Cultural and Historic Resources Assessment and Management Plan Analysis Report (R2018050800003)

Black Butte River and Cold Creek Segments

Black Butte River Wild and Scenic River

Mendocino National Forest November 2017

Purpose The comprehensive Management Plan for the Black Butte and Cold Creek Wild and Scenic River (WSR) establishes programmatic management direction for the WSR corridor. It has been developed to implement the direction of the Wild and Scenic River Act of 1968 as amended in the 2006 Northern California Coastal Wild Heritage Wilderness Act (Public Law 109-362) to include 19.5 miles of the Black Butte River and 1.5 miles of Cold Creek.

The WSR Act established a system for preserving outstanding free-flowing rivers. A defined section in Section 1(b) of the WSR Act: “certain selected rivers of the Nation which, with their immediate environments, possess outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreations, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values, shall be preserved in free-flowing condition, and that they and their immediate environments shall be protected for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations” (PL 90-542, 1968).

The WSR Act requires the Forest Service to develop a comprehensive WSR Management Plan for the Black Butte and Cold Creek to protect and enhance the outstandingly remarkable fish and cultural/historic values.

The WSR Management Plan will guide all development, management, and restoration activities within the WSR corridor. It includes standards and guidelines from the Proposed Action Alternative, an Implementation Plan with a list of possible projects, and a Monitoring Plan. The standards and guidelines are a statement of the WSR Management Plan’s management direction; however, the potential projects from the implementation plan are estimates and depend on site-specific NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act) analysis and the agency’s budgeting process.

WSR Location and Boundary

The WSR is located in Mendocino County, less than 10 miles northeast of the town Covelo in portions of: T23N, R11W, sections 27, 28, 34, 35, 36 T22N, R11W, sections 1, 12 T22N, R10W, sections 6, 7, 8, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 26, 27, 35, 36 T21N, R10W, sections 1, 2, 12, 13, 24 T21N, R9W, sections 5, 6, 20, 29 The final boundary approximates a ¼ mile distance on each side of the river. WSR Classifications, Including Segments

The WSR is 21 miles long with a corridor averaging 320 acres per mile (Error! Reference source not found.; Error! Reference source not found.). The WSR segments were classified based on an eligibility study approved in the 1995 Mendocino National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan using these criteria from the WSR Act: accessibility, developments along the shoreline, presence or absence of impoundments, and water quality. Results of the eligibility study are summarized in the

Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Forest Plan, Appendix L (USDA-FS, 1995).

This report contains two sections. Section I presents what is known about the cultural resources within the WSR corridor and the larger watershed. It documents the history and prehistory of the region and pristine nature of those heritage resources as outstandingly remarkable values. Section II of this report identifies current conditions, effects analysis, desired conditions and existing and recommended management strategies to meet 36 CFR 800 regulations under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966.

I. CULTURAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Introduction This report documents the cultural resources within the Black Butte River segments within the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River on the Mendocino National Forest (Figure 1: Vicinity Map). Specifically, the Northern California Coastal Wild Heritage Wilderness Act (HR233), states that the report shall address the cultural resources within: “a) the 16 miles of Black Butte River, from the Mendocino County Line to its confluence with Jumpoff Creek; b) the 3.5 miles of Black Butte River from its confluence with Jumpoff Creek to its confluence with the Middle Eel River; and c) the 1.5 miles of Cold Creek from the Mendocino County Line to its confluence with Black Butte River” (Figure 2: Location Map).

Within the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River corridor there are thirty-eight known cultural resource sites. All of the sites are manifestations of the prehistoric settlement of the area. Thirty-six of these sites contain small to large midden deposits which are indicative of repeated or permanent occupation by a family or families. Two of the sites also have historic period components. All of the sites are historically related to the Yuki Indians of the Round Valley Indian Tribe in Covelo, California. Overall, the Wild and Scenic River contains one of the largest concentrations of prehistoric and ethnographic village sites on the Mendocino National Forest. Due to the high number of sites within the watershed it would qualify, using criteria of the National Register of Historic Places, as a significant archaeological district. The majority of the sites are in excellent condition and have not suffered from development, vandalism, or looting. Thirteen sites have been significantly affected by natural bank erosion and one has been damaged as a result of an illegal cannabis grow.

