March Against Fear

“The day for the Negro man being a coward is over.” 1966.

Julian Palmer

Junior Division

Historical Paper

Paper Length: 2,460

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The Against Fear

“The day for the Negro man being a coward is over.” James Meredith 1966.

Fear is a powerful emotion, one that can build slowly over time and has the power to control an individual's life. How do you break the barrier of fear so you are no longer afraid? living in Mississippi in the 1960s lived with fear: fear of losing their jobs, beatings, jail, and murder. To overcome fear, something significant has to occur. James Meredith wanted to break this barrier of fear in African Americans living in Mississippi by marching 220 miles through the heart of the state. He called his march, the March Against Fear. However, on just the second day of his March, Meredith was shot, leaving the March Against Fear to be led by others. The goals that James

Meredith set out to accomplish with the March Against Fear remained the same: to eliminate fear in African Americans living in Mississippi and encourage African

Americans to register to vote. However, without Meredith leading the March, contrary ideologies emerged which fractured the forever.

How fear was created in Mississippi:

The concept of fear for African Americans began in the United States of America in 1619 when twenty kidnapped Africans arrived to be enslaved in the new world. This was the beginning of two hundred and forty-six years of slavery in America. When 3

slavery ended African Americans still endured hardships. The Southern States, and

Mississippi, in particular, were racially segregated societies. Through ,

African Americans living in Mississippi were forced to live as second class citizens.

Breaking the written and unwritten laws regarding segregation would often have dire consequences.

Fear was instilled in African Americans in Mississippi with lynchings and murder.

Between 1882 and 1968 there were 581 lynchings in the state of Mississippi (NAACP).

This was the largest number of lynchings in any state. Lynchings served as a constant reminder to African Americans to stay in their place and not to disrupt the white power structure. Even the young were not spared. In 1955, Emmitt Till a fourteen-year-old from

Chicago visiting Mississippi for the summer was brutally murdered by two white men for whistling at a white woman. Those who tried to disrupt the white power structure in

Mississippi were often killed. In 1963, , an NAACP field secretary in

Mississippi, was murdered in his driveway for trying to improve lives in Mississippi. ​ ​ These were the constant reminders that African Americans lived with and these, in turn, created a sense of fear in African Americans living in Mississippi. James Meredith was impatient with the progress being made by African Americans living in Mississippi and he intended to change things.

Ending Fear: 4

James Meredith was born June 25th, 1933, in the small town of Kosciusko,

Mississippi. He lived on a farm and he had nine siblings. Growing up Meredith’s father shielded him from and he did not know about segregation. James Meredith was first exposed to segregation when he was thirteen years old and riding a train from

Chicago to Memphis.

“When the train stopped in Memphis, Tennessee Meredith and his brother were ordered to move from their seats to the overcrowded black section of the train where they stood for the remainder of their trip to Mississippi.” After this Meredith vowed to “devote his life to ensuring that citizenship rights of blacks were legally recognized” (National Visionary Leadership Project).

Meredith served in the United States Air Force from 1951-1960. After serving his country Meredith attended Jackson State College. When Meredith finished attending

Jackson State, he applied to the University of Mississippi. “Ole Miss” was an all white school and Meredith was repeatedly denied admissions solely based on his race. The

Governor of Mississippi had already rejected a Supreme Court ruling to integrate the university. But, October 1, 1962, Meredith became the first African American student ​ ​ admitted to “Ole Miss”. Meredith's attendance did not come easy “It took some 30,000

U.S. troops, federal marshals and national guardsmen to get James Meredith to class after a violent campus uprising. Two people were killed and more than 300 injured.

Some historians say the integration of Ole Miss was the last battle of the Civil War”

(Elliott). The riots caused so much chaos that President John F. Kenedy had to address ​ ​ the situation. Meredith would graduate one year later with degrees in political science, 5

history, and French. This event alone would have made James Meredith a civil rights icon, but he was not satisfied with the living conditions for African Americans in his home state of Mississippi.

