sign in sign up
<<
Home , Science wars, Scientific temper

Perspectives

that cannot be reconciled, there cannot be People's science wars. First, the article identifies PSM as a new type of social movement, so objectives, modes of action, and com- positions of activists aredifferentiated from Movements movements associated with the Left. The article then discusses various political activities of PSM to show diversity on and Science Wars? issues related to S and T in society and how their actions are making a difference. People's science movements in have been viewed in terms Finally, the article addresses the science two cultures: the scientist's science and wars, which have occupied much schol- of opposite taking arly attention since the mid-1990s. to the people and opposing the scientist's science and technologyfor the people. This article provides a critique of PSM as New Social Movement science behind those two cultures that has led to the so-called science wars scholars. The article shows Like peace, environmentalism,feminism, among up human rights, and gay rights, PSM in India the myth of science wars in India by identifyinga common fall in the category of 'new' social move- platformfor both sides. ments. Melucci (1985: 795) argues that social movements need redefinition be- cause the conflicts of the 1980s have re- ROLIVARMA ment, Eklavya, Friends of Rural Society, vealed new contradictions. He defines new Ganga Mukti Andolan, Himalaya Bachao social movements as "a form of collective everalgrass roots groups coming from Andolan, JanVikas Andolan, KeralaSastra action (a) based on solidarity, (b) carrying a mixtureof ideological traditions Sahitya Parishad(KSSP), Kishore Bharati, on a conflict, (c) breaking the limits of the are partof whathas been called the Manav Vahini, Medico Friends Circle, system in which action occurs." Similarly, People's Science Movements (PSM) in Mines Minerals and People, Movement in Touraine (1985: 785) argues that social India.PSM defy definitionbecause they India for Nuclear Disarmament (MIND), movements in the 1980s are less socio- are diverse in size, strategy,focus, and National Alliance of People's Movement, political and more socio-cultural. He de- .The groupsize variesfrom a band Narmada Bachao Andolan, National Fish fines new social movements as "an agent of few individualsin one area to over Workers Forum, Patriotic People for Sci- of conflict for the social control of the 30,000 in other areas. While some are ence and Technology (PPST), Sahayog, main cultural patterns." In some signifi- recent,others go back to over 40 years. Samajwadi Jan Parishad, and Vigyan cant respects, PSM constitutes those new Somegroups focus on a singleissue, while Siksha Kendra, among others. social movements because they differ in otherscover a vast range.Some work on These groups are committed to different their objectives, modes of operation, and reducingdisparity in scientificknowledge, notions of S and T in society and thus composition of activists from movements whileothers promote an alternative develop- encapsulate a diversity of activities. Yet, historically associated with the Left such mentmodel, based on local Indianscience their activities have been framed in terms as the Tebhaga struggle in 1946, the and technology(S and T). The core set of two cultures that have led to what some Telengana peasant uprising in 1948, the which brings various groups under the have called the 'science wars' in India Naxalbari upheavals in 1967, and the umbrellaof PSM is workingon the issue [Nanda 1997]. One school has been viewed railway workers revolts in 1974. of S and T in society and is not a direct as seeking to disseminate the worldview First, PSM does not work towards the divisionof Indiangovernment. All these of modem science among traditionalpeople central goal of destroying existing political groupshave given PSM a voice in the to generate what the late prime minister structure nor are new ones built after the mediaand political arena. Since the 1990s, Nehru called the 'scientific temper'. In victory in which economic exploitation of some PSM groups have been invited to sharp contrast, the other school has been one class by another class is done away makepresentations at the annualsessions viewed as opposing development based on with. Instead, PSM work on diverse issues of the IndianNational Science Congress, modern S and T that is impoverishing the such as: the development of S and T for which has been a platformfor project- majority to keep what has been called the people, protection of natural environment ing nationalgoals for the applicationof 'humanistic temper'. and forests, opposition to mega projects science. This article argues that there is a myth of global corporationsand the World Bank, Somegroups which represent PSM are: about science wars in India because the improvement in the conditions of life and All IndiaAnti-Imperialist Forum, All India two cultures problem suggests that ver- health, building cultural identity, promo- People'sScience Network, Azadi Bachao sions of should be on on either side tion of scientific among the Andolan, Bharat Jan Andolan, Bhopal in serious conflict, whereas the PSM works common people, related to Gas AffectedWorking Women's Union, on a common platform. Without two sides people's health, in scientific ChilkaBachao Andolan,Chipko Move- thatare dramatically opposite of each other, communication, and rediscovering Indian