Environmental Description The topography within and adjacent to the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River consists of a series of southwest to northeast running ridges with slopes varying from nearly level to greater than 30%. The soils range from deep to moderately deep well drained sandy or gravelly loam. The parent material is primarily sandstone, metasandstone, and shale. The geology of the area is a Jurassic-Cretaceous marine sedimentary and volcanic rock, consisting mostly of sandstone, graywacke, shale, and chert with small local areas of

greenstone, schist, basalt, and related metamorphic rocks. Collectively the rock group is termed the Franciscan Formation.

The area enjoys a Mediterranean climate with cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Annual precipitation averages between 20 to 60 inches falling as rain or snow during the winter months. Since most of the area is below 5,000 feet in elevation, there are few snow packs. The large, perennial watercourses include the Eel River and Black Butte River. Numerous small intermittent creeks and drainages flow into the Black Butte River and are primarily fed by ephemeral and perennial springs.

Vegetation includes chaparral on the south and east facing lower elevations with mixed conifers and hardwoods in a majority of the area. Open glades contain abundant grasses and forbs. The vegetation is a mosaic of Douglas fir and pine (Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus ponderosa, P. lambertiana, Quercus chrysolepis, Q. kelloggii) and mixed conifer- pine (Pinus ponderosa, P. lambertiana, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus chrysolepis) forest; canyon live oak (Q. chrysolepis), and black oak-madrone (Q. kelloggii, Arbutus menziesii) woodland; manzanita-shrub oak-chamise chaparral (Arctostaphylos spp., Q. wislezenii var. frutiscens, Q. berberidifolia, Adenostoma fasciculatum), and numerous stands of knobcone pine (P. attenuata). Riparian vegetation consists mainly of willow species with associated alder and cottonwood.

Fauna include: black bear, black tail deer, mountain lion, bobcat, coyote, raccoon, grey squirrel, Beechey ground squirrel, golden mantle ground squirrel, chipmunk, jackrabbit, pygmy rabbit, cottontail rabbit, striped skunk, red fox, and numerous other rodents. Reptiles include various lizards and snakes. Amphibians include several species of frogs, salamanders, and newts. Raptors in the area include several owl species, including the northern spotted owl; the numerous species of hawks include red tail hawk, northern harrier, northern goshawk, and peregrine falcon; both golden eagle, and bald eagle finish the list of raptors. There are numerous birds, both permanent residents, and migratory. Historic accounts indicate the presence of grizzly bear, tule elk, and Roosevelt elk in the historic period. No fossil data is available to reconstruct the history of terrestrial and aquatic animal populations.

Euro-American use of the area began shortly after the Gold Rush period in the early 1850’s. The introduction of cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs and resultant overgrazing, clearing for homesteads, road construction, and timber harvest within and around the project area modified the landscape. Overgrazing, burning practices, clearing brush, and introduction of exotic species of grass and other plants altered the forest and grassland ecosystems, degrading riparian areas and water resources, and increasing soil erosion. These trends began to be reversed with the creation of the Stony Creek Forest Reserve in 1907. Under Forest Service management, grazing levels were reduced and fires were suppressed, but timber harvest and road construction expanded during the 1920s and especially after World War II. Fire suppression further modified natural fire regimes.

Figure 1 – Vicinity Map

Figure 2 – Location Map

Prehistoric Period The North Coast Range is the home of numerous tribal groups. The Clear Lake Basin, to the southeast of the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River area, and its reliable resource base, made the area an important center of prehistoric activity. In 1938, research was restricted to the Paleo-Indian Period associated with the Borax Lake Site (CA-LAK-36). Early research was limited to pre- and proto-historic uses of the Borax Lake Site, located on the southeastern periphery of Clear Lake.

The Clear Lake Basin has been the focus of archaeological investigations for more than sixty years. The Borax Lake Site exhibits the most reliable representation of the earliest occupation (10,000 – 6,000 B.C.) of the North Coast Ranges (Fredrickson 1974:497). Also this site has the longest continuous cultural chronology of any site in California. Much research has occurred since the mid-1970s, and it has broadened to include a spectrum of archaeological manifestations including an examination of environmental and cultural changes within the basin. Some of this research was integral to the development of a cultural-historical framework for the North Coast Ranges, and has the most applicability to the sites in the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River area. Cultural sites within the study area would fall within the time periods, and contain diagnostic artifacts as show in Table 1.

