International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage

Volume 4 Issue 1 Article 7

2016

Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions

Mehdi Ebadi [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Ebadi, Mehdi (2016) "Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions," International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage: Vol. 4: Iss. 1, Article 7. doi:https://doi.org/10.21427/D74M8P Available at: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/ijrtp/vol4/iss1/7

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License. © International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage ISSN : 2009-7379 Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijrtp/ Volume 4(i) 2016

Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian Cultural Regions

Mehdi Ebadi Persika Tours Gerolstein, Germany [email protected]

Academic studies, dedicated to various aspects of religiously motivated travel have increased steadily, especially in recent years. Despite the huge amount of publications related to tourism and religious pilgrimage, there is still a gap between abstract theory and empirical research. Studies devoted to pilgrimage in the developing countries generally, and Islamic regions in particular are rather few in number in spite of its socio- economic importance and widespread practices. The present work tries to address this relative lack of attention and will shed more light on the tradition of shrine pilgrimage (known as ziyārat) in Turco-Iranian cultural milieu that is almost unknown within the wider community of tourism and geography researchers.

Key Words: : Religious tourism, Shrine Pilgrimage, Ziyārat, , Central Asia, Turco- Iranian cultures, Turkmen Sahra

Introduction Islamic shrine pilgrimage is strongly popular and Tourism is considered to be an activity which, in one practiced is the so-called Turco-Iranian cultural region. form or another, mankind has been engaged in from times immemorial. In the last decade the number of Literature Review international tourists grew almost exponentially until it Pilgrimage, or religious motivated travel, plays a great reached a historical record of more than one billion in role in the social life of Muslims and is an important 2012. One of the most important, but rather neglected part of Islamic fabric. From North Africa, the Middle forms of tourism is religiously motivated travel, also East to Central, and South / Southeast Asia, shrine known as ‘religious tourism’ or ‘pilgrimage’. Since the pilgrimage is common among Muslims. Numerous dawn of history, vast numbers of sacred places around Sufi lodgings (khanegahs), shrines, schools, mosques, the world such as shrines, temples, churches, religious tombs (mazars), and mausoleums of saints, martyrs, festivals, landscape features, and so on, have attracted Sufi-masters, and other holy men and women, attract pilgrims. Even in our highly mobile and largely millions of pilgrims, who travel substantial distances to secularized modern world, pilgrimage is still a force to these centers (Barnfoot and Barnesm, 2006; Schimmel, be reckoned with. With around 200 to 600 million 1980; Din, 1989; Lanquar, 2001 and Van Bruinsessen, national and international religious and spiritual 2008). According to Islamic traditions, Muslims are journeys taking place every year, pilgrimage is clearly encouraged to travel, not only to bear witness to the one of the fastest growing forms of tourism (UNWTO, greatness of God, but also to gain knowledge, learn 2011; Rinschede & Bhardwaj, 1988). Numerous cities about other cultures, and meet pious and wise men. worldwide have been built and developed thanks to Generally, the ‘religious’ travels among Muslims pilgrimage. Among the most well-known examples are around the world could be classified into two forms: Lourdes in France, Mecca in Saudi Arabia, Karbala in Mandatory (Hajj) and voluntary (ziyārat). Hajj or Iraq and Mashhad in Iran, whose economies are largely pilgrimage to the Ka'ba (‘the house of God’) in Mecca reliant on the huge numbers of pilgrims. In recent is the most important travel event for Muslims. Each years, academic studies, dedicated to various aspects of year from the 8th to the 12th day of Dhu al-Hijjah (the religiously motivated travel have increased steadily. last month of the /Islamic calendar), more than But there is still a gap between abstract theory and two million pilgrims from every corner of the world empirical research. Studies devoted to pilgrimage in come to perform the ritual of Hajj. This pilgrimage to developing countries generally, and Islamic regions in Mecca serves as the model for other forms of particular are rather few. Among the areas where