4796 Economic and Political Weekly December29, 2001 heritage.It seeks to identify a set of focused not sufficient to analyse the Indian society. of supernaturalismand superstition. They objectives within PSM because they con- PSM are rooted in the middle classes and realised that science was one among many sist of many voluntary groups throughout theirgoals are class-unspecific and diverse. knowledge systems, yet stressed its su- India.The only common threaduniting these Their modes of action are based on grass premacy in the study of society. groups is that they fall on the interface roots activities that are informal, sponta- However, as KSSP experienced obstacles of S and T in society and are not a direct neous, and legal. Mahatma Gandhi's phi- in communicating their scientific goals to division of government. losophy of non-violence, tolerance, people, the lack of scientific temper as the Second, the agenda of PSM is not to spirtiualisation of politics, and self-reli- root cause of India's problems was target the state by forming trade unions or ance influence many PSM activists. Even criticised inside the movement. For one political parties of the socialist or commu- though PSM go along with the status quo, thing it amounted to blaming people for nist type to win state power by elections they advocate for changes in structured their misfortune. It was argued that the or underground activities. Instead, PSM inequality and empower people to stand scientific temperlike any other behavioural focuses on grass roots activities by form- for themselves. attribute could not be made a universal ing loose associations.Their organisational requirement for modernisation [Kumar structure is rather decentralised, lacking Political Activities of PSM 1984]. The Dependency School identified regulation, differentiation, control, and underdevelopment or poverty of the third power. Their officials and members con- After independence in 1947, India world (periphery) as the basis of develop- sist of voluntary workers who rely on emerged as underdeveloped in relation to ment or wealth of the west (core) [Frank nominal donation. They publicise their the west and sought to eliminate poverty 1975, Amin 1976, Wallerstein 1979]. They causes by speaking publicly and demon- and unemployment with large-scale rejected the possibility of self-sufficient strating against governmental policies. industrialisation.Nehru (1985: 31) believed capitalist development in the periphery Many groupsuse art,songs, poems, dances, that without 'catching up' with the scien- without breaking its historical linkages puppet shows, and plays to wage their tific and technological advances made in with the core. Indianscholars such as Amiya struggles. Tilly (1985) has argued that the west, India would remain weak and Kumar Bagchi, Nirmal Chandra, Sanjaya demonstrationhas become a key form of vulnerable to foreign domination. He felt Lall, Deepak Nayyar, Ashok Rudra and collective action due to the growth of that Indians must learn to think and behave Ranjit Sau showed that the main cause of elections and the beginning of popular scientifically to overcome traditional, the backwardness of India was due to the participation in national politics. mystical, supernatural, uncritical, and reproduction of economic and political Third, activists in PSM do not view inward-looking way of life so they can structures in accordance with the interests themselves in terms of a class, that is, a adapt to the modem age. The Communist of the metropolitan powers and the domi- group defined by a socio-economic con- Party of India (CPI) supportednationalists nant classes. Against the emphasis on ditions or in relation to the means of pro- as representing the interests of national internal behavioural factors, critics duction such as the working class or the bourgeoisie and sought peaceful transi- emphasised external political economic feudal landlords. Most activists come tion to socialism through participation in factors for modernisation or development primarilyfrom the educatedmiddle classes, elections [Ram 1973]. It viewed feudal of the third world. The so-called 'tradi- and hold employment as scientists, engi- relations of production as hindering tional', 'unscientific' or 'backward' neers, technologists, policy analysts, jour- capitalist development. With the victory behaviour was perceived as a product of nalists, or teachers. Many are students of of CPI in elections in Kerala in 1957, it economic and political circumstances science or engineering. However, their supported the Congress Party and its prevalent in the country. As a result, the middle class background does not deter- policies. Western scholars, working within scientific temper formed smaller compo- mine the stakes of their action. They speak , and nents of PSM in the late 1970s and early on behalf of people of India who are poor, anti-communism traditions,also proposed 1980s and the focus has since shifted to small peasants,agricultural labourers, rural modernisation of third world countries education, health, alternative S and T, and artisans,craftsmen, tribal people, and urban like India [Drucker 1959, Rostow 1960, a number of related areas. workers. Their demands are class-unspe- Huntington 1968]. Modernisation was KSSP has been using the slogan "Sci- cific. They exhibit features of what Cohen seen in terms of the acquisition of western ence for Social Revolution". They believe (1985: 663) has characterisedas 'self-lim- S and T, industrialisation along western that science can find solutions to social iting radicalism'. lines, urbanisation, literacy, spread of problems and thus empower the vast This, however, does not mean that PSM technical roles, social mobility, and cul- majority of the poor. Unlike earlier positi- have no connection with the Left politics. tural secularisation. vism, however, they no longer prioritise In fact, KSSP, one of the largest groups KSSP, which was formed in Kerala in scientific knowledge over traditions and in PSM, had early linkages with the the early 1960s, initially accepted the basic culture. Further, they have been popula- CommunistParty of India (Marxist)..Simi- premise of modernisation of India. They rising science differently. For instance, larly, many PSM activists have Marxist or emphasised changing people's outlook KSSP has set up medical camps to carry Maoist orientations.The very term 'people' from 'traditional' to 'scientific' [Kanan out mass education programmes on in PSM is a Marxist categorisation of 1979, Zachariah 1994]. Their understand- AIDS and maternal health. Similarly, disempowered workers and peasants. A ing of scientific thinking was rather con- Sahayog has been working on reproduc- movement, which consists of many groups ventional. It meant relying on facts, ac- tive health education, delivery services, working on diverse issues related to the cepting nothing on blind faith, changing the context of AIDS, and local practices use of S and T in society, is bound to be old beliefs in the light of new , that make the population potentially vul- shaped by a wide range of thinkers includ- drawing conclusions on the basis of inde- nerable to thespread of HIV. The All India ing Marx, Lenin and Mao. However, PSM pendent evidence, being critical, keeping People's Science Network has been forging view class structure as an important but an open mind, and challenging the forces linkages that affect the transfer of scien-

