Ping-Pong Diplomacy: A Game of Two Nations Annotated Bibliography Primary Sources Books Kissinger, Henry. On . New York: The Penguin Press, 2011. ​ ​ Written by Henry Kissinger, who served as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under and Gerald Ford and has played a crucial role in the U.S.-China rapprochement, On China examines Chinese values and foreign policies and ​ ​ key points in U.S.-China relations. Here I found first-hand information from involved personnel on my topic that explains the position of the U.S. and China in each other’s eyes. I also used Kissinger’s quote about from this book.

Kissinger, Henry. White House Years. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011. ​ ​ This book is a personal memoir by Kissinger, and it recounts critical events regarding foreign policies in U.S. history, including those regarding China. There are a lot of details on the decision making by the U.S. government in the process of the Sino-U.S. rapprochement.

Nixon, Richard. The Memoirs of Richard Nixon. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990. ​ ​ Here, Nixon expresses some of his own opinions on the issue with China and how he worked towards resolving them. I see this as both a broad and detailed view of Nixon’s ​ work to improve Sino-U.S. relations.

Nixon, Richard. The Memories of Richard Nixon. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1975. ​ ​ Similar to the previous, Nixon writes about his experiences in China and how he communicated with the Chinese government regarding their rapprochement.

Government Documents

Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972, ed. Steven E. Phillips (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2006). This is a series of unclassified government documents regarding the relations of the U.S. with China between 1969 and 1976, including memorandums, speeches, conversations, etc. These documents show how the American government worked towards a rapprochement with China, and how the two countries communicated amidst the rapprochement.

Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XIII, China, 1977-1980, ed. David P. Nickles (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2013). This is a series of unclassified government documents regarding the relations of the U.S. with China between 1977 and 1980. It can be understood from these documents that the U.S. policy towards China significantly loosened in the late 1970’s, showing that the Sino-U.S. rapprochement was successful.

“Joint Communiqué of the United States of America and the People’s Republic of China.” Conclusion date: February 27, 1972. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XVII, China, 1969-1972: 812, history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d203 Otherwise known as the Shanghai Communiqué, this diplomatic document lays a setting stone for the U.S.-China rapprochement. It states that it is in the interest of all countries for the U.S. and China to normalize their relations, and that the U.S. will no longer challenge China on the position of Taiwan. I used it to show and explain the effects of ping-pong diplomacy.

Images

Glenn Cowan and Zedong. Los Angeles Magazine, www.lamag.com/longform/broken-promise/. I used this photo of Glenn Cowan and Zhuang Zedong, the major ping-pong diplomats, together to show the exchange and encounter that would eventually lead to the breaking of the barrier.

Quan Shi Jie Ren Ming Lian He Qi Lai Da Dao Mei Di Guo Zhu Yi. Sina, http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_a4c2681501019ou2.html. This displays a Chinese poster reading “down with American Imperialism”. I chose this picture because it reflects how the relationship between the U.S. and the PRC strained badly during the 1950’s and 60’s and how China spread propaganda against the U.S. to its people.

The American Team on the Great Wall of China. China Daily, http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/us/2016-07/23/content_26191495.htm. I placed this photo next to my brief overview of the trip that the American table tennis team took to China.

The National Archives. Nixon Meets Mao. 1972. National Geographic, ​ ​ https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/feb21/nixon-china/.

This is a famous photo of President Nixon shaking hands with Chairman Mao, symbolizing the official rapprochement between the U.S. and China.

The Shanghai Communiqué, Page 1. Feb. 27, 1972, retrieved 2016. Richard Nixon Foundation, https://www.nixonfoundation.org/artifact/shanghai-communique/. I included this photo of a transcript of the Shanghai Communiqué to explain this crucial turning point in the relations between the U.S. and China.

Xinhua. Chinese table tennis player Yang Ruihua (L) shaking hands with US athlete Dick Miles ​ prior to a friendship match in Shanghai on April 15, 1971. China Daily, ​ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/11/WS5caf6245a3104842260b5b8a_3.html. I included this picture of an American table tennis player shaking hands with a Chinese player because it thoroughly demonstrates how ordinary citizens are able to associate with each other. This shows the power of “grassroots” diplomacy.

