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Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Olfactory Reference Disorder: Proposals for ICD-11 David Veale,1 Hisato Matsunaga2

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Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Olfactory Reference Disorder: Proposals for ICD-11 David Veale,1 Hisato Matsunaga2 Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria. 2014;36:S14––S20 ß 2014 Associac¸a˜ o Brasileira de Psiquiatria doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2013-1238 UPDATE ARTICLE Body dysmorphic disorder and olfactory reference disorder: proposals for ICD-11 David Veale,1 Hisato Matsunaga2 1Institute of Psychiatry and South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK. 2Department of Neuropsychiatry, Hyogo College of Medicine, 1-1 Mukogawa-cho, NishinomiyaHyogo, Japan. The article reviews the historical background and symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and olfactory reference disorder, and describes the proposals of the WHO ICD-11 Working Group on the Classification of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders related to these categories. This paper examines the possible classification of BDD symptoms in ICD-10. Four different possible diagnoses are found (hypochondriacal disorder, schizotypal disorder, delusional disorder, or other persistent delusional disorder). This has led to significant confusion and lack of clear identification in ICD-10. Olfactory reference disorder can also be classified as a delusional disorder in ICD-10, but there is no diagnosis for non-delusional cases. The Working Group reviewed the classification and diagnostic criteria of BDD in DSM-5, as well as cultural variations of BDD and olfactory reference disorder that include Taijin Kyofusho. The Working Group has proposed the inclusion of both BDD and olfactory reference disorder in ICD-11, and has provided diagnostic guidelines and guidance on differential diagnosis. The Working Group’s proposals for ICD-11 related to BDD and olfactory reference disorder are consistent with available global evidence and current understanding of common mechanisms in obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and resolve considerable confusion inherent in ICD-10. The proposals explicitly recognize cultural factors. They are intended to improve clinical utility related to appropriate identification, treatment, and resource allocation related to these disorders. Keywords: Body dysmorphic disorder; olfactory reference disorder; ICD classification Introduction rejection, humiliation, or, in some cultures, causing offense to others. Any part of the body may be the Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) has its historical roots in focus of the perceived defect, but it is most commonly the description of dysmorphophobia by Italian psychiatrist the face (especially the facial skin, nose, hair, eyes, Enrico Morselli in 1891.1 Morselli described dysmorpho- teeth, lips, chin, or face in general). However, there are phobia as a ‘‘subjective feeling of ugliness or physical frequently multiple perceived defects.3,4 Usually the focal defect which the patient feels is noticeable to others, feature is regarded as flawed, defective, asymmetrical, although the appearance is within normal limits. The too big/small, or disproportionate; or the complaint may dysmorphophobic patient is really miserable; in the be of thinning hair, acne, wrinkles, scars, vascular middle of his daily routines […], everywhere and at any markings, pallor or ruddiness of complexion, or insuffi- time, he is caught by the doubt of deformity.’’ This is quite cient muscularity. Sometimes the preoccupation is similar to the current conceptualization of BDD as vague, or consists of a general perception of ugliness characterized by a preoccupation with ugliness or a or being ‘‘not right’’ or being too masculine/feminine. perceived defect(s) in appearance based on flaws that Sufferers may respond by trying to verify how they look are not noticeable to others, or appear only slight. The by repeatedly checking in reflective surfaces, seeking condition produces significant distress and significant reassurance, or questioning others; or they may attempt interference with life. to camouflage or alter their feature. Alternatively, they try Individuals with BDD typically experience a high degree to avoid public or social situations to prevent the of self-consciousness as well as ideas of self-reference. consequences they fear. Individuals frequently experience a distorted body image BDD is more common than previously recognized, with or a ‘‘felt impression’’ of how they believe they appear to a prevalence of about 2% in the general population.5,6 It is others.2 This can often be communicated in a self-portrait a chronic disorder, which persists for many years if left of how a person believes he or she looks. They may fear untreated.4,7 It is also associated with a high rate of psychiatric hospitalization, suicidal ideation, and