Economic and Political Weekly December 29, 2001 4797 tific knowledge between the scientific com- role in empowering people with science, the project. Similar withdrawal by three munity and the people.The Medico Friends when it has been increasingly becoming global corporations took place in 1998 and Circle has been campaigning against an oppressive instrumentin the policies of 1999. Now the movement is fighting the global corporations marketing non- modernisation and development. This led US power utility Ogden Energy Group, essential and dangerous drugs in India. to redefining the role of science in PSM which has decided to invest into the hydro- The same group exposed cover-up of the to the "mobilisation and participation of electric project. In response to the case health effects on the gas victims when the people for their own development - filed by the movement against Sardar MIC leaked from the Union Carbide plant as distinguished from the kind of 'devel- Sarovar Project in 1994, on October 18, in Bhopal in 1984, killing over 2,500 and opment' handed out to them" [Kannan 2000 the Supreme Court ordered the dam affecting 2,00,000 people. Many groups 1979:1]. PSM rejected the idea that they to be completed as 'expeditiously' as have initiated experimental science teach- can solve people's problems from outside; possible. ing programmesbased on the discovery or instead proposed to learn from the people In 1993, several groups that opposed the inquirymethod as opposed to rote learning [Bhalla and Reddy 1994]. prevailing model of industrial develop- in rural areas. Generally, these groups no People in India have been getting ment came together to form the National longer aim to teach atheism or confront organised to oppose destruction of their Alliance of People's Movements. They even when they experience oppo- livelihood in the name of scientific progress redefined development in terms of equal- sition from those representing religious and national development. With defores- ity, peace, happiness, and self-reliance. orthodoxy [Kannan 1990]. They believe tation, ruralwomen have to traversegreater They want people to be involved in the that the issue of religion and tradition can distances to collect fuel, fodder, and other decision-making, and have control over be addressed successfully only after sig- basic necessities, which has cut time the naturalresources in their vicinity. They nificant economic and political changes available for wage labourand stretched the advocate self-reliance of both urban and have occurred. normal working day up to 14-15 hours. rural communities for their basic needs, Most of these groups feel that scientific These women waged the world famous with limited dependence on expanded knowledge and technology should not be Chipko Movement by clinging to trees to markets. For them, industrial production concentrated in the west and in the hands save them from being felled. The National should be labour-intensive, decentralised, of Indian elite, and it should be distributed Fish Workers Forum is fighting off the and based on renewable energy. They fairly. As pointed out earlier, India has threat of mass displacement and damage propose sustainable use and conservation been trying to revitalise its economy by to the ecosystems by the industrial fishing of soil, water, forests, and other resources. introducing S and T, which has been practices of gigantic factory ships. Bhopal They believe that such actions would developed in the west. However, India has Gas Affected Working Women's Union develop creative mass energies towards been unable to acquire modern S and T and the Medico Friends Circle have been self-reliant and participatorydevelopment. at the right price under the right terms and working for medical and economic relief They held a third convention in March conditions mostly because the carriers of of gas victims due to a poisonous gas leak 2000 in which individuals, organisations, S and T are global corporations. There are in the Union Carbide plant. Azadi Bachao movements, and parties from all over India proprietaryrights in technology in the forms Andolan has been campaigning against the participated. of patents, trademarks, and brand names; entry of global corporations in India. Mahatma Gandhi had earlier proposed the basic designs, blue prints and know- MIND, a newly formed group, has been cottage and small-scale industries to ease how remain in the private possession of demonstratingagainst the policy of nuclear the problems of poverty and unemploy- global corporations. Furthermore,those in weaponisation in the region and providing ment; but Nehru's government saw them authority in India have been making a the scientific and resistance to as a temporarysolution until India became disproportionately large allocation of the some of the myths perpetratedby the Indian fully industrialised. In 1971, mostly be- available S and T for the benefit of the government. cause of PSM activities, the ministry of Indian upper classes. Thus, many PSM One of the most influential movements industry also opened a cell for appropriate groups are working to overcome these is against dams, which have been displac- technology. Since then it has been support- barriers to make S and T work for the ing many local inhabitants. In 1979, the ing research into local in benefit of the common people and India. approved the Sardar leading institutes. It has led to up scaling In its attempt to incorporate western S Sarovar Project to build 30 large, 135 technologies such as the heat-efficient and and T, India has acquired 'technological medium and 3,000 small dams, stretching smoke-reducing stoves, solar ricecookers, dualism' or 'technological polarisation', over 1,300 km of the Narmadariver across water control devices, sanitation, alter- that is, the use of different production three states of Madhya Pradesh, natives to chemicals in agriculture, indig- functions in the advanced and traditional Maharashtra and Gujarat. It has been enous seed conservation, and bio-gas sectors. The reality of India is that the huge submerging the homes, villages, cultivable productionforenergy. Governmentalagen- investment in the modern sector coexists lands, and forests along with disrupting cies working in the areas of alternative with extremely poor human conditions. environmental quality. Officially, it has technology, however, are not a part of Over all, gains from the growth of the displaced over 2,00,000 people and is likely PSM; instead,they have takenPSM's theme modern sector has been increasing, rather to reach the displacement of over one of learningfrom people into the production than decreasing the problems of develop- million people. The government is unable of technologies that are appropriate in ment by deepening dualism between the to provide the dam-displaced people with rural areas. PSM have their own projects limited modern industrial sector and the equivalent land. It has spawned vehement to disseminate technologies appropriateto vast rural hinterland. Modernisation and opposition to industrial development in the socio-economic environment. relateddevelopment programmes have not the region by the Narmada Bachao Some PSM groups like PPST have been met the needs of the neediest. PSM realised Andolan. In 1993, the movement com- defending the traditional Indian system that they could not perform a catalysing pelled the World Bank to withdraw from itself to propose it as an.alternative. Their