Xin Jiang You Yi Kuai Di Fang, Cen Zhi Zhi Su Lian Bu Zhi Hua Xia. Sina, http://m.bljcn.com/cnblj/d377d347658.html. This picture is a representation of the Sino-Soviet Split. I used this as part of my background as to how China gradually became enemies with the USSR.

Connie Sweeris (right) playing one of the Chinese players in 1972 on their return visit to the US. ​ China Daily, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/18/WS5cb75722a3104842260b6c7b.html. This photo captures two players playing each other during the Chinese table tennis team’s return to the U.S.

Magazines/Journals

Eckstein, Ruth. “Ping Pong Diplomacy: A View from behind the Scenes.” The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 2, no. 3 (1993): 327-42. www.jstor.org/stable/23612842. This is an excerpt from The Journal of American-East Asian Relations, a peer-reviewed ​ ​ journal written by scholars who are part of the Committee on American-East Asian Relations set up by the American Historical Association. The excerpt recounts the Chinese table tennis team’s trip to the U.S. in 1972., and focuses mainly on the process of the invitations as well as the communications between delegations of both sides. The excerpt also describes, in detail, the itinerary of the Chinese team’s trip, the American reaction (which was generally positive), as well as some conflicts that arose during their visit.

“The World: The Ping Heard Round the World.” TIME, 26 Apr. 1971, ​ ​ content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,902878-1,00.html. This Times article discusses the American table tennis team’s trip in China, believing that this trip will finally break the barrier between the U.S. and China and has opened up a new chapter in Sino-U.S. relationships. This article gives an overview of how the press and the general public viewed the situation of ping-pong diplomacy.

Memorandums Scali, John. “Progress Report on the US Tour of the Chinese Table Tennis Team” Official memorandum. Washington, DC: The White House, 1972. In this memorandum, Scali informs President Richard Nixon of the progress of the Chinese table tennis team in their tour of the U.S. in early 1972. This document shows that in general, Americans have been receiving the Chinese players well and, in turn, Chinese players have found Americans to be more friendly than they expected. The trip was not completely unopposed, however. Some Americans strongly alienated the Chinese players and held signs saying “No Mao”.

Newspaper

Karnow, Stanley. “China Ping-Pong Team Starts U.S. Tour Soon.” The Washington Post ​ (Washington, D.C.), Apr. 4, 1972. This article, published about a week before the Chinese table tennis team toured the U.S., gives detailed backgrounds on the reason for the American tour of the Chinese table tennis team and discusses the preparations for the tour. At the same time, it mentions that this tour is seen as an opening of Sino-U.S. communications.

Karnow, Stanley. “China Ping-Pong Team begins Tour in Detroit.” The Washington Post ​ (Washington, D.C.), Apr. 13, 1972. This article, from The Washington Post, is a report of the beginning of the Chinese table ​ ​ tennis team’s tour of the U.S. It includes details of the trip such as planning and public reception. The report notes that the Chinese players seem to be more keen on discussing table tennis instead of their thoughts of the U.S., which can be used to explain the nature of grassroots diplomacy. I also put an image of this article next to where I explained the reciprocating invitation of the American table tennis team.

Transcripts

“Mao Zedong Meets Richard Nixon, February 21, 1972,” USC US-China Institute. February 21, 1972. https://china.usc.edu/mao-zedong-meets-richard-nixon-february-21-1972. This is a transcript of a dialogue between President Nixon and Chairman Mao when they met in China. They discuss the issues between the U.S. and China (Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, etc.), giving me details on exactly what were holding the two nations back from proper communication, and how they plan to resolve them.

Videos

“Ke Fan Qing Ting - Yi Qiu Bu Zheng He Yi Zheng Fu Tian Xia——Zhuang Ze Dong Zhuan Fang (Shang).” Tencent Video, uploaded Oct. 26, 2018. ​ ​ v.qq.com/x/page/x0767veu88y.html. This is an interview from Kevin Hours in which Zhuang Zedong recalled the conversation with Glenn Cowan during the championships and the “friendship first” policy implemented by the communist party. I learned in detail about how friendship sport was utilized as a diplomatic tool in the 1960’s.