Table 1: Fredrickson’s Cultural Complex Chronology

Complex Time Period Diagnostic Artifacts

Post Pattern 10,000-6,000 B.C. fluted points and crescents

Early Borax 5,000-3,000 B.C. Borax Lake wide-stemmed Lake Pattern projectile points, mano/metate

Late Borax 3,000-1000 B.C. concave base, lanceolate, and Lake Pattern expanding stem projectile points, co-occurrence of mano and metate with mortar and pestle

Houx Aspect of 1,000 B.C.-500 A.D. small wide-stemmed and large Berkeley Pattern lanceolate projectile points, bowl mortar and pestle

Late Period 500-1850 A.D. small corner/side-notched points, hopper mortar and pestle

Ethnographic Period According to linguistic evidence, the Yukian language family seems to be unrelated to other language families in California. Linguists have labeled the Yuki the only truly "autochthonous" (native) group in California. It has been suggested that pre-Proto Yukian is correlated with the Post Pattern of the Paleo-Indian period (10,000 to 6,000 B.C.), and that prior to 1000 B.C., Yuki territory went between near Humboldt Bay to the lower Russian River valley (Whistler:1980). Some researchers speculate that the Yukian people may have been among the earliest inhabitants of the region. Fredickson (1984:495) hypothesizes that the ethnographic territory of the Yuki, Coast Yuki, and Huchnom was occupied continuously by Yukian speakers, and their ancestors throughout the entire period are represented by the known archaeological record for the area. Athabaskan speakers are believed to have pushed the Yuki South around 1000 to 900 A.D. (McCarty et al. 1982:30-38).

Two languages are included in the Yuki family: Yuki, with dialects of Coast Yuki, Huchnom and Yuki; and the Wappo dialect spoken by aboriginal residents of Napa and Lake Counties. Yuki territory is bounded on the north-west and west by the Athabaskan- speaking Lassik, Wailaki and Kato, to the south by the Hokan-speaking Pomo and on the northeast and east by the Penutian-speaking Northern Wintun and Nomlaki Wintun.

Six major Yuki tribal subdivisions have been identified and are described below (Foster 1944:159-60 and Jackson 1976:Les White's 1974 Map for the Report of the Middle Eel Planning Unit Archaeological Survey based on Kroeber 1925; Barrett 1908; Goldschmidt 1951; Chartoff 1966; Edwards 1966; and Maratto 1973; Fredickson 1984:495).

The Yuki Tribes most likely to have inhabited the area within the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River are highlighted below (No. 4 & 5).

1. The Ta'no'm (Slope People) who lived on the east side of the Eel River and along the lower reaches of the Eel River from Spy rock to near Dos Rios. There was much intermarriage between them and the Wailaki.

2. The Witukomno'm lived on the Middle Fork of the Eel River, and on the tributaries to the south such as Elk Creek, Eden and Rodeo Valleys up to Horse Pasture Ridge and upper Long Doe Ridge immediately south and west of the Study Area. In pre-contact times they lived mostly on and south of the Middle Fork, but after were pushed north by soldiers to the site of the old Hop Ranch (today the Diamond H Ranch). In the 1880's one rancheria in that area numbered fifty houses.

3. The Ukomno'm (valley people) occupying Round Valley north of the Hop Ranch but east of the Middle Eel up to the crest of Etsel Ridge and along both sides of the Thatcher and Hayshed Creek drainages immediately north of Long Doe Ridge and the Study Area. This group also occupied Hull's Valley, Bluenose Ridge, William's Valley and Poorman's Valleys .

4. The Huititno'm (middle-ridge people) situated along Black Butte Creek and surrounding slopes on both sides. They occupied the eastern slopes of Etsel Ridge, the immediate Black Butte river drainage and up to the Pacific Coast Crest on the east butting up against the Nomlaki on the east of the crest. Their terrain was lofty and rugged.

5. The Suksaltatamno'm, (nicely shaped pine tree people) lived the farthest north and in the similar lofty and rugged terrain as the Huititno'm. They occupied the uppermost reaches of the Middle Fork of the Eel River from the confluence of the Middle Eel and the Black butte River north to the neighboring "Pitch Wailaki" with whom they shared fishing resources.

6. The Onkolukomno'm (ground in another valley people) lived at the headwaters of the south Fork of the Eel River (today the Main Fork of the Eel River). They were separated from the rest of the Yuki by Etsel Ridge and Sanhedrin Mountain. They were favorably situated in Gravelly Valley and in what is today the Lake Pillsbury area.