4798 Economic and olitical Weekly December 29, 2001 work has been to reassess modern science that decisions on scientific methods are counterculture for non-western communi- that has grown within the context of shaped by disciplinary cultures, availabil- ties, and dedicates his book to "all of the colonialism and imperialism, to evoke a ity of funds, networking politics, and so science teachers I never had." Post debate on western versus Indian science, forth. Instead of the institution of science, colonialists, such as Nandy (1990) and and to popularisethat heritage of the Indian they focus on the conduct of science such -Alvares (1990) argue that modern science system thatwas destroyedduring the British as facts, , methods, technical de- fails to give due recognition to the Indian rule. They argue that the claims of signs, and experiments to show how social culture and helps constitute the western in modern science are no more universal context is essential in the scientific activi- culture in which it was produced. Envi- thanclaims of truthin Indian science. They ties. For instance, historian Mackenzie ronmentalist Shiva (1988) finds that In- think that the Indian society has its version (1978) has shown that Pearson's correla- dian women are closer to nature and thus of truth and thus interpret knowledge tion statistic was to produce a scientific have an especially privileged viewpoint to accordingly. They affirm the epistemo- basis for eugenic ideology to support the protect nature. logical right of Indian people to under- emerging professional class; in contrast, In the 1990s, self-proclaimed defenders stand the world from their own cultural Yule's Q statistic was tied to public health of science launched an attack against and metaphysical assumptions. to support the programmes of the estab- scholars in by characterising The theme of appropriate development lished upper classes. Feminist scholar them as 'the academic left'. With the pub- or alternative society is not without criti- Keller (1985, 1983) has demonstrated the lication of Higher Superstition by Gross cism. The implementation of appropriate gender bias in locating the seat of genetic (a biologist) and Levitt (a mathematician) S and T or a return to the golden past is control in the single master molecule in 1994, the so-called science wars have seen as a panaceaformany problems facing (a masculine trait)over interaction(a femi- broken out in the west. The Sokal affair India. Yet, there are no plans on how to nine trait). Social constructivist Latour is considered a pivotal point of the science implement goals of appropriatedevelop- (1987) has found scientific controversies wars in which Sokal (1996a, 1996b), a ment or alternative society on a wider among scientists to be more importantthan physicist, published an article supporting scale. established facts because this is where cultural critiques of science in facts are either accepted or rejected. Simi- only to reveal that his article was a parody. Science Wars? larly, Knorr-Cetina(1981) found that there His affair was carried on the front page is no single and scien- of The New YorkTimes, followed by many Much of the science practised through- tists to be opportunistic in their use of other publications and by the news radio out the world draws on the basic prin- methods. My own research on scientists in the US and around the world [Bone ciples, formulae, and concepts that were working in industry found that the imme- 1996, Claudio 1996, Kimball 1996, Na- elaborated, among others, by Copernicus, diate business needs and the availability tional Public Radio 1996, Scott 1996] Galileo, Newton, Harvey, Boyle, Bacon, of funds from business divisions shape (http://weber.u.washington.edu/-jwalsh/ and Descartes in Europe between 1500 research activities. Similarly, the research sokal/). Conservatives like Pat Buchanan and 1700. The knowledge of the scientific agenda of scientists working in academia equated the science wars with the cold war revolution replaced ancient teachings of is often influenced by collaboration with in its potential impact on Americans. Ptolemy, Aristotle, and Galen. Today, industry [Varma 2000, 1999, 1995]. Recently, Koertge (1998) compiled modern science is understood as the ap- Some science studies scholars have also articles of 'science warriors' to expose plication of mathematical hypotheses to challenged the Enlightenment's faith in postmodernist myths about science. nature, the combination of mathematics universalknowledge.They go beyond social Unlike science studies, Gross, Levitt, with experiment, the distinction between factors shaping scientific activities and and Sokal argue that social and cultural primary and secondary qualities, the propose that science itself is social. They factors do not influence the core of science geometrisation of space, and the accep- believe that all claims about nature,world, or the truthof scientific propositions. They tance of the mechanical model of reality. and physical reality are social and cultural find modern science as objective, neutral, Modern scientific methods mean system- constructs, and the world beyond one's value free, and progressive. They think atic reasoning,critical , logical does not exist. They view that science corresponds to truth about thinking, proof/verification, , modern science as ethno-science of the nature because of facts, logical reasoning, and honesty in recording observations and west, which far from being neutral and scientific methods, experimental validity, experimental results. of sci- objective, reflects the dominant ideologies disinterestedness, and impersonal stan- ence, which dominated until the 1970s, and power relations of western cultures. dards. They believe that there is a world accepted the basic premise of modern Instead of modern science, they believe in out there, existing independently of the science and suggested that it is the autono- 'standpointepistemologies' or 'subjugated knower, which is accessible through sci- mous pursuitof knowledge [Merton 1973]. '. For instance,feminist scholar ence. Nanda (1998) goes one step further Generally,science is understoodas neutral, Harding (1998), in her recent book, asserts and proposes 'modern science without independent of social, cultural, and politi- that all knowledge systems are situated, apologies' for India. She argues that the cal factors, which is produced according local ones thus contradict the widely held cultural position that prescribes non-west- to rational or cognitive factors. If social assumption that modern science is univer- ern science for India as the worst form of or cultural factors enter in the scientific sal. Similarly, Haraway(1991:195) argues colonial condescension. discourse, they are viewed as creating bias. "for politics and epistemologies of loca- There are serious problems in the furore Against such ideology, scholars in sci- tions, positioning, and situating, where over science studies. First, defenders of ence studies have proposed that scientific partiality and not universality is the con- science talk about the principles of scien- knowledge is influenced by social and dition of being heard to make rational tific investigation yet do not apply the cultural factors and thus deviates from the knowledge claim." Cultural critic Ross same principles to dismiss science studies. traditionalethos of science.They believe (1991) considers western science as a Instead of empirical investigations or case