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pilgrimage in the Islamic world.[1] Every Muslim is Christianity, which people do as a way of getting required to make Hajj at least once in a lifetime, if he closer to God, gaining blessings in their lives, and or she is physically and financially able. During Hajj a celebrating famous saints from history. Bhardwaj Muslim must perform certain rites and ceremonies, describes the ziyārat as follows: which symbolically represent the experience of Ziyārat [Sic.] seem to be composed of Abraham and Hagar (his wife). The second form of subsystems that have developed in several pilgrimage in is known as ziyārat (also written as cultural contexts, each of which shares the ziarat or ziara)[2] or shrine pilgrimage, which, despite universal characteristics of Islam, but also its socio-economic role in traditional societies, has reflects [the regional] cultural distinctiveness . been mostly neglected by tourism scholars. An . . contrary to Hajj, the behavior of the individuals in the ziarat, reflects the cultural important distinction should therefore be made context and the individual’s existential quest . . between Hajj and ziyārat. The Hajj is considered to be . there are no uniformity prescribed rules. . . . the ‘official’ or ‘normative’ form of Islamic pilgrimage the individual pilgrim in the ziarat follows the with static rituals, whereas ziyārat is a ‘popular’ (i.e. rules specific to the place and local culture . . . volkstümlich) or ‘alternative’ form of pilgrimage which it is not uncommon to see pilgrims in ziarat is practiced in different forms among people from singing devotional songs, expressing their different cultures. In other words, ziyārat, with its frailty, or asking for the intercession of local unwritten rules manifests the variegated cultural of saint in personal problems (Bhardwaj, 1998: 72 -79). Islam in various regions. Writing about this subject Khosronejad states: The importance of ziyārat in some Muslim cultures [Ziyārat] is a multi-dimensional phenomenon (especially Sufi cults)[3], extends to a level whereby it influenced by geography and local custom as is seen to be as important as Hajj for many believers. well as by religious tradition. . . . ziyara, in the Privratsky (2001) for instance remarks about the Islamic context, are not only pilgrimage but importance of pilgrimage to the shrine of Ahmet also the culture of devotion, of which Yasawi (a popular Sufi Saint) among Kazakhs. pilgrimage and saint veneration is an integral Performing pilgrimage to his shrine (which they call part. Therefore, ziyara did not always refer to making pilgrimages to shrines and tombs or ekinshi Mecca which literary means ‘second Mecca’) sacred places (Khosronejad, 2012: 13). three times, is equivalent to a single pilgrimage to Mecca. Montgomery (2007: 362-370), who examined Muslims in ziyārat visit shrines, mosques, and tombs the holy mountain in Osh in Kyrgyzstan, similarly allied to the Prophet, saints, martyrs, imāms, and other reports on the religious rituals and traditions of ziyārat venerated persons (men and women). among local visitors who believe that it is only after visiting this Mountain that an individual can be Bhardwaj (1998), as one of the pioneering researchers prepared to go to Mecca. They also believe that on the topic, identifies several common features of the performing three (to ten) visits to Sulayman Mountain ziyārat, defining it as a ‘non-Hajj pilgrimage’, which is equivalent to a Hajj to Mecca. Other researchers like expresses the regional Islamic culture of a population 4. Prager reports on shrine pilgrimage (ziyārat) among especially in non-Arab countries. These voluntary Alawis in . She notes: pilgrimages are akin to pilgrimage travel in one of the key concepts of the Alawi religion is the idea of a cyclical manifestation of God’s revelation, 1. Moreover, the Hajj to Mecca occupies such a central resulting from the fall of the Light Souls (nurani) position that it, along with Profession of faith, fasting beginning with Adam and finding its closure with ‘Ali, during the month of Ramadan, almsgiving, and ritual the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet. These prayer is considered to be as one of the ‘five pillars’ of cyclical revelations were closely connected to teachings Islam. about the reincarnation and transmigration of souls, 2. Ziyārat (ziyara) derived from the Arabic word zara which the latter being essential for the understanding of Alawi literary means ‘to visit’. ideas and practices surrounding the ziyāra. […] the Alawi differentiate between three types of ziyārāt, 3. as a ‘popular’ version of Islam; originated in namely, the khidr-ziyārāt, nabi-ziyārāt, and shaykh- reaction to over-legalistic formulations of Islam and for ziyārāt. While the first two categories are related to the several centuries, represented a powerful alternative idea of reincarnation of Lights Souls, the shaykh- source of power. In Sufism, developing a power inner ziyārāt are usually connected with the transmigration conviction of faith and a personal religious experience has of souls, particularly those of gifted/spiritually been stressed (Schadle, 2009; Coleman and Elsner, 1995: advanced human beings. Each of these ziyārāt is named 72). Ziyārat, in fact, is born out of popular Sufi practices after the respective Prophet, saint or shaykh to whom in Central Asia. the shrine is dedicated (Prager, 2013:45-48).