The Yuki subsisted on a well tended ecosystem through harvesting, hunting and fishing. The plentiful salmon available to the Yuki ran in great numbers in all the forks of the Eel River within Yuki territory and in the Black Butte River. In terms of hunting, deer were abundant, and were a major source of food. Controlled fire practices and plant community manipulation was the dominant form of the Yuki subsistence management. Acorns were of major importance. Pine nuts (both sugar and grey pine), buckeye, and peppernuts (bay nuts) were also used extensively. Of various vegetable sources clover, anise root, tubers, soaproot shoots, angelica and mountain fillery were also used. Pinole, the flour from grinding various seeds including tarweed, sunflower, dandelions, clover, and manzanita was used as part of the Yuki diet. Other important foods were worms, insects, fungi, and eggs. Usually two meals a day were eaten consisting of the sunset meal of meat, soup, pinole, and the special seasonal delicacies. Leftovers were for breakfast. Roasting part of a catch while hunting was common (Foster 1944:166-167).

A great range of plant resources were exploited, requiring a continuum of plant knowledge which had to be applied in the context of a rich variety of specific plant associations (Blackburn, Anderson 1993:43). It has been pointed out that population density during Archaic Periods in California prehistory rivaled aboriginal populations engaged in agriculture elsewhere, as California supported the greatest density population in North America without agriculture (Blackburn, Anderson 1993). Heizer hypothesized that California was in a semi-agricultural stage at Spanish contact. This is reflected in the existence of proto-agricultural techniques, in the quasi-agricultural patterns of harvesting acorn, manzanita, yucca, mesquite, pine-nuts, and in intricate production techniques and wide ranging fiber usages (requiring tons of fiber annually), and in the application of burning techniques and strategies to enhance plant and animal resources (Blackburn, Anderson 1993:52).

Village organization was an enlargement of the basic family social unit. Blood relationships were the strongest. All branches of a family did not live in one village. In

smaller villages most people were related by blood or marriage. Village exogamy was a general rule with the exception of no'hots, the largest rancherias. These large villages consisted of as many as 25 to 50 individuals’ dwelling houses, and were comprised of several lineage groups. It was here that the ti'ol ho't, Chief Big, and lesser functionaries lived, that the dance house was situated, and that most of the major social and religious activities of the immediate neighborhood centered. Inhabitants from smaller villages, often no more than a quarter mile removed, considered themselves a part of the no'hot almost as much as those that lived there. These ranged from several to many depending on the popularity of the Captain (Chief). The number of inhabitants ranged from single families up to 150 in the largest no'hot (Foster 1944:176).

Historic Period Spanish explorers arrived in the early 19th century looking for new sites for missions. American fur trading operators and explorers were also active at this time. The Yukis’ first significant contact with Europeans came in 1856, when the Nome Cult Indian Farm was established in Round Valley. In 1858 the farm officially became a reservation, and other Indians from surrounding tribes were also brought to live there.

Agricultural settlements occurring in the foothills became significant after the beginning of the Gold Rush. Clear Lake Basin, to the south of the project area, attracted early settlers with its abundant water and good soil. The project area had many types of homestead claims including cash entry and patents. Many of the claims were established in the 1880’s and into the 1890’s. Grazing was the first known historic use of the area, beginning in the mid 1800s. The common practice was to choose smaller tracts that secured control of much larger ranges by patenting claims to prime grazing areas at significant springs. Isolated from mainstream development, vast grazing lands were the most important agricultural resource, with mountain ranges used for summer grazing and valley/lowland areas used in winter. After the formation of the Stony Creek Forest Reserve in 1907, two types of range were designated, one for sheep and goats, and the second for cattle and horses. Developing water sites was an important goal to ensure proper use of the range.

With the formation of the Forest Reserve, radical changes occurred for most users. However, the recreation program was not overly regulated with hunting and fishing a mainstay on the forest. By 1915 maps were being printed that outlined trails, discussed campsites, explained campfires and permits. By the 1920s, the California National Forest had instituted a trails program to open up large portions of the country.

With the Depression, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was formed to do a variety of work on the forest that ranged from road and trail construction to building administrative compounds and lookouts. From the 10 main camps that resembled military bases within the forest, to the tent spike camps young men also planted trees and dug firelines during emergencies to protect valuable resources.

For the most part, Agricultural and Forest Service development did not occur in the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River.