“Nixon in China — The Film.” YouTube, uploaded by Richard Nixon Presidential Library, Feb. ​ ​ 22, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cfsI4ZjTbU. This is a compilation of audiovisual materials recorded of Nixon’s visit to China. I used quotes from this video to show the importance of this visit towards the history of Sino-U.S. relations.

“Ping Pong Diplomacy.” YouTube, uploaded by USC U.S.-China Institute, May 3, 2012, ​ ​ www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jsBfvnqqmw. This is a speech given by Zhuang Zedong at the University of Southern California, in which he speaks about his experiences as an athlete (and a diplomat), and how exactly the events of ping-pong diplomacy took place. I used a clip from this video to demonstrate the power of the so-called “grassroots” diplomacy.

“Ping Pong Diplomacy NBC.” YouTube, uploaded by Clark Kent, Oct. 18, 2008, ​ ​ www.youtube.com/watch?v=otPbgkYrKkg. This video contains content about ping-pong diplomacy from NBC News, narrated by reporter John Rich and including footage of actual matches between the American and Chinese players. I used this source mainly as background information and to vaguely “experience” what it would be like to be at one of those matches.

“President Nixon Announces Trip to China.” YouTube, uploaded by Richard Nixon Foundation, ​ ​ May 13, 2010, www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Ps34mVys8o.

In which Nixon announces to the American public that he has accepted an invitation to visit China, marking a crucial moment in the history of Sino-U.S. relations. He stresses that he will try to work towards the normalization of Sino-U.S. relations in the interest of all.

Secondary Sources Books

Bjola, Corneliu and Kornprobst, Markus. Understanding International Diplomacy: Theory, ​ Practice and Ethics. Milton: Routledge, 2018. ​ This is a book overviewing international diplomacy. I used Premier ’s quote regarding ping-pong diplomacy from this book.

Griffin, Nicholas. Ping-Pong Diplomacy: The Secret History Behind the Game that Changed the ​ World. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, 2015. ​ This book scrutinizes the intersection between sports and society, as well as the details behind the table tennis championships that took place in Nagoya, Japan. Taking information from witnesses and other primary sources, it reveals how the game is planned and, to some extent, manipulated to serve a diplomatic purpose. I used this book as a background source, to examine details of the events during the championships and the American team’s trip to China.

Tan, Andrew. Handbook of US-China Relations. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc., ​ ​ 2016. Edited by Andrew Tan, this handbook is written by multiple international scholars, giving an in-depth examination of the historical, economical, political, and militarial aspects of U.S.-China relations and analysing how they affect the contemporary world. I used this source as a basic examination of ping-pong diplomacy’s effects on later Sino-U.S. relations.

Images

International Table Tennis Federation Museum. Ping-Pong Diplomacy. ​ This is a photo from the ITTF Museum, displaying a racket with a creative design of ping-pong diplomacy. I included this because this demonstrates how ping-pong diplomacy and the Sino-U.S. rapprochement has affected generations of people since the 1970’s.

Interviews

Cunningham, William J. Interview. Mar. 17, 1997. William Cunningham was a diplomat who played a crucial role in the events of ping-pong diplomacy. In this 149-page interview, Cunningham discusses his life experiences. In his account of ping-pong diplomacy, he speaks about how he coordinated the communications between the U.S. government and the American table tennis team. I used this source to research details of how the American table tennis team was able to make it to China.

Griffin, Nicholas. Interview. Jan. 23, 2014. Nicholas Griffin holds the Canadian Research Chair in philosophy at McMaster University. In this interview, he explains how ping-pong diplomacy served as an intermediary between the U.S. and China when they seeked a rapprochement.

Grix, Jonathan. Interview. Feb. 6, 2018. https://www.cfr.org/interview/mixed-record-sports-diplomacy. In this interview, Jonathan Grix, the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, describes the history of sports diplomacy. Ping-pong diplomacy is the most famous example of sports diplomacy, but such means of communication doesn’t succeed every time—for instance, between North and South Korea. He explains that sometimes, if at the wrong time and under the wrong political climate, sports cannot always transcend national barriers.

