologies and perceptions, pp. 261–282, Schnackenburg, R., 1973, ‘Das Urchristentum’, in J. Meier & J. Schreiner (eds.), Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Literatur und Religion des Frühjudentums, Echter Verlag, Wurzburg. Gal, Z., 2010, Qumran: Scrolls in the desert, Ostracon, Bar-Lev. Schonfield, H., 1984,The Essene odyssey: The mystery of the true teacher & the Essene impact on the shaping of human destiny Golb, N., 1995, Who wrote the Dead Sea scrolls?: The search for the secret of Qumran, , Element, Schaftbury. Scribner, New York. Schottroff, L. & Stegemann, W., 1978, Jesus von Nazareth: Hoffnung der Armen, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart. Grässer, E., 1979, Albert Schweitzer als Theologe, Mohr, Tübingen. Schuller, E., 2000, ‘Petitionary prayer and the religion of Qumran’, in J.J. Collins & R.A. Gunneweg, A.H.J., 1972, Geschichte Israel’s bis Bar Kochba, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart. Kugler (eds.), Religion in the Dead Sea scrolls, pp. 29–45, Eerdmans, Grand Horsley, R.A., 2006, ‘The Dead Sea scrolls and the historical Jesus’, in J.H Charlesworth Rapids, MI. (ed.), The Bible and the Dead Sea scrolls: Volume three: The scrolls and Christian Schweitzer, A., 1901, Das Abendmahl im Zusammenhang mit dem Leben Jesu und der origins, pp. 37–60, Baylor University Press, Waco, TX. Geschichte des Urchristentums. Erstes Heft. Das Abendmahlsproblem auf grund Harrington, H.K., 2000, ‘The Halakah and religion of Qumran’, in J.J. Collins & R.A. der wissenschaftlichen Forschung des 19. Jahrhunderts und der historischen Kugler (eds.), Religion in the Dead Sea scrolls, pp. 74–89, Eerdmans, Grand Berichte, Mohr, Tübingen. Rapids, MI. Schweitzer, A., [1906] 2001, The quest for the historical Jesus, Fortress Press, Hengel, M., 1988, Judentum und Hellenismus: Studien zu ihrer Begegnung unter Minneapolis, MN. besonderer Berücksichtigung Palästinas bis zur Mitte des 2.Jh.s v. Chr., 3. Aufl., Stauffer, E., 1959,Die Botschaft Jesu: Damals und Heute, Francke Verlag, Bern. Mohr, Tübingen. Stegemann, H., 1998, The library of Qumran, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Hermann, S., 1980, Geschichte Israels in altestamentlicher Zeit, Kaiser, München. Strauss, D.F., [1835] 1972, The life of Jesus critically examined, Fortress, Philadelphia, PA. Jagersma, H., 1985, Geschiedenis van Israel van Alexander de Grote tot Bar Kochba, Kok, Kampen. Tenney, M.C., 1967, New Testament times, Intervarsity-Press, London. Kazantzakis, N., [1953] 1960, The last temptation of Christ, Simon & Schuster, New York. Theissen, G., 2004, Die Jesusbewegung: Sozialgeschichte einer Revolution der Werte, Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh. Keller, W., 1981, Und die Bibel hat doch recht, Rowohlt, Düsseldorf. Theissen, G. & Merz, A., 2011, Der historische Jesus: Ein Lehrbuch. 4. Aufl., Kravitz, N., 1973, 3,000 years of Hebrew literature, W.H. Allan, London. Vandenhoeck, Göttingen. Kugler, R.A., 2000, ‘Rewriting rubrics: Sacrifice and the religion of Qumran’, in J.J. Thiering, B., 1992, Jesus the man, Corgi Books, London. Collins & R.A. Kugler (eds.), Religion in the Dead Sea scrolls, pp. 90–112, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Thompson, J.A., 1989, The Bible and archaeology, 3rd edn., Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Kuhn, K.G. sv ‘Qumran’, in RGG. 3rd edn. VanderKam, J.C., 2000, ‘Apocalyptic tradition in the Dead Sea scrolls and the religion of Qumran’, in J.J. Collins & R.A. Kugler (eds.), Religion in the Dead Sea scrolls, Lohse, E., 1971., Die Texte aus Qumran: Hebräisch und Deutsch, Kösel-Verlag, München. pp. 113–134, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI. Maier, J., 1972, Geschichte der jüdische religion, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart. VanderKam, J.C., 2010, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, 2nd edn., Eerdmans, Grand Maier, J., 2000, Kriegsrecht und Friedensordnung in jüdischer Tradition, Kohlhammer, Rapids, MI. Stuttgart. Van der Ploeg, J., 1957, Vondsten in de woestijn van Juda: De rollen der Dode See, Het Martínez, F. & Tigchelaar, E., 1999.The Dead Sea Scrolls study edition, Brill, Leiden. Spectrum, Utrecht. The Dead Sea scrolls: Qumran in perspective Meeks, W., 1986, The moral world of the first Christians, Westminster, Philadelphia, PA. Vermes, G., 1977, , Collins, London. The complete Dead Sea scrolls in English Metzger, M., 1983, Grundriss der Geschichte Israels, 6. Aufl., Neukirchener Verlag, Vermes, G., 1998, , Penguin, London. Neukirchen. Vriezen, Th.C. & Van der Woude, A.S., 1973, Literatuur van Oud-Israël, Sevire, Wassenaar. Millard, A., 1990, Discoveries from the time of Jesus, Lion Publishing, Oxford. Weiss, J., [1892] 1971, Jesus proclamation of the kingdom of, God Fortress, Murphy-O’Connor, J., 2008, The Holy land: An Oxford archaeological guide from Philadelphia, PA. earliest times to 1700, 5th edn., Oxford University Press, Oxford. Wright, G.E., 1962, Biblical Archaeology, Duckworth, London. Noth, M., 1960, The history of Israel, Harper & Row, New York. Wright, N.T., 1996, Jesus and the victory of God, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, MN. Oesterley, W.O.E., 1932, A history of Israel: Vol. II: From the fall of Jerusalem, 586 B.C. to the Bar-Kokhba revolt, A.D. 135., Clarendon Press, Oxford. Yadin, Y., 1973, Masada: Herod’s fortress and the Zealot’s last stand, Cardinal, London. Pfeiffer, C.F., 1957, The dead sea scrolls, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, MI. Yoder, J.H., 1972, The politics of Jesus: Vicit Agnus Noster, Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.

http://www.hts.org.za Open Access