Cultural Resource Descriptions Limited systematic archaeological inventory of the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River has taken place. However, 34 sites have been formally recorded within the half mile wide river corridor. Many more sites have been recorded outside of the Wild & Scenic River corridor. There are likely many more sites yet to be discovered within the corridor. The first recordings took place in 1966 and were associated with an early initial study of a proposed reservoir that was being considered. Twelve of the sites in the WSR corridor were recorded during that period. The remaining 21 sites were recorded between 1975 and 2014 for various Forest Service activities. The 2013-2014 surveys identified many more sites including several over a half mile from the river itself. In 2017, a field trip down Doan Ridge to the river lead to the identification of four more archaeological sites midway up the river at a location known locally as Doan Crossing (Chris Baldo Personal Communication). These sites include a small midden deposit on the west bank of the river, two middens with housepits on the east side of the river and what appears to be a petroglyph with both prehistoric pit and groove markings and modern or historic initials carved into the stone. The addition of these four sites makes 38 total for the Wild & Scenic River corridor.

Summary descriptions of each of the sites are as follows:

Site Number Description 05-08-53-258 Large ethnographic village site. 05-08-53-265 Moderately sized village site. 05-08-53-266 Small camp or village associated with nearby large village. 05-08-53-540 Small village (midden with 2 housepits) 05-08-53-541 Small village (midden with housepit) 05-08-53-542 Major village (dancehouse, housepits, midden) 05-08-53-543 7 housepits, no midden (refuge site?) 05-08-56-005 Probable year-around occupation site on the approximate boundary line between Huititnom and Sukfakatamnon branches of the Yuki. Large village site. 05-08-56-190 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-255 Large village site as well as historic homestead site. 05-08-56-280 Cache of acorn and seed milling tools. Possible manufacturing or storage site. 05-08-56-286 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-333 Moderately sized village site. 05-08-56-334 Moderately sized village site. 05-08-56-335 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-336 Large village site (7 housepits). 05-08-56-337 Moderately sized camp or village site. 05-08-56-338 Small camp with midden, housepit (not relocated in 2013) 05-08-56-346 Small camp or village site (not relocated in 2013) 05-08-56-347 Small camp or village site.

05-08-56-348 Large village site. 05-08-56-356 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-357 Large village site. 05-08-56-358 Moderately sized camp or village site. 05-08-56-359 Moderately sized camp or village site. 05-08-56-360 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-361 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-445 Small camp or village site 05-08-56-446 Small village site and historic cabin. 05-08-56-640 Small camp or village site. 05-08-56-665 Small camp or village site 05-08-56-739 Small midden on river 05-08-56-740 Large village (midden, 7 housepits) 05-08-56-742 Small camp (midden deposit) 2017-A Small midden on west side of river 2017-B Midden with housepits at river confluence 2017-C Midden with housepits on side drainage 2017-D Prehistoric/historic petroglyph on bench well above river

The above list illustrates how unique the cultural resources are in the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River. There are very few locations in California that contain such a rich, numerous, and diverse archaeological resource. Also important is to realize that many of the sites could contain, as defined in current research, some of the oldest archaeological resources in the state. The Northern California Coastal Wild Heritage Wilderness Act (HR233) recognizes the national significance of these sites. The sites possess exceptional values and qualities in illustrating or interpreting not only the heritage of the Yuki Tribe, but Native American settlement of the western United States.

It is recommended that a complete and systematic archaeological inventory of the Black Butte River Wild and Scenic River be completed in the future. This would provide a more detailed description, analysis, and interpretation of these important archaeological resources within the watershed.

Summary of Heritage Resource Conditions While only 30% of the Black Butte River Watershed has been inventoried, there are approximately 343 known historic properties located within its boundary. Most inventories have been concentrated in the highlands on Etsel Ridge and its eastern slopes and on the crest of the North Coast Ranges bounding the watershed to the east. Surveys have been largely the result of timber and fuels reduction projects and thus are situated in coniferous vegetation types where prehistoric sites tend to be small seasonal camps or task specific resources such as lithic scatters, chert quarries and small base camps. Forest heritage data indicate that 83% of all known habitation sites (middens and housepit sites) occur below 3,500 feet (Dugas et.al, 2014) which is typically considered the winter zone where snow is typically rare and light. The entire 0.5 mile wide WSR corridor lies within this zone.