Economic and Political Weekly December 29, 2001 4799 studies, they dismiss science studies with that observations are shaped by social movement. If scientific temper is men- caricature, condescension, and parody. factors or structuredby culturalcategories, tioned in PSM, it is to critique the Indian They portraycritics of science as 'the bible but they are, at the same time, shaped and government (Indian Science Congress) or of North American science', 'doctrinaire', structured by an.external reality. Instead international symposiums (e g the Asian 'eco-apocalyptic rhetoric', 'goddess wor- of assuming the supremacy of modern branch of the International Science shipping', 'hotbed of postmodern irratio- science, however, they argue that other Policy) that continue to discuss the need nalism', 'hostile', 'ideological', 'left's knowledge claims deserve the same re- to inculcate scientific temper among disenchantment with science', 'muddle- spect. Such investigation is likely to offer people. PSM use science in the broadest headed', 'nonsensical thesis', 'radicals', a basis for deciding which claims one possible sense to develop the movement 'sloppy thinking', 'too marginalised to should believe in and why. in the country. change the world', 'refugee from an un- Finally, it is important to point out that There is a need to separatethe old agenda satisfactoryscientific career', and so forth. science has become an integral part of of scientific temper from the new agenda They do not acquire detailed knowledge modern society and the goals of science of popularisation of science in PSM. The of science studies but proceed to judge it studies is to provide a forum for discussion former prioritises scientific knowledge as anyway. They fail to address how science on the social and ethical dimensions of opposed to other knowledge systems. It studies have established themselves in the .scientific activities. Because of such role believes in changing people's from fatal- last 30 years and why they have a large science studies are not always popular. istic, supernatural,traditional, and mysti- following in universities both in the US Yet, science studies have acquired promi- cal prejudices to scientific rationality. The and aroundthe world. Theydo not provide nence and established themselves by show- latter, however, believes that scientific a 'scientific proof' why scientific episte- ing the role of society, culture, race, gen- progress should not be confined to the elite mologies are necessarily better than alter- der, and class in scientific activities, which and the educated sections of Indian soci- native ones; instead, they keep reiterating defenders of science are refuting. If mod- ety. Many groups, therefore, work to their ideological convictions. ern science was not limited in its scope and popularise science in a number of areas Second, even though defenders of sci- had developed its own scientific methods such as health, education, nutrition, hous- ence do not find a theoretical core among to remove value, it would not be open to ing, environment, communication, agri- the critics of science, they still refer to interpretations by science studies. None- culture, and sanitation so people can also them as constituting 'the academic left'. theless, the critique of science is a matter enjoy benefits of science. The same groups Marxists, postmodernists, environ- of science practice. It appears that too also realise the threat science poses to mentalists, feminists, multiculturalists, much has been made of two little of the people and environment in modernis- social constructivists, post colonialists, science wars. ation and development policies. Conse- Afro-centrists, AIDS activists, and post- The concept of science wars as evolved quently, they also work with those in PSM structuralists- all are lumped together as in the west is not applicable in India who oppose the prevailing model of de- belonging to the Left. The minimum re- because PSM activists and scholars in velopment based on western S and T as quirement of being a part of left wing science studies in India stress unity in being destructive to people and environ- politics is to believe in the class analysis natural and society by showing ment. Even Nanda (1985) who has iden- of a society. The Left views S and T only the existence of social issues in natural tified herself on the side of the scientific as one important factor affecting social sciences and vice versa. There is little temper in India in the 1980s, supported change, and not the factor. Most of the debate on S and T being socially neutral, alternative techniques of development. groups listed by defenders of science each possessing an internal objective In the late 1980s and early 1990s, there concentrate only on the issues at hand and logic of its own, which is the case in the was a reorientation in the agenda of PSM. seldom function within the broader class west. Instead, the link between science The focus shifted to oppose the policy of analysis. Instead of class, there is mostly and society in India is viewed as organic, heavy industrialisationbased on the trickle gender and race mantrain science studies. not separate. The science wars in India down concept. From such opposition, an Further,a majority of those singled out by seen in a dichotomy - scientific versus alternative model has also emerged, which defenders of science rarely count them- humanistic temper - is also not appro- views that development should be based selves as a part of left politics. Such attack priate because PSM work on a common on S andT thatare orientedtowards directly puts defenders of science in the same social platform on the interface between science meeting people's needs and providing a category as Alan Bloom, and society, and the intellectual trend better balance between humans and na- William Bennett, Roger Kimball, Hilton in India cannot be identified as two ture. Often such S and T are seen as small Kramer, and Dinesh D'Souza. mutually exclusively views on science scale, labour intensive, and decentralised. Third, science studies are more thanjust epistemologies. Yet, these S and T are not viewed as an promoting cultural . A field, As pointed out earlier, PSM is a growing end in itself; but a mean or a first step which has evolved in the last 30 years with movement on the interface between sci- towards modern S and T. It is believed that extensive and research, is bound to ence and society, so its parametersare not once social and economic development have some scholars who believe that sci- fixed. Till the late 1970s, there were only has reached a certain level or certain social ences areepistemologically relative to each few groups in PSM; however, after mid- reforms have taken place, some versions and every culture's beliefs. But this is 1980s they blossomed all over the country. of modern S and T would also become certainly not true for all scholars in science They are motivated by the reality of ex- suited to India. Their rallying slogan has studies. Hess (1995, 1997) has shown that treme economic and social inequality in been 'Vinash Nahin, Vikas Chahiye' most science studies scholars are like Indiansociety and focus on differentaspects [Bakshi 1996]. They do not exclude those naturalscientists in that both assume a real, of S and T. The earlier goal of generating in PSM who popularise science to build material world beyond their observations. scientific temper has died many deaths an alternative social order; instead include Many scholars in science studies believe and is no longer seen relevant within the all interestedin supportingtheir causes

