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A Companion to Archaic Greece

Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xxxviii ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page i

A COMPANION TO ARCHAIC GREECE ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page ii

BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY LITERATURE AND CULTURE A Companion to the Roman Army A Companion to Classical Receptions Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray A Companion to the Roman Republic A Companion to Greek and Roman Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Historiography Robert Morstein-Marx Edited by John Marincola A Companion to the Roman Empire A Companion to Catullus Edited by David S. Potter Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner A Companion to the Classical Greek World A Companion to Roman Religion Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to the Ancient Near East A Companion to Greek Religion Edited by Daniel C. Snell Edited by Daniel Ogden A Companion to the Hellenistic World A Companion to the Classical Tradition Edited by Andrew Erskine Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf A Companion to Late Antiquity A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by Philip Rousseau Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall A Companion to Archaic Greece A Companion to Greek Rhetoric Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Edited by Ian Worthington Hans van Wees A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to Ancient History Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Latin Literature Edited by Stephen Harrison A Companion to Ovid Edited by Peter E. Knox A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought Edited by Ryan K. Balot ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page iii

A Companion to Archaic Greece

Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page iv

This edition first published 2009 © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to Archaic Greece / edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees. p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-631-23045-8 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Greece–Civilization–To 146 B.C. I. Raaflaub, Kurt A. II. Wees, Hans van. DF77.C6955 2009 938–dc22 2008046992

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 10/12.5 pt Galliard by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed in the United Kingdom

01 2009 ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page v

Contents

List of Illustrations viii Notes on Contributors xii Preface xx List of Abbreviations xxiii

Maps xxiv

Part I Introduction 1

1 The Historiography of Archaic Greece 3 John K. Davies 2 The Mediterranean World in the Early Iron Age 22 Carol G. Thomas

Part II Histories 41

3 The Early Iron Age 43 Catherine Morgan 4 The Eighth-century Revolution 64 Ian Morris 5 The World of Homer and Hesiod 81 Christoph Ulf ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page vi

vi Contents

6 The Tyrants 100 Elke Stein-Hölkeskamp 7 Sparta 117 Massimo Nafissi 8 Athens 138 Michael Stahl and Uwe Walter 9 Greeks and Persians 162 Josef Wiesehöfer

Part III Regions 187

10 Attica: A View from the Sea 189 Sanne Houby-Nielsen 11 The Aegean 212 Alexander Mazarakis Ainian and Iphigenia Leventi 12 Laconia and Messenia 239 Nigel Kennell and Nino Luraghi 13 The Peloponnese 255 Thomas Heine Nielsen and James Roy 14 Crete 273 James Whitley 15 Northern Greece 294 Zosia Halina Archibald 16 The Western Mediterranean 314 Carla M. Antonaccio 17 The Black Sea 330 Gocha R. Tsetskhladze

Part IV Themes 347

18 Cities 349 Jan Paul Crielaard 19 Foundations 373 Irad Malkin 20 States 395 Hans-Joachim Gehrke 21 Charismatic Leaders 411 Robert W. Wallace ACA_a01.qxd 25/02/2009 02:23PM Page vii

Contents vii

22 Sanctuaries and Festivals 427 François de Polignac 23 The Economy 444 Hans van Wees 24 Class 468 Peter W. Rose 25 Gender 483 Lin Foxhall 26 The Culture of the Symposion 508 Oswyn Murray 27 The Culture of Competition 524 Nick Fisher 28 Literacy 542 John-Paul Wilson 29 Intellectual Achievements 564 Kurt A. Raaflaub 30 War and International Relations 585 Henk Singor 31 Ethnicity and Cultural Exchange 604 Jonathan M. Hall

Bibliography 618 Indices 713 ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page viii

Illustrations

Maps

1 The eastern Mediterranean and the Persian empire xxiv 2 The western Mediterranean xxv 3 The Peloponnese xxvi 4 Laconia xxvii 5 Messenia xxviii 6 Attica xxix 7 The central Aegean xxx 8 Naxos and Paros xxx 9 Crete xxxi 10 Greek Asia Minor xxxii 11 The Black Sea xxxiii 12 The northern Aegean xxxiv 13 Macedonia xxxv 14 Northern Greece xxxvi 15 Central Greece xxxvii