The 38 known sites within the 0.5 mile wide corridor are only a sample of the sites located within the Wild & Scenic corridor as only about half of the 19.5 mile long portion of the river has been systematically surveyed. The lower five miles leading to Eel River Station and the uppermost five miles have survey along the river, leaving almost 10 miles of river and a portion of the lower 1.5 mile segment of Cold Creek unsurveyed. Even the surveyed portions of the WSR corridor have limited survey coverage as the early surveys were focused directly on the river bank and did not extend to the entire quarter mile buffer on each side of the river. The results of the 2013 surveys (MNF 2014) indicated that significant prehistoric habitation sites can and do occur well above the river in some cases. The sites further away from the lower river terraces tend to be in very good condition based on their distance from the alluvial forces of the river.

The 2013 inventory also involved visiting, monitoring or re-recording sites which had not been visited in some time. Many of the sites in the lower stretches of the river had not been visited since their 1966 recording so the site records were sparse and they lacked the locational precision now available with GPS technology. Eleven of the 18 sites visited had significant damage from erosion and 35% of the originally identified housepits were no longer distinguishable. While some of the housepit loss may be the result of observational error, it is likely that 40+ years of seasonal flooding, erosion and landslides typical of this drainage have washed away much of the original deposits. At least four site locations were covered with alluvium partially or completely masking the archaeological constituents originally recorded on site records. Sites that were on higher terraces fared much better and were still intact for the most part. It is likely that many more sites washed away prior to Edwards survey as two years prior (1964) was a great flood in the area. The watershed has always been prone to landslides; however, with increased logging, road building and recreational use since the establishment of the National Forests, these erosive processes have increased dramatically.

Other than erosion, most of the sites in the WSR corridor were in good shape. A few exhibited some evidence of cow wallowing and trampling but very few had evidence of recreational use which can lead to looting. One habitation site situated in a protected alcove surrounded by rock outcrops had been used as a cannabis grow site. We were unable to visit all of the sites since their original recording as many, especially in the lower reaches, are on private land and the landowners did not allow us to go on or through their property. These sites could potentially be affected by intentional or inadvertent damage from landowners’ construction and maintenance of their own roads, homes and agricultural pursuits. The area is also very remote, with the potential to attract cannabis growers on both large and small scales. The midden deposits found on habitation sites provides rich organic soils favorable for growing gardens.

II. MANAGEMENT PLAN HERITAGE ANALYSIS

Affected Environment Heritage resources are numerous and pristine for the most part within the Wild and Scenic Black Butte River corridor. Of the 38 known sites in the corridor, 30 have been

recently visited. Fourteen of these sites have partial to significant damage as a result of erosion. The erosion is the result of flooding and natural processes which can often be exacerbated by the effects of wildfire, road building and vegetative treatments to lands within the watershed. The sites along the lower river terraces within the 0.5 mile wide corridor are the most seriously affected. In some cases the land form itself has partially eroded away whereas other sites appeared covered over with silt so artifacts were no longer visible. In some cases, the sites were never relocated suggesting that they had already washed down stream during high water flow events. Sites on upper terraces are generally in pristine condition. The 300 plus sites outside of the corridor but within the watershed are less affected by erosion from flooding, etc. as they are further from the main water course. Affects to those resources is largely outside of the scope of this document.

In addition to natural processes, sites can be affected by human caused events ranging from recreational use, land alterations on private inholdings, cannabis cultivation and archaeological site looting. One of the six sites on private was visited in 2013 and it proved to be heavily affected by erosion from side drainages entering the river and undercutting the midden deposit. The status of the others on private land is unknown. The only way to ensure protection of these sites is to acquire those properties through land exchange or securing a conservation easement. The poor access to most of these sites is probably why so many are in pristine condition. Very little evidence of looting has been found at any of these sites. The major use of the area appears to be hunting as suggested by modern trash and bullet casings found on or near archaeological sites. Provisions in the LRMP provide standards and guidelines which are generally compatible with the management and protection of those ORVs for which the Black Butte River was designated Wild & Scenic status. Prescription 10 of the LRMP directs management Wild & Scenic Rivers within the Forest. The prescription focuses on a balance between resource protection and recreational opportunities in a primitive, non-concentrated setting. The prescription encourages acquisition of private land within the corridor for the protection of ORVs, and the pursuit of transportation easements to facilitate public use of the corridor. Dispersed recreation is encouraged as is the development of primitive camping locations and trail maintenance and/or construction and public education through signing, brochures and other media.