4800 Economic and Political Weekly December 29, 2001 with the long-termgoal of developing PSM. For one thing, science is not a single tool whole new classes of abuses and are The main characteristic in PSM is diver- for social emancipation though science controlled by the Hindu government, they sity, and not antagonism or hostility. has had an impact on society and some warrantmore opposition than ever before. Some scholars like Shiva, Nandy and times for social emancipation. Changes in After 50 years of independence, India is Alvares, and some PSM groups like PPST people's consciousness, values, styles, and seeking the status of great power, not by do defend the traditional Indian systems actions are a product of many phenomena economic achievements or by addressing to develop them as alternatives.They speak including science, leadership, history, science to the cause of poverty, but through of Indian glory before the British colonial- culture, economic, and education. Caste nuclearjingoism. With such a narrowpath ism when Indians had lived at the pace of system, untouchability, patriarchy, evil taken by India one hope is new social and in harmony with nature. They think customs, inequality, and injustice can not movements like PSM, which are function- that sustainable development and people's be demolished by scientific rationality ing for change by involving people to act empowerment are possible by rejecting alone. Even people, who take an oath to for themselves. PSM are opposing big modem worldview andgoing back to Indian abide by the scientific temper, do not lead science because, instead of helping people, traditions. Yet, it is not clear whether they their lives according to the scientific ratio- it is leading to social and economic disas- are rejecting all aspects of modern S and nality [Sarukai 1999]. Besides, historically ter for India. They are reclaiming science T and supporting all aspects of traditional fascism has been a' product of western to work for people in India. [B1 Indian systems. There are societies when were in S and many changes they strong earlier version of this that have taken associated T. Lack of scientific cannot be held [An paper was presented place generally temper at the annualconference of the Social Studies of with modernisation and for the rise of fundamentalism development responsible Science andSociety (4S) in San Diego, California, policies such as communication, electric- and thus fascism in India. The Indian elite 1999.] ity, electronics, hospitals, laboratories, started building India after independence media, transport, universities, and scien- by accepting the spirit of scientific tem- References tific institutes with which these scholars per. If there is a shift, it is because of the are Ashok of failure of modernisation and Alvares, Claude (1990): Science, Development, quite happy. Jhunjhunwala development and Violence: The Revolt PPST is involved in the Internet against Modernity bringing policies. Oxford Press, Delhi. and University cheaply quickly to rural population Yet, increasing fundamentalism and Amin, Samir (1976): Unequal Development:An [McGivring 2000]. These things as such religiosity does not mean being anti- Essay on the Social Transformations of are not viewed as evil; instead, tailoring modern science, which Nanda is afraid PeripheralCapitalism, Monthly Review Press, New York. Indian society to suit modem S and T of. India has been desperate to industrialise David The Politics Modern- without examining its objectives, notions, itself the lines of the west as Apter, (1965): of along rapidly isation, of Press, and values are viewed as evil. This differ- as and not to be left behind in University Chicago Chicago. possible Bakshi, Rajni (1996): not ence is 'Development, crucial as it amounts to a choice terms of the scientific and technical