Magazines/Journals

Wang, Guanhua. ““Friendship First”: China's Sports Diplomacy during the Cold War.” The ​ Journal of American-East Asian Relations 12, no. 3/4 (2003): 133-53. ​ www.jstor.org/stable/23613227. This article is an excerpt from The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. It ​ ​ describes how China used sports as a diplomatic tool, incorporating the slogan “friendship first, competition second”. When playing games and tournaments, Chinese athletes were encouraged to establish friendly relationships with other teams. Through this strategy, China was able to open up means of communication with multiple nations in the 1960’s and the 1970’s. They ended up abandoning it in the end, however, when competition became more fierce (players were more obliged to “win honor for the motherland”) and the political climate changed.

Yi, Guolin. “The “Propaganda State” and Sino-American Rapprochement: Preparing the Chinese Public for Nixon's Visit.” The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 20, no. 1 ​ ​ (2013): 5-28. www.jstor.org/stable/23613104. This article from The Journal of American-East Asian Relations discusses the steps taken ​ ​ by the Chinese to prepare the Communist party and the general public for the rapprochement of China and the U.S., especially concerning Nixon’s visit to China in 1972. It analyzes articles from the People’s Daily and Reference News, two papers circulated only in China. From this I learned that these circulations played an important part in promoting the U.S.-China rapprochement to the general public.

Podcasts Chapin, Dwight. “Dwight Chapin on the Planning and Execution of President Nixon’s Trip to China”, Nixon Now Podcast. Podcast audio, Feb 25, 2019. ​ ​ www.nixonfoundation.org/2019/02/podcast-dwight-chapin-planning-execution-president- nixons-trip-china. Chapin was a personal aide to Nixon in his years as president. In this podcast, Chapin recounts the details of Nixon’s trip to China in 1972 and how it was initially planned out.

Nichter, Luke. “Luke Nichter on the 1971-1972 White House Tapes and China”, Nixon Now ​ Podcast. Podcast audio, Dec 24, 2018. ​ www.nixonfoundation.org/2018/12/podcast-luke-nichter-1971-1972-white-house-tapes-c hina. Luke Nichter is a Professor of History at Texas A&M University. In this podcast, he discusses some of Nixon’s conversations regarding Sino-U.S. rapprochement. I learned of some secret works Nixon did in order to follow through with the rapprochement, and how the USSR reacted to the normalization of relations between the U.S. and China.

Websites/Online Magazines/Blogs

“Experts reflect on Nixon's 1972 visit to China and U.S.-China relations.” UCLA Today. February 28, 2012. https://www.international.ucla.edu/asia/article/124705. This article from UCLA Today features quotes from interviews with researchers and professors who are experts on Sino-U.S. relations, where they talk about Nixon’s visit to China in 1972, about why the U.S. and China had seeked a rapprochement, and how this event has transformed both the U.S. and China themselves.

Huang, Run-Wen and Gants, Connor, “Diplomacy in the Sports Arena.” University of Southern California. USC US-China Institute, March 7, 2008. https://archive.is/20080609044910/http://uschina.usc.edu/ShowFeature.aspx

This source suggests that before approaching Glenn Cowan, Zhuang Zedong had in fact hesitated. His real driving force may have been Mao Zedong’s instructions for the Chinese table tennis team to put friendship before competition.

Wang, Ting and Yu, Qian. “Ping Pang Wai Jiao Da Kai Yu Xi Fang Mao Yi Zheng Chang Hua Da Men.” The History of Commerce. http://history.mofcom.gov.cn/?newchina=乒乓外 交打开与西方贸易正常化大门. This webpage gives an overview of the events leading up to ping-pong diplomacy and its after-effects. It also notes how trade with the West significantly increased, boosting China’s economy, after the opening-up of relationships with the U.S.

Zhuang, Zedong. 2007. “Hui Yi Wo Yu Ke En De Jiao Wang.” Zhuang Ze Dong De Bo Ke ​ (blog). Sina. May 1. blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4cf7b4ec010007w1.html. ​ ​ In this blog post, Chinese player Zhuang Zedong recalls his relationship with American player Glenn Cowan, shortly after Cowan’s death. This blog tells us that Zhuang was quite genuine with Cowan as a friend.