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Daneshvari (1986), Hällzon (2009), Lymer (2004), and directions; these roles acquired a new and Prager (2013)[4] have also reported about such special lease of life after the saints’ deaths, when their tombs became the centers of shrines perceptions in other parts of the Islamic world as well. or mazars (Soucek, 2000: 38).

Despite the motivations among many Muslims to do Historically speaking, Iran and Central Asia have ziyārat, pilgrimage to sacred places other than Mecca is numerous cultural connections so that nowadays one a controversial subject in Islamic orthodox contexts, can observe several similar religious and cultural since these practices are not supported by the Quran or rituals among the people of Iran and Central Asia. hadiths (Timothy and Iverson, 2006; Abramson and Richard Frye, an American professor of Iranian and Karimov, 2007). Central Asian studies about this matter comments: In spite of the fact that in the early Islamic evidence, […] the peoples of Central Asia, whether unlike other religions like Christianity,[5] there was no Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, evidence of sanctification; nevertheless, nowadays one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them saint-related pilgrimage is a common activity among a (Frye, 1996: 4). large number of Muslims[6]. Soucek in this regards indicates: According to historical documents, a large portion of [Although] there was no canonization process . modern Central Asia (which in ancient times was . . Muslim saints were admitted - or believed by known as Khorasmia, Sogdiana and part of Khurasan) the masses - to perform , a concept half and Iran were part of a wider cultural milieu, namely -way between miracle and blessing bestowed by the Turco-Persian sphere. In ancient times and before God; and in the absence of a canonical Islam was introduced, this cultural sphere was a bridge counterpart to the Christian saint, there were between East and West and the confluence of several words like (Arabic for wali Allah, ‘he who civilizations stemming from , , and the is close to God’), khwaja, ishon, bābā, atā, or Owliyā (plural of wali often used in Turkic as a . Along the so-called Silk Road, Parthian singular) which assumed that function. In their and Persian traders from the Parthian and Sassanian lifetime, these saints played . . . catalytic roles Empires of the Middle East became prominent as early in spreading or affirming Islam in all as 247 BCE (Foltz, 2010). These communities were instrumental in the exchange, not only of material 5. Soucek (2000: 38) indicates: goods, but also of ideas and several religious traditions The concept of the canonical ‘saint’ is absent in flowing between East and West. After the fifth century, orthodox Islam, and is only obliquely admitted by its a confederation of Turkic tribes from around the heterodox denominations; thus, none of the three eastern Altai Mountains moved westward and a core Islamic languages, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, has a lexical counterpart to the Christian century later replaced Iranian speaking groups who had [word] ‘saint’. migrated to Iran and India. From 552 to 654, these In a similar discussion, Coleman and Elsner (1995:69) groups of Turks together with the Sasanian Empire note: controlled Central Asia (Frye, 1984 and Levi, 2007). Unlike the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation, the divine attributes of God are held to be remote from human nature, so that according to orthodox The introduction of Islam accelerated the teaching no person can be closer to God than any Persianisation of the Iranian speaking communities; other. Mecca and Medina are, ideally, revered not subsequently the Arabicized version of Persian became because they represent the birth and dwelling-places the lingua franca among other ethnicities, of the Prophet, but because they are reminders of the original revelation granted to him. predominantly the former Turkic and Indian language speakers throughout Central Asia. This has given rise 6. According to some orthodox Sunni Muslims, like Wahhabis, pilgrimage and worshiping the saints is an un- to the so-called “Turco-Persian” culture, a blend of Islamic practice and they point out that the prophet indigenous, largely Turkic customs and beliefs as well Mohammad himself forbade prayers at his grave. as cosmopolitan, Islamicized Persian tradition and Consequently, no shrines have been erected over the Arabic language (Mazzaoui, 2011).[7] Canfield (2002: graves of the first three Caliphs. The exception is the grave of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Caliph according to 12) discusses the religious similarities in a general Sunni or the first Imām according to Shias, which has a sense: very splendid golden shrine erected on it and today his shrine along with the shrine of his Son, Hossein, are two this composite culture was the beginning of the of the holiest Shrines of Shia Muslims in Iraq (Heck, Turko-Persian variant of Islamic culture [in 2006 and Hällzon, 2009). which] Islam was thereafter disengaged from