Figures

2.1 Peoples of the Mediterranean 26 2.2 Resources in the Mediterranean world 37 4.1 Four material culture regions in Aegean Greece 65 7.1 A Laconian cup by the Naucratis painter 132 8.1 A reconstruction of Solon’s axones 146 8.2 Vase painting of Harmodius and Aristogeiton killing Hipparchos 150 8.3 A plan of the Agora ca. 500 bc 152 ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page ix

Illustrations ix

9.1 Schematic plan of Achaemenid fortifications at Sardis 170 9.2 Croeseïd coin 172 9.3 Temple of Artemis at Ephesos 174 9.4 Tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadae 180 9.5 Palace at Pasargadae 180 9.6 The Zendan at Pasargadae 180 10.1 The river Illisos in Athens in 1906 201 10.2 View from the Acropolis over the “heart” of early archaic Athens 201 10.3 The distribution of archaic grave monuments in Attica 209 11.1 Reconstruction drawing of the Lefkandi heroon 217 11.2 Plans of temple of Apollo at Eretria 218 11.3 Statue of Gorgo from Paros 220 11.4 Temple at Yria: (a) phases I–III; (b) phase IV 221 11.5 Aerial view of sanctuary on Kythnos 222 11.6 Adyton of the sanctuary on Kythnos 223 11.7 Gold rosace found in the adyton of the sanctuary on Kythnos 223 11.8 Temple at Old Smyrna 226 11.9 Megaron Hall at Emborio, Chios 227 11.10 Geneleos statue group from Samos 231 12.1 Masks from Artemis Orthia sanctuary 242 12.2 Votives from Artemis Orthia sanctuary 242 12.3 The Spartan countryside, 550–540 bc 246 13.1 Plan of Halieis 258 13.2 Reconstructed plan of the temple at Ayios Elias and of some closely related Arkadian temples 260 13.3 A fragmentary kouros from Tourkoleka 261 13.4 Wheel-road near Pheneos in Arcadia 262 14.1 The Hunt Shield, a bronze votive tympanum from the Idaean cave 278 14.2 Protogeometric B straight-sided pithos from Knossos, north cemetery 279 14.3 Isometric reconstruction of Kommos, temple B 280 14.4 The Rethymnon mitra 287 14.5 The Spensithios inscription and mitra 289 15.1 View of the Theban plain and Lake Helice from Mt. Ptoion, looking north 297 15.2 View of the Theban plain from Mt. Ptoion, looking towards the modern town of Kastri 297 15.3 View of Mt. Parnassos in Phocis 299 15.4 View of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, looking eastwards 299 15.5 The Haliacmon river in Macedonia, looking towards the southern bank and the site of ancient Aegea (modern Vergina) 306 15.6 View of the excavated sanctuary of Poseidon at the modern town of Poseidi in the westernmost promontory of the Chalcidic peninsula 309 15.7 View of the lower estuary of the River Acheron in Thesprotia, north-west Greece 311 ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page x