com- pleted suicide.8,9 It is poorly identified in psychiatric Correspondence: David Veale, Centre of Anxiety Disorders and populations where, because of shame and stigma, Trauma, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AZ, UK. patients apparently often conceal their difficulties or E-mail: [email protected] present with symptoms of depression, social anxiety, or Body dysmorphic and olfactory reference disorder S15 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) when their main for any persistent delusional disorder that does not meet problem is BDD.7 Individuals with BDD may receive the criteria for delusional disorder (F22.0), and may unnecessary dermatological procedures and cosmetic include delusional dysmorphophobia. surgeries, which waste resources by failing to address the ICD-10 is therefore very confusing for the clinician underlying problem.10-12 seeking guidance on how to best classify symptoms of BDD may present in young people as well as is adults. BDD. The lack of a separate diagnosis of BDD also However, in young people BDD is thought to present on causes problems when trying to identify cases or audit more of a continuum from normal adolescent self- outcomes on computerized systems that use ICD-10. consciousness. Compared to adults, adolescents with Secondly, not having a separate diagnosis contributes to BDD had higher lifetime suicide rates and more delu- the lack of recognition of BDD and to the use of unhelpful sional beliefs.13 They may also be impaired by school treatments such as antipsychotic medication16 or other refusal, family discord, and social isolation. Lastly, and forms of therapy that are not effective for BDD.17 rarely, BDD by proxy may occur,14 in which an individual is preoccupied by a perceived defect occuring in another, History of BDD in DSM usually a loved one. In DSM-IV, BDD was classified within the section on BDD in ICD-10 somatoform disorders. In DSM-5, BDD has been moved to the section on obsessive-compulsive and related 18 The diagnosis of BDD or dysmorphophobia was not disorders (OCRD). While the DSM-IV criteria referred separately classified in ICD-10,15 but was listed or to an ‘‘imagined defect,’’ this has been helpfully clarified in described under four different diagnoses. It is unclear DSM-5 to refer to a preoccupation with ‘‘perceived how these are differentiated. The first of the possible defects or flaws.’’ Like most conditions, the symptoms diagnoses for BDD in ICD-10 is hypochondriacal disorder must be either significantly distressing or interfering with (F45.2), for which BDD is listed as an inclusion term. one’s life. For hypochondriacal disorder there must be either DSM-5 has also added an additional criterion requiring ‘‘a persistent belief, of at least 6 months duration, of that the person have performed repetitive behaviors or the presence of at least one serious physical illness mental acts in response to the appearance concerns at underlying the present symptom, even though repeated some point during the course of the disorder. Avoidance investigations and examinations have identified no behavior is described as an associated feature. In DSM- adequate physical explanation’’ or ‘‘a persistent preoccu- IV, if the beliefs regarding physical defects were pation with a presumed deformity or disfigurement.’’ considered to be delusional in intensity, an additional There is a further requirement of a ‘‘persistent refusal diagnosis of a delusional disorder could be assigned. to accept the advice and reassurance of several different DSM-5 regards such delusional beliefs regarding physical doctors that there is no physical illness or abnormality defects as an indication of the severity of BDD, so that an underlying the symptoms.’’ This last requirement is additional diagnosis of delusional disorder is not indi- 19 designed for people with concerns about illness or cated. This makes the diagnostic algorithm for BDD somatic symptoms and is not sufficiently specific for more consistent with disorders such as anorexia nervosa BDD. While people with BDD may interact with the health or OCD: for these conditions, an additional diagnosis is care system by seeking repeated cosmetic procedures not assigned to denote delusional beliefs that are part of from dermatologists or surgeons, this behavior is by no the disorder. Instead, DSM-5 has provided an additional means universal and is dependent on the specific form of specifier for the degree of insight to be added to the BDD, financial means, and culture. diagnosis of BDD. It has also added a specifier for Symptoms of BDD are also specifically mentioned in ‘‘muscle dysmorphia’’ to be used in cases that involve an the ICD-10 description of schizotypal disorder (F21), individual being preoccupied with his or her body being which is ‘‘characterized by eccentric behavior and too puny or insufficiently muscular. anomalies of thinking and affect which resemble those seen in schizophrenia.’’ One of the examples provided for ICD-11
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