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Map : The Turco-Persian Cultural World

Source: Miscellaneous

the Arab background and Bedouin mores from Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Islam, as well which it had sprung, [to] a far richer, more as local cults and beliefs, such as divination and adaptable, and universal culture. worship of natural forces and objects. The influences of the pre-Islamic Central Asian beliefs on the Islamic Frye (1996: 231) describes the history of religion in tenets are strong. It was only a natural development to Central Asia as follows: combine Islam – as a new faith - with old Shamanistic […] At the turn of the millennium [11th Century] rituals among early Central Asian Muslims. Central Asia not only was an important Islamic Accordingly, the roots of many of the rituals in modern land, but also became the Turkish center of times can be traced back to ancient times. rule, from which Muslim Turks spread to the Balkans and to Delhi […] it was Arabs who Among the most popular religious and cultural brought Iran and Central Asia together, the traditions in Central Asia is the veneration of saints Turks were the principal agents for spreading what we have called the Iranian [‘Persian’] (avliyā) and the visits (ziyārat) to their shrines (mazār), version of Islamic culture to the west, even to which is widely practiced in both rural and urban areas Constantinople [...] The Samanids were the last (Kehl-Bodrogi, 2006). Iranian dynasty to rule in Central Asia, and the year 1000 marks the end of the Samanid Abramson and Karimov (2007: 325), who have dynasty. extensively researched pilgrimages in Central Asia, comment: The veneration of holy shrines was most likely introduced by these Persian oriented Turkic tribes At several [...] sites there is evidence of objects across the whole Islamic realm. that have roots in pre-Islamic animalistic traditions, mixed in with more traditional Islamic objects. [...] In the mazar of Sayid Ibn Shrine Pilgrimage (ziyārat) in Central Abu Vakkos-ota (Sa’as Ibn Malik az-Zuhri) in Asia Shahrisabz Rayon, Kashkadarya Viloyat, a mountain goat horn lies under a carpet that From ancient times, Central Asia has been home to was draped over the tomb.[8] various faiths such as Buddhism, , In the same vein, Montgomery, in his work on religion 7. The presence of Persian culture and tradition in Central in the everyday life of Central Asia, reports as Asia is evident down to the present time. One example is following: the Noruz festival (New Year festival), which is a typical ancient Persian festivity and is celebrated on 21st of As Islam spread, the populations of the region March. took on Islam at the expense of earlier