Management Direction Management direction for cultural resources is found in the Mendocino National Forest Resource Management Plan, in the Forest Service Manual section 2360, in federal regulations 36CFR64 and 36CFR800, and in various federal laws including the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (as amended), the National Environmental Policy Act, and the National Forest Management Act. In general, the existing management direction asks the Forest to consider the effects on cultural resources when considering projects that fall within the Forest’s jurisdiction. Further direction indicates that the Forest will determine what cultural resources are present on the forest, evaluate each resource for eligibility to the National Register of Historic Places (Register) and protect or mitigate effects to resources that are unevaluated or eligible.

Relevant Heritage Forest Plan Standards and Guidelines include:

1. Emphasize a well-balanced heritage resources program at all levels. Develop management plans for heritage resources focusing on inventory, evaluation, protection, interpretation, public participation, education and research in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and other legislation.

2. Complete a systematic program of inventory, evaluation, and management of heritage resources to protect and preserve significant heritage values.

3. Whenever heritage properties might be affected by an activity, protect the properties or resource sites until they are evaluated. Follow the procedures for assessing and treating any effects, and maintain the integrity and values of eligible properties, to the extent possible, as outlined in the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation’s regulations (36 CFR 800).

4. Evaluate heritage properties for significance in accordance with the criteria of the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP; 36 CFR 60.4) and the guidelines found in “Procedures for the Evaluation of Historic and Cultural Properties” (prepared by the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation). Eligible properties which represent deficiencies in current historic, prehistoric, or ethnographic information will receive priority consideration for formal nomination to the NRHP.

5. Coordinates Forest management practices with concerned local Native Americans to insure that such practices do not unduly impede access to traditional food, medicinal, and basketry resources located throughout the Forest. Continue efforts to contact knowledgeable individuals who can assist in the identification of sites of traditional importance, and protect sites of traditional importance as provided for under the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-341).

6. Maintain the confidentiality of specific site locations for historic, prehistoric, and traditional cultural properties.

7. Emphasize the interpretation of heritage resources where the recreational experience would be enhanced, where public benefits are high, or where important for resource protection.

8. Encourage active research programs by establishing cooperative agreements or partnerships with accredited research institutions. Issue research permits under the Archaeological Resource Protection Act of 1979 (P.L. 95-96) to qualified institutions and organizations.

9. Manage archaeological and historic sites, collections, and records in compliance with Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and regulations regarding the curation of archaeological collections (36 CFR 79).

Desired Condition It would be desired to know the location and extent of all cultural resources and have evaluated each one for eligibility to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Outstanding Heritage resources within the wild and scenic river area should be nominated for listing on the National Register, preferably as a National Register District. A management plan for the heritage resources of the area would identify opportunities for education, research, and recreation access as well as priority sites for protection measures and monitoring. Locations with tribal interest and concern can be identified and appropriate access and use determined in consultation with tribal governments and groups.

Existing Condition See Section I of this report (Cultural Resource Assessment).

Issues and Concerns Most of the archaeological sites within the Wild & Scenic corridor are midden deposits with and without housepits indicating continuous or repeated occupational use. These sites typically contain faunal remains, charcoal and often human remains which can be chronometrically dated through radio-carbon analysis. All of these sites are likely eligible for the National Register of Historic Places both individually and as part of a National Register District. These sites are easily compromised by illegal excavation (looting) and recreational use (e.g., camping, hunting, etc.) and also vulnerable to natural processes including erosion, flooding, bioturbation, and landslides.

Future vulnerabilities to these sites would be increased if trail or road access is increased. Segments of numerous historic trails exist within and just outside of the Wild & Scenic corridor. Many of these trails were constructed in the 1920s and can be seen on 1928 Forest maps. Most of these trails were built up away from the river, likely the result of the steep slopes and heavy vegetation directly adjacent to the river. The “River Trail” (M.N.F. 1996) connected the confluence of the Middle Fork of the Eel River and the Black Butte River to several points along the headwaters of the Black Butte River in the south end of the WSR corridor. This trail crosses through a few sites but is overgrown and not currently not part of the Forest’s trail system. The Don Pedro Trail on the southwest side of the river is currently used but crosses through private land and there is no public easement for its use. Most of it is well above the river. Many more trails appear on the 1928 Forest maps which follow lateral ridges down to the river but those are long abandoned with little remaining except tree blazes marking the way. Future incorporation of these trails into the Forest’s trail system would trigger environmental review which consider affects to cultural resource sites and insure their protection.

Much of the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River corridor has not been inventoried for heritage resources. The Forest has deliberately left the river vicinity undeveloped and primitive resulting in a lack of formal projects requiring archaeological inventory. Some additional survey along the river would assist in determining the extent and location of heritage resources in the W&S corridor and allow us to determine best management of the resources before damage starts to occur.