March Against Fear:

Fear does not last forever; people either become numb to fear or they decide to fight back and overcome their fear. James Meredeth is a fighter. During a press conference, James Meredith announced the two goals of the March Against Fear, “first to ‘...challenge all-pervasive fear that dominates the day to day life of the Negro United

States, especially in the South, and particularly in Mississippi;’ and second to

‘...encourage the 450,000 unregistered Negroes in Mississippi to go to the polls and register’” (Meredith Begins His March). On June 5th, 1966, James Meredith and four others set out on a journey to walk from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi, a ​ distance of 220 miles. This was not your typical Civil Rights March; Meredith wanted to do things on his own terms and did not want the circus-like atmosphere that came with most Civil Rights Marches. Meredith had no food or a sleeping bag and only a couple of dollars because he knew African Americans in Mississippi would take care of him.

On the second day of his March, James Meredith encountered the violence that ​ ​ plagued so many other African Americans in Mississippi. Aubrey Norvell, a white man with a shotgun stepped out of the brush shouting "I only want Meredith'' (Reed A1). He ​ ​ ​ ​ shot three times, hitting and knocking Meredith to the pavement. Claude Sterrett, one of 6

the men accompanying Meredith, said of Norvell and the shooting, “He took time to let us know he was there, to smile and wave his hand before he shot...The police were standing right there and they did nothing about it This was a definite set-up” (Reed A1).

After the shooting Meredith was taken by ambulance to a Memphis hospital. The day after being shot Meredith said how he wished he had a gun with him saying, “I’m sorry I didn’t have something to take care of that man. I’ll never make that mistake again”

(Reed 1).

Upon hearing of the shooting, major civil rights organizations and leaders vowed to continue Meredith’s March not wanting to have the March end because of fear and violence. The two most notable civil rights leaders to join the March were Dr. Martin

Luther Jr. from the Southern Chirsiation leadership Conference (SCLC) and

Stokely Carmichael from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

With the shooting of Meredith, the March Against Fear was no longer a solitary march but a large Civil Rights March. From the start, there was tension within the

March, as two vastly different philosophies emerged. Dr. King’s philosophy was of non-violence. During the March King said, “If we are going to be free, we are going to have to suffer, for that freedom, we will have to sacrifice for it” (:The ​ Time Has Come). Conversely, Stokley Carmicheal demanded equality, saying, “I’m not ​ going to beg the white man for anything that I deserve, I’m going to take it” (Eyes on the ​ Prize:The Time Has Come). The March resumed where Meredith was shot. Quickly ​ there was quickly tension. The highway patrol, who were to protect the marchers, would 7

not allow the marchers on the side of the road. The “troopers told the marchers to hike along the side of the road, rather than on the pavement and began pushing and shoving the marchers when the marchers refused” (Roberts 1). Carmicheal became upset with being forced onto the side of the road. He raised his fist to strike one of the officers, only to have Dr. King restrain him by the arm. Participants would drop in and out of the

March. Sometimes there might be a few hundred people marching and at other times there might be thousands of people. The marchers were constantly spreading out to towns, villages, and plantations to encourage African Americans to register to vote.

Marchers were supported by local African Americans and black churches that provided food and shelter. At night while camping, the marchers were protected by the armed

Deacons for Defense and Justice

The tension within the March soon erupted. While attempting to set up camp for the night at Stone Street Negro Elementary School, Carmicheal was arrested for trespassing. He was held and released a few hours later and would deliver a speech to

600 marchers that would fracture the Civil Rights Movement forever. Throughout the

March the main slogan had been, “Freedom Now,” but Carmicheal wanted more. As he stepped up to speak to the marchers he said, “This is the 27th time I have been arrested and I ain’t going to jail no more!” (Branch 4). He continued, ‘We want !' He shouted five times, jabbing his forefinger downward in the air. ‘That’s right.

That’s what we want, black power...all we’ve been doing begging, begging and begging.

It’s time we stand up and take over’” (Branch 486). This led to a call and response 8

where he would ask the marchers, “What do you want?” and they would yell back “Black

Power.” This new slogan and tone created clear differences with Dr. King, who was not in Greenwood during Carmicheal’s speech. About using the phrase Black Power Dr.

King recalled a conversation that he had with Carmicheal, “‘Martin, I deliberately decided to raise the issue on the march in order to give it a national forum, and force you to take a stand for Black Power.’ I [King] laughed. ‘I have been used before,’ I said to Stokely. ‘One more time won’t hurt’” (Washington 575). While not agreeing with

Carmicheal’s philosophy or methods, King also refused to denounce him.