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religions, but not necessarily excluding them especially in post-soviet Central Asian countries, up to completely - many practices associated with the present day (DeWeese, 1994; Janzen and earlier faiths, were retained as ‘traditional’ and Taraschewski, 2009; Abramson and Karimov, 2007; understood as compatible with Islam Van Bruinessen, 2008). (Montgomery, 2007: 356). In most of the visits to shrines, the purpose of ziyārat Other researchers also indicate the variety of pre- among the visitors is to seek the mediation of the saint, Islamic beliefs, elements, figures, and practices in based upon a belief in his barakat or savab (God's Central Asia (Bhardwaj, 1998; Dawut, 2009; Harris grace), asking for spiritual guidance, or fulfillment of a and Dawut, 2002). In addition, there are also several vow which could assist with various problems of daily reports about the fusion of Islamic and pre-Islamic life (like personal health).[9] Indeed, these practices are tradition, and ideas like animism, magic, the role of the undoubtedly ancient and pre-Islamic and they were cult of ancestors, and saints in shrine worship traditions shared by the numerous tribal or religiously-defined (Lapidus, 1988; Kandiyoti and Azimova, 2004 and groups that spread throughout this large region. These Utas, 1999). religious rituals are based on a belief in the miraculous power of saints and holy men (known as ) In the modern era, the frequent political upheavals in (Abramson and Karimov, 2007; Eickelman, 1976; Central Asia have also impacted on pilgrimage. Goldziher, 1971; Harris and Dawut, 2002). DeWeese (1988: 45-83) commenting on pilgrimage in post-Soviet Central Asia notes: The German orientalist Annemarie Schimmel, [In the modern era], after many decades of life similarly notes the role and nature of baraka(t) in under Soviet socialism, Islamic rituals, such as shrine pilgrimage in Islamic cultures as follows: pilgrimages to sacred sites, are gaining popularity . . . they also have new, the inherited baraka, the blessing power that contemporary meanings for the region’s surrounded a [ and master], made Muslims, who are struggling to make sense out people [followers] flock around his dargah [lit. of the remarkable social, economic and entering door] (Schimmel, 1980: 138). political changes affecting their lives. Shrine Pilgrimage (Ziyārat) in Iran Other researchers have also mentioned that the key role of ziyārat or mazar pilgrimage and the beliefs In Iran, ziyārat includes the visits of believers to sacred underlying it are a part of local and even national sites (ziyāratgah in Persian), which can be natural identity in the everyday spiritual life of Muslims, features (such as springs, trees, stones, etc.) or buildings related to Zoroastrian, Christian, Jewish, or 8. They later note: Islamic beliefs. Places frequented by Muslim pilgrims […] local mountain goat horns are believed to protect can be Saqqa-khāneh,[10] Khāneqāh (a Sufi lodging), or sacred places and the people who make pilgrimages to religious schools (madrase). Special kinds of holy them, from misfortune and evil (Abramson & Karimov, places are imāmzādeh (also spelled as emamzada or 2007: 325). 9. Sidky (1990) who researched zeyarat tradition in emamzadeh), which were originally dedicated to a [11] Afghanistan reports: descendent of a Shiʿite Imām. They can also be when a famous ascetic dies, his grave may become a connected to the companions and the family of the ziarat, or shrine, believed to be endowed with mystical Prophet and other venerated figures in potency, as were the ancient cult-centres of the past. Frequently such shrines become centers of pilgrimage mystical Islam or spiritual leaders. It is estimated that (Sidky, 1990: 285). there are about 10,000 - 12,000 imāmzādehs and holy 10. A saqqā khaneh (Saqqa-Kana) is often a niche in the shrines in the country, of which less than 4000 are wall [especially in the Basars] that provides water for officially registered. Each year, it is estimated that travelers and passers-by. It has a stong symbolic function according to Shi’a Islam. In certain Saqqā khanehs, some more than 50 millions travellers visit these holy shrines believers light candles, tie rags to the windows, and make (Ayaz, 2012; Zamani-Farahani and Henderson, 2011; wishes (Encyclopedia Iranica). Similar to Imāmzādeh, DW, 2012; CHTN, 2013). Saqqā khanehs are part of the Iranian urban landscape. 11. An Imām according to the Shias plays a crucial role Iranian pilgrims (za’er in Persian/Arabic) regularly as a major leader, in the whole Muslim’s community (Umma). In the eyes of the Shia believers, only the visit shrines to receive some of the spiritual power decendants of the Prophet Mohammad can assume this (barakat). They expect that making such a pilgrimage role. The title of Imām given to Khomeini is an honorary will bring them a religious reward (or savāb). It has epithet.