supe- Destruction',Economic and Political Weekly, between different paths of development, riority acquired by the west. Because of 33(5): 255-258. different notions of social organisation, such desperation in India, the security that Bhalla, A S and A K N Reddy (eds) (1994): different views on the relationship be- science enjoys tends to be higher than the Technological'Transformationof RuralIndia, tween and and so forth. The Indian Intermediate Technology Publications, people nature, security religion enjoys. present London. there are social headed Similarly, many changes government by the BharatiyaJanta Bone, James (1996): 'Academics Get Lesson in have taken in India which place are con- Party (BJP) is the political wing of the Pseudo Science', Times, London, May 20: 4. sidered 'progressive' such as untouchabil- Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), an Claudio,Tito (1996): 'Serious Prankin Scholarly ity, sati or widow burning, endogamy, ultra-right Hindu revivalist movement. World: Physicist's Hoax Essay Attacks the Field of witchcraft, quack medicine, and so forth. They have been for some time CulturalStudies', Los Angeles Times, agitating 27: B4. These oppressive aspects of traditional to restore the of Hindu India that was May glory Cohen, Jean L (1985): or New Indiahave been criticised. Insteadof Muslims the 300 'Strategy Identity: getting destroyed by during years Theoretical and Contemporary support,Nandy (1988) got alienated when of Moghul rule. In 1992, they mounted an Social Movements', Social Research, 52(4): he rationalisedtraditional practice of widow all-India agitation that led to demolition 663-716. burning. He has responded to his critics of Babari mosque. BJP emerged as the Drucker, Peter (1959): The Land Marks of with the concepts of 'critical traditional- single largest party in February 1998 elec- Tomorrow, Harperand Harper,New York. Frank,AndreGunder(1975): On CapitalistUnder- ism' and 'critical insider'. Still, his and tions. Within three months of taking the development, Oxford University Press, others concepts of traditional India are office, this Hindu government exploded Mumbai. rooted in the of critique modernisation; it five nuclear bombs on May 11 and 12. The Gross, PaulR and Norman, Levitt (1994): Higher is not being generated from their belief in nuclear programme in India started in the Superstition:The Academic Left and Its Quarrels religion or tradition. 1970s, but previous non-Hindu govern- withScience, Johns HopkinsPress, Baltimore. Donna and Against alternative sciences, Nanda ments had shown restraint. So, proposing Haraway, (1991): Simians, Cyborgs, that the social of western Hinduism for India does not mean aban- Women:The Reinvention of Nature,Routledge, argues agendas New York. science in India is to liberate the modern S and it oppressed doning T; only means Harding,Sandra(1998): s Science Multicultural?, people, oppose patriarchy, demolish the giving a religious flavour to modern S and Indiana University Press, Bloomington. traditionaljustifications for the caste sys- T. In other words, have bombs and call Hess, David J (1995): Science and Technology tem, reveal equality of all human beings, them Hindu bombs. Instead, of conducting in a MulticulturalWorld, Columbia University and free the mind from fear of gods. She nuclear testing when conditions are scien- Press, New York. David claims that scientific conduct tests on Buddha's Hess, J (1997): Science Studies: An only by internalising tifically suited, Advanced New York view and India could Poornima Introduction, University rationality, guard (birth). Press, New York. itself Hindu against fundamentalism. This Because nuclear and other compelling Huntington,Samuel P (1968): Political Order in is a nice, but flawed view of modernscience. S and T of the 21st century can spawn Changing Societies Yale University Press,