However, by uttering this phrase Carmicheal split the civil rights movement in two. On one side, Dr. King led the largely older, non-violent group willing to suffer for their rights. And on the other side, there was a younger more militant group that did not feel that they should wait or ask for rights that they should already have.

A few days later in Canton, Mississippi, violence broke out. The marchers were setting up camp for the night at McNeal Elementary School, where they were given permission by the school board, only to have the permission later revoked by White city officials. Mississippi state troopers surrounded the marchers. Carmichel, standing beside an uncomfortable looking Dr. King, delivered a fiery speech to the state troopers and marchers, “We don’t want anyone to move. The time for running has come to an end you tell them White folk in Mississippi that all the scared niggers are dead” (Eyes ​ on the Prize:The Time Has Come). Shortly later the violence began as the state police ​ and local law enforcement began tear gassing the marchers. 9

“It was like a scene of hell with the smoke rising and people vomiting and crawling around and choking and crying and then there was this eerie silence and the one thing you could hear over and over again was the thug, thug, thug sound. And what it was was Mississippi troopers kicking people on the ground or hitting them with their rifle butts.” (Eyes on the Prize:The Time Has Come). ​ ​

One day before reaching Jackson, Mississippi, James Meredith rejoined the

Marchers. Meredith received a hero’s welcome, but he was not impressed. He said,

“What’s happening?...’I don’t know what’s happening over there. I think something is wrong. The whole damn thing smells to me” (Meredith Shuns Rally). Meredith could not have envisioned that his solitary March through the heart of Mississippi would turn into what has often been called “the last great March of the Civil Rights Movement.” When

Meredith was informed that he was expected to give a speech to address the marchers,

Meredith told a friend, “That's a funny thing up there. I don’t know what’s going on”(Meredith Shuns Rally). The following day 15,000 people triumphantly marched into

Jackson, making the March Against Fear the largest Civil Rights March in Mississippi.

Marchers listened to speeches, sang , and raised expectations for

African Americans living in Mississippi.

Legacy:

How can you determine if the “March Against Fear” was a success? Or was it a failure? After all, James Meredith was shot, marchers were beaten, and the Civil Rights

Movement was split in two. When told that the March Against Fear was inconsequential

Leonard Gill responded, “Tell that to 106 year old El Fondren, a man probably born a ​ 10

slave, who entered the courthouse in Batesville and emerged for the first time in his very long life a registered voter” (Gill). Clearly he had overcome fear. It is estimated that ​ the March resulted in “4,000 African Americans registering to vote” (Eyes on the ​ Prize:The Time Has Come). Another impact of the March was the, “long standing ​ political and cultural effects, serving to galvanize community organizing among blacks in the state” (Goudsouzian 246). Many of the Marchers eventually left Mississippi, they left a legacy of hope which allowed people to organize to help improve their own lives.

Maybe the most important thing was how, “The March ‘defied Jim Crow's culture of intimidation’ by the very act of blacks asserting themselves through the different communities, celebrating their identities, and organizing” (Goudsouzian 246). NAACP

Mississippi Field Secretary, , the brother of Medgar Evers, said that the

March Against Fear, “killed fear” (Reed A1). If the goal was to eliminate fear and increase voter registration, then the March was a success. Even the new divisions within the Civil Rights Movement did not stop progress for African Americans and may have actually promoted progress. The largely white power structure had to now deal with more militant African Americans that were growing increasingly tired of waiting for basic human rights and were demanding equality. With the largely white power structure fearing civil unrest they may have sped up African American demands for equality.

About a year after being shot James Meredith marched again. “[I]n three trips over thirteen months, he fulfilled his promise to walk Highway 51 from Memphis to 11

Jackson” (Gill). Meredith said that his March enabled him, “to be sure myself that I was not afraid” (Rugaber A1).

Bibliography

Primary Sources:

DeVinney, James A, , and Henry Hampton. Eyes on the Prize: America's

Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965. Alexandria, VA: PBS Home Video, 2010. 12

This is a video documentary that provides a great deal of primary source material. It contains speeches, pictures, and interviews with participants in the Civil

Rights Movement. I used this source when looking at the violence of the march and for video footage to get a better understanding of what was occurring. This video series documents the entire March Against Fear and explains the need for Black Power.