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been suggested that ziyārat in Iran has antique pre- of Imām Reza in Mashhad (Zamani-Farahani and Islamic roots (Hällzon, 2009; Torab, 1996, 2002, Hendersom, 2011; Mehrnews, 3/4/2014). Besides the 2007). Frye (1975: 140) refers to the influence of shrine of these two Imām and several Imāmzādehs, Zoroastrianism (the dominant religion before Islam in there are other shrines which are connected with Sufi Iran) on the tradition of ziyārat: saints (‘Arifs) such as Shaikh Abu-Hassan Kharqani and his master Bayazid Bastami; scientists and [Although] Zoroastrians did not have grave- mystical poets like Avicenna (Pur Sina) in Hamedan, shrines, since the bodies of the dead were Mahmud Shabistari in Shabestar, Attar and Khayyam exposed to vultures and not put in the earth . . . the Zoroastrians of Iran did have shrines to in Neyshabur, and Hafez and Sa’adi in Shiraz. Often various angels or deities (yazatas) [like next to a holy site, some natural elements such as trees Anahita] and it was relatively easy to convert or similar are venerated as well. Among the most some of these to [use by] Muslims, or more important sacred places related to Zoroastrianism are especially Shi’ite Imāms. The name pir (lit. old the ancient temples of Chak Chak (Pir-e Sabz) near man) or saint was applied to these shrines by Yazd and Takht-e Soleyman near Tekab, which Zoroastrians, possibly to protect them from nowadays are visited mostly by tourists rather than Muslim desecration, and this only made easier pilgrims. But the most important political shrine, the transfer from Zoroastrian to a Muslim shrine. certainly, belongs to that of Ayatollah Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic. Each year on the As an example, Frye (1975) cites the transformation of anniversary of his death, thousands of people from the the originally Zoroastrian shrine of Bibi shahrbanu whole country come to visit his shrine to pay their (near Tehran) to a famous Muslim shrine with the help respects. In fact, the shrine of Ayatollah Khomeini, of a story that suggest that the daughter of that last king symbolizes the two faces of modern Iran: The religious of pre-Islamic Iran (Yazdgerd III) was betrothed to and the national one. Husain (the third Imām or spiritual leader in Shi’ism). Overall, in modern Iran, shrine pilgrimage has Mayhew (2010), a professional British travel writer, benefitted from the political circumstances prevailing who has written several travel guides books for the in the Islamic Republic. Ziyārat, in addition to Lonely Planet series, has recently illustrated the imāmzādehs, also includes visits to the tombs of the function of the Iranian shrines in a TV documentary ‘Martyrs’ of the Islamic Revolution of 1979 and to [12] project called Marco Polo Reloaded, 2010: those fallen in the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988). Recently, Ayaz (2012) discusses the reasons behind There are thousands of shrines or imāmzādeh this renewed promotion of pilgrimage to shrines, which in Iran. In their very existence popular belief, are now extended to include the commemoration of pre-islamic pilgrimage tradition, and the formal, clerical side of Islam intermingle [with fallen soldiers in the Iran-Iraq war and assassinated each other]. Some of these shrines such as the leaders (i.e. the Martyrs) of the Revolution. Firstly, this shrine of the Shah Abol Azim in southern pilgrimage is a way to configure a new state system Tehran constitute huge and splendid complexes that sees Iran developing into a nation of believers. of buildings. Others are small, of only local Secondly, she cites a practical reason: Many holy significance and with [nothing more than] a places that are important to Iranian Shi’ites are located kiosk, laundry, cooking, and simple outside Iran and were almost inaccessible during the accommodation facilities for the pilgrims [13] Iran-Iraq war and the tension with Saudi Arabia. attached to it. However, virtually, all imāmzadehs in Iran are furnished with carpets to allow for overnight stays. Being on the road in Iran, one again and again passes by such shrines, many of which are located directly next to petrol stations that bear the names of famous Shiite martyrs. (Online Access: www.marcopolo-reloaded.com) 12. This form of (qasi) religious pilgrimage is known as ‘war tourism’ in the literature. 13. There is also a historical precedent during the era of Nowadays, undoubtedly, two of the most sacred Safavid-Ottoman relations (16th century), when political pilgrimage places in Iran are the shrine of Imām Reza restrictions were imposed on Iranian pilgrims entering (the eighth Shi’a Imām) in Mashhad and the shrine of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem (which were under the his Sister Fatimeh Ma’sumeh in Qom. Accordingly, control of the Ottomans). Instead, the Safavid Shah Abbas each year more than 25 million pilgrims visit the shrine II encouraged pilgrimage to shrines inside Iran (Rizvi, 2009).