Economic and Political Weekly December 29, 2001 4801 New Haven. Research, 52(4): 789-816. Scott, Janny (1996): 'Postmodern Gravity Kannan,K P Towardsa (1979): People's Science Merton,Robert K (1973,1942): The of Deconstructed', The New York Times, Calicut. Movement, KSSP, Science, The University of Chicago Press, May 18: Al. - 'Secularism and Science (1990): People's Chicago. Shiva, Vandana (1988): Staying Alive: Women, Movement in India', Economic and Political Nanda,Meera ( 1985): 'Are PesticidesNecessary'? Ecology, and Survival in India, Kali for Weekly, 28(5): 311-14. The Indian Express, January 17. Women, New Delhi. Keller, Fox A the - Evelyn (1983): Feeling for (1997): 'The Science Wars in India', Dissent, Sokal,Alan D (1996a): 'TransgressingBoundaries: Organism, W H Freeman, New York. Winter: 78-83. Towards a Transformative - Reflections on Gender and - (1985): Science, (1998): 'ReclaimingModern Science forThird of Quantum Gravity', Social Text, 14(1-2): Yale University Press, New Haven. WorldProgressive Social Movements', Econo- 217-52. Kimball, 'A Painful within Roger (1996): Sting mic and Political Weekly, 33 (16): 915-22. -(1996b): 'A Physicist Experiments with the Academic The WallStreet Hive', Journal, Nandy, Ashish (1988): 'The HumanFactor', The CulturalStudies', LinguaFranca, 6(4): 62-64. 29: A18. May IllustratedWeekly of India,January 17: 20-23. Tilly, Charles (1985): 'Models and ', Karin The - Knorr-Cetina, (1981): Manufactureof (ed) (1990): Science,Hegemony, and Violence: Social Research, 52(4): 715-47. New Knowledge, Pergamon, York. A Requiemfor Modernity,Oxford University Touraine, Alain (1985): 'An Introductionto the Noretta A House Koertge, (ed) (1998): Built on Press, Delhi. Studyof Social Movements',Social Research, Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths about National Public Radio (1996): 'All Things 52(4): 749-88. Science, Oxford New York. University Press, Considered', May 15. Varma,Roli (2000): 'ChangingResearch Cultures Kumar, Krishna Science and (1984): 'People's Nehru, J L (1985): Discovery of India, Oxford in US Industry', Science, Technology and Economic DevelopmentTheory', and Political University Press, Delhi. Human Values, 25(4): 395-416. 1082-84. Mohan Weekly, 24(29): Ram, (1973): 'The CommunistMovement - (1999): 'ProfessionalAutonomy vs. Industrial Bruno Science in Action: How to Latour, (1987): in India',Imperialism and Revolutionin South Control"?Science as Culture, 8(1): 23-45. Follow Scientists and Engineers through Asia, Kathleen Gough and Hari P Sharma -(1995): 'RestructuringCorporate R and D: Societies, Harvard Harvard. University Press, (eds), Monthly Review Press, New York. From Autonomous to Linkage Model', Donald 'Staiistical MacKenzie, (1978): Theory Ross, Andrew (1991): Strange Weather:Culture, Technology Analysis and and Social Interests: A Case Strategic Study', , and Technologyin the Age of Limits, Management, 7(2): 231-47. Studies 35-83. of Science, 8(1): Verso, London. Wallerstein, Immanuel (1979): The Capitalist Jill Fast Track for Indian Walt W McGivring, (2000): Rostow, (1960): TheStages of Economic World-Economy,Cambridge University Press, BBC at Internet', News, May 30, http:// Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, Cambridge. news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/ Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Zachariah, M (1994): Science for Social newsid_769000/769635.stm. Sundar Sarukai, (1999): 'Science, Knowledge, Revolution?Achievements and Dilemmas of Melucci,Alberto 'The (1985): SymbolicChallenge and Society', Economicand Political Weekly, a Development Movement, Zed Books, of Contemporary Movements', Social 34(12): 779-84. London.

Announcing THE MALCOLMADISESHIAH AWARD

The Malcolm and Elizabeth Adiseshiah Trust has institutedthe MalcolmAdiseshiah Awardfor contributions to Development Studies. The award, to be given annually, will be made to a scholar, ordinarily not over 50 years of age. The scholar should have made significant contributions through published work to the understanding of India's development problems. Indian and foreign scholars working in India and Indian scholars at present engaged in development studies outside India are eligible to be considered.

The award will consist of a citation and a cash prize of Rs. 1 lakh.

A three-member jury of eminent scholars will select the awardee. The name of the awardee will be announced in April 2002. The awardee will be invited to deliver the Malcolm Adiseshiah Memorial Lecture.

The first award was announced in April 2001 and the awardee is Prof. Abhijit Banerjee, Professor of , MIT, USA.

The Madras Institute of Development Studies will administer the award.

Scholars in the field may make nominations with a short resume of the nominee's work including a list of important publications. They should be sent before 15th February, 2002 to:

The Director, Madras Institute of Development Studies, 79, Second Main Road, Gandhinagar, Adyar, Chenpai - 600 020. Email: [email protected]

4802 Economic and Political Weekly December 29, 2001