Proposed Standards and Guides The following standards and guides are largely reflected in our current 1995 LRMP and current laws and regulations for the management and protection of prehistoric sites and traditional uses of the Black Butte River:

Prehistoric: Heritage resources are identified, evaluated for eligibility to the National Register of Historic Places, and for appropriate use (research, interp./ed., preserve for future, no protection, etc.) prior to decisions about developments that may affect the resource; and consideration of these evaluations are incorporated into the development being planned. The sites in the Wild and Scenic corridor would be ideal candidates for eligibility as part of a National Register District, bounded by the current Wild and Scenic corridor boundaries.

Traditional Values: Any proposed actions or discovered disturbance of prehistoric sites, traditional use resources, or potential sacred sites or sites of interest to the Round Valley Indian Tribes (RVIT) will include notification, discussion, and consultation with tribal officials and relevant tribal committees or specialists prior to making decisions about implementing actions or dealing with disturbances. This will include notification through the NEPA planning process but will also consider additional contact and discussion with or without a NEPA process taking place.

Effects Alternative 1 (No Action) Under the no action alternative, conditions and management of heritage resources will remain the same. However, unfocused management and minimal monitoring would not move conditions toward the desired condition.

Alternative 2 (Proposed Action) Developing boundaries and management direction for the Black Butte Wild and Scenic River will not have any effect on significant and unevaluated cultural resources. Any site specific projects planned to be implemented within the Wild and Scenic River corridor require consideration of effects on heritage resources and consultation with the California SHPO. Proposed indicators, thresholds, and potential management actions in the Capacity Analysis would help determine if unacceptable resource damage is occurring due to recreation use and what remedial action(s) (including rehabilitation) would need to occur.

Cumulative Effects There are no direct or indirect effects from this project so no cumulative effects will occur.

Mitigation and Monitoring No on the ground activities are authorized under this plan so mitigation measures are not currently needed. Ongoing monitoring of sites at risk to determine if adverse effects are occurring will help direct corrective changes.

Monitoring Plan: Value Key Management Management Sampling Indicators Standards Actions if not to procedures standard and frequency Archaeology Site No damage that Site protection Annual integrity reduces significance measures monitoring of at risk sites Cultural Cultural No damage or Consult with Annual Values value disturbance that tribes on monitoring of integrity reduces the cultural resources of values at risk. value of the site cultural value and changes in resource conditions

Management Recommendations The pristine nature of the cultural resources within the WSR corridor owe much to their relative remoteness in terms of visitor usage. With the exception of private lands within the corridor, access is limited to a few roads and trails which cross through private land to access the river. As there are no easements or established maintenance protocols for these access points, travel is limited to cross country travelers, private property owners and their guests. The administration of the Etsel Range Allotment facilitates some cattle grazing along the river and within the western portion of the Black Butte Watershed. The range permittee accesses this area often on horseback to gather his cattle, but it appears that very little concentrated recreational use occurs outside of hunting. In order to manage and protect the outstandingly remarkable heritage values for which the river was designated for, the following recommendations are offered.

1. Continue efforts to inventory unsurveyed areas within the WSR corridor and monitor known sites for degradation through natural and man-made processes.

2. Stabilize or evaluate threatened or compromised archaeological sites for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).

3. Evaluate and Nominate archaeological sites within the Wild & Scenic Corridor as a National Register District.

4. Work with local Tribes (Round Valley Indian Tribes) in the management, protection, monitoring and interpretation of prehistoric sites within the WSR corridor.

5. Where possible, acquire private lands within the WSR corridor or develop conservation easements to insure protection of heritage resources on private land.

6. Consider stabilization of sites threatened with streambank erosion utilizing native plants to anchor eroding cultural deposits.

7. Establish signing to educate the public on the prehistory of the area and cultural resource laws protecting sites.

REFERENCES

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1996 A Cultural History of the Black Butte Watershed as it Pertains to Environmental Consequences of both Prehistoric, Ethnographic, and Historical Land Use. Manuscript on File M.N.F., Willows, CA.

2014 Black Butte River Section 110 Inventory (MNF-87-2013). On file Mendocino National Forest, Willows, California

Moratto, M.J. 1973 A Survey of Cultural Resources in and Near Redwood National Park Manuscript on file NPS, Tucson.