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Conclusion imāmzādehs and holy shrines in Iran. Besides the shrine of Imam Reza (the most famous shrine) and Pilgrimage, or religiously motivated travel, plays a several Imāmzādehs, there are other shrines which are major role in the social life of Muslims and is an connected with Sufi saints (‘Arifs), scientists, mystical important part of Islamic fabric. From North Africa, to poets, and so on. The most important political shrine in the Middle East and Central, and South / Southeast Iran is the shrine of Ayatollah Khomeini, the founder Asia, shrine pilgrimage is common among Muslims. of the Islamic Republic which on the anniversary of his Numerous Sufi lodgings (khanegahs), shrines, schools, death is visited by thousands of people from the whole mosques, tombs (mazars), and mausoleums of saints, country. martyrs, Sufi-masters, and other holy men and women, attract millions of pilgrims, who travel substantial References distances to these centres. According to Islamic traditions, Muslims are encouraged to travel, not only Abramson, D., Karimov, E. (2007) ‘Sacred Sites, Profane Ideologies: Religious Pilgrimage and the to bear witness to the greatness of God, but also to gain Uzbek State’, in: Sahadeo, Jeff, Russell Zanca knowledge, learn about other cultures, and meet pious (eds.) Everyday Life in Central Asia Past and and wise people. Generally, the ‘religious’ travels of Present. Bloomington: Indiana Universtiy Press, Muslims around the world are classified into two 319-38. forms: Mandatory (Hajj) and voluntary (ziyārat). An Ayaz, M. (2012) ‘Between history and memory, A important distinction should therefore be made case study of a martyr mausoleum in Iran’, In: between Hajj and ziyārat. The Hajj is considered to be Khosronejad, Pedram (ed.) Saints and their the ‘official’ or ‘normative’ form of Islamic pilgrimage Pilgrims in Iran and Neighbouring Countries: with well-established rituals, whereas the ziyārat is a Lighting Source, 83-105. ‘popular’ (i.e. volkstümlich) or ‘alternative’ form of Barnes, R., Branfoot, C. (2006) Pilgrimage: the sacred pilgrimage which is practiced in different forms among journey: Ashmolean Museum. people from different cultures. Among the regions Bhardwaj, S. (1998) ‘Non-Hajj Pilgrimage in Islam, A where shrine pilgrimage (ziyārat) is strongly popular Neglected Dimension of Religious Circulation’, and practiced is the region with Turkic or Iranian Journal of Cultural Geography, 17(2) 69-87. cultures, especially in Iran and Central Asia. Since ancient times, Central Asia was home to various faiths Canfield, R.L. (2002) Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective: Cambrdige University Press. [orig. such as Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, 1991] Nestorian Christianity, Islam as well as local cults and beliefs, such as divination and worship of natural CHTN (Cultural Handicraft Tourism News) (2013) forces and objects. Among the most popular religious ‘last year more than 50 milions travelers visit the and cultural traditions in Central Asia are the shrines in Iran’ online access under www.chtn.ir (06.05.2013) veneration of saints (avliyā) and visits (ziyārat) to their shrines (mazār), practices which are widely undertaken Coleman, S., Elsner, J. (1995) Pilgrimage, Past and in both rural and urban areas. Numerous followers who Present, Sacred Travel and Sacred Space in the believe in the miraculous power of saints and holy men world religions: British Museum Press. (walis - also known as avliyo) make pilgrimage Daneshvari, A. (1986) Medieval tomb towers of Iran: (ziyārat) to sites which are presumed to be graves of an iconographical study, USA: Mazda publishers. such individuals, or some other physical memorial. Dawut, R. (2009) Shrine pilgrimage among the Uighurs, The Silk Road, 6(2) In Iran ziyārat includes visits of believers to sacred www.silkroadfoundation.org. sites (ziyāratgah in Persian), which can be natural DeWeese, D. (1994) Islamization and Native Religion features (such as springs, trees, stones, etc.) or in the Golden Horde: Tükles and Conversion buildings related to Zoroastrian, Christian, Jewish, or to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition: Islamic beliefs. Places frequented by Muslim pilgrims Pennsylvania State University Press. can be Saqqa-khāneh, Khāneqāh (a Sufi lodging), or Din, K.H. (1989) Islam and Tourism: patterns, Issues, religious schools (madrase). and options, Annals of Tourism Research, 16:542- 563. Special kinds of holy places are imāmzādeh which are originally dedicated to descendents of Shiʿite Imāms. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 - 12,000

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