Hampton, Henry, et al. Voices of Freedom: an Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement

from the 1950s through the 1980s. Vintage, 1995.

This book goes with the “Eyes On The Prize” video series. It contains interviews from people who were active in the Civil Rights Movement. This book illustrates the Civil

Rights Movement from 1950 to 1980.

King, Martin Luther, and James Melvin. Washington. A Testament of Hope. Harper ​ ​ Row, 1991.

This is a book that contains essential speeches from Dr. King and it helped when discussing a conversation between King and Carmicheal when he introduced Black

Power.

Meredith, James: Visionary Videos: NVLP: African American History,

www.visionaryproject.org/meredithjames/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2020. 13

These are a series of interviews with James Meredith that talk about his life.

These videos were useful in getting a better understanding of James Meredith and capturing his words about the March.

“Meredith Shuns Rally.” The New York Times, 24 .

I used this article when James Meredith rejoined the March. I found this article very interesting because I would have thought that Meredith would have been happy with what he started, when he was not really happy with the March.

Reed, Roy. “MEREDITH IS SHOT IN BACK ON WALK INTO MISSISSIPPI.” The New

York Times, 7 June 1966.

This is the New York Times article of the James Meredith shooting. I used this article when discussing Meredith getting shot.

Reed, Roy. “Meredith March Through Mississippi a Year Ago Had Mixed Impact On

Rights struggles.” New York Times, 5 June 1967. ​ ​ This talks about the impact of the March and the different opinions on the March.

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Reed, Roy. “Meredith Regrets He Was Not Armed.” New York Times, 8 June 1966, ​ ​ This is talking about how Meredith said that he should have armed himself with a weapon after he was shot.

Roberts, Gene. “Troopers Shove Group Resuming Meredith March.” New York ​ Times, 8 June 1966, ​ This is a newspaper article that is discussing how the marchers are having conflicts with the state police. I used this source when discussing the early conflicts of the March.

Rugaber, Walter. “Meredith's March Through Mississippi Ends Quietly.” New ​ York Times, 5 July 1967. ​ This is talking about Meredith wanting to finish the March on his own terms to show himself that he was not afraid.

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Secondary Sources:

“Civil Rights Movement History 1966 (Jan-June).” Civil Rights Movement History &

Timeline, 1966, www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis66.htm#1966mmaf. Accessed 4 Feb. ​ ​ 2020.

This website talked in depth about the March Against Fear and Black Power. It also talked about the Civil Rights Movement in 1966. I used this site to gain a better understanding of the March Against Fear.

Branch, Taylor. At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965-68. New York, ​ ​ Simon & Schuster, 2007.

This book is a three part series that follows Dr. King and the Civil Rights

Movement. I used this book when looking at Dr.King’s reaction to Black Power.

Elliott, Debbie. “Integrating Ole Miss: A Transformative, Deadly Riot.” NPR, NPR, 1 Oct.

2012, www.npr.org/2012/10/01/161573289/integrating-ole-miss-a-transformative-deadly-riot.

Accessed 4 Feb. 2020.

This article discusses how James Meredith was admitted to Ole Miss. This caused many problems as Meredith was the first African American admitted to Ole

Miss, there were riots, killings, federal troops, national guardsmen, and other federal agents at the school to make sure Meredith could attend school there. 16

Gill, Leonard. “Fear and Loathing in Mississippi.” Memphis Magazine, 1 Apr. 2014,

memphismagazine.com/culture/fear-and-loathing-in-mississippi/. Accessed 4

Feb. 2020.

This article was about the Meredith March and the legacy of the March. There were a lot of useful points of the article and was used when looking at the legacy of the

March

“History of Lynchings.” NAACP, .org/history-of-lynchings/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2020.

This talked about the KKK and the lynchings in Mississippi.

Goudsouzian, Aram. Down to the Crossroads: Civil Rights, Black Power, and the

Meredith March against Fear. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015.

This book was very detailed about the inner workings of the March and the Civil

Rights Movement. It also talked about the need for Black Power.