x Illustrations

17.1 Gold bridle set from Bolshaya Tsimbalka tumulus 333 17.2 Spherical vessel from Kul Olba tumulus 333 17.3 Amphora from Chertomlyk tumulus 334 17.4 Temple dedicated to Aphrodite at Berezan: plan (1) and reconstruction of facade (2) 339 17.5 Drawing of bone plaque from Berezan: front (1) and reverse (2) 340 17.6 Drawing of lead plaque from Phanagoria 342 18.1 Smyrna: imaginative reconstruction of the town in about 600 bc 352 18.2 Clazomenae: olive oil extraction plant, 525–500 bc 363 18.3 Zagora on Andros: hypothetical reconstruction of the settlement and its fortification wall (later eighth century) 364 18.4 Miletus and Milesia, archaic structures: (a) Miletus-Kalabaktepe; (b) Teichioussa; (c) Saplatansırt region 367 18.5 Metapontum and surroundings: plan of the chora between the Bradano and Basento rivers (later sixth century) 368 22.1 Plan of the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios 431 23.1 The Mazzola “industrial quarter” at Pithecusae, ca. 750–700 bc 453 23.2 (a) Life-size kouros, ca. 530 bc; (b) small kore, ca. 520–510 bc 454 23.3 (a) An Athenian black-figure amphora of the so-called Tyrrhenian type, ca. 560 bc; (b) an Athenian red-figure plate by Paseas, ca. 520–510 bc, showing Theseus killing the Minotaur 455 23.4 One of the earliest surviving Greek representations of a specialized merchant ship, sail-powered and with a large hull 459 23.5 (a) Two sides of a silver stater from Teos, dated to ca. 510–475 bc; (b) two sides of a late archaic coin from Clazomenae 461 25.1 Farmhouses in the chora of Metaponto: (a) Cugno del Pero, sixth century bc; (b) Fattoria Fabrizio, fourth century bc 499 25.2 Zagora, Andros 499 25.3 Early burials in and around the Athenian Agora 501 25.4 Athenian Agora, area of the Tholos (south-west corner), end of the sixth century bc 502 25.5 Schematic plan of the archaic cemetery south-west of the Athenian Agora 503 25.6 Women collecting water from a fountain house; black-figure painting on a hydria (water jar) attributed to the Priam Painter, 520–510 bc 504 26.1 Symposium, featuring a cuirass and two helmets behind the diners, Middle Corinthian krater, Athana Painter, ca. 600–570 bc 510 26.2 Boeotian symposium: Boeotian kantharos of ca. 560 bc 511 27.1 Wrestlers and spectators on the shoulder of a black-figure Athenian vase, Munich 1468 527 27.2 Boxers and umpires, red-figure kylix, Triptolemos painter, ca. 490 bc 533 30.1 Fifth-century clay model of a chariot 593 30.2 Sixth-century Corinthian battle scene 596 ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xi

Illustrations xi Tables

4.1 25th percentile, mean, and 75th percentile of Greek house sizes (m2), 1000–600 bc 69 8.1 List of the ten Attic tribes (phylai) 156 14.1 Bronzes from the sanctuary of Kato Symi, Viannou 281 14.2 Late Geometric (eighth-century) bronzes at Cretan sanctuaries 281 14.3 Number of interments (cremations in urns) in EIA tombs from the Fortetsa and lower Gypsades cemeteries at Knossos 283 14.4 Pottery from temples at Kommos 285 14.5 Pottery from domestic deposits at Knossos 285 25.1 Archaic cemetery south-west of the Athenian agora 501 27.1 The cycle of Panhellenic games 529 28.1 Comparison of Phoenician and Greek letter names and letter forms 543 28.2 Literacy: Athens and Attica 560 28.3 Literacy: Crete 560 ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xii

Contributors

Carla M. Antonaccio is Professor of Archaeology and Chair of Classical Studies at Duke University. Her main interests concern the archaeology of Greek colonization and of Greek ethnicity and identity, Greek burial practices, and tomb and hero cults. Pertinent publications include An Archaeology of Ancestors: Tomb Cult and Hero Cult in Early Greece (1995); “Elite Mobility in the West,” in Simon Hornblower and Catherine Morgan (eds.), Pindar’s Poetry, Patrons and Festivals: From Archaic Greece to the Roman Empire (2006): 265–85; “Colonization: Greece on the Move,” in H. A. Shapiro (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece (2007): 201–24; “Ethnicity Reconsidered,” forthcoming in T. Hodos and S. Hales (eds.), Material Culture and Social Identities in the Ancient World (2009). Zosia Halina Archibald is Lecturer in Classical Archaeology at the University of Liverpool. She has been researching topics that combine archaeological and his- torical perspectives, notably Greek and Roman economies; the cultural and economic connections between the Mediterranean and Iron Age Europe; the emergence of urban centers; ancient metallurgy and technologies; ancient geography and his- toriography; and the functions of writing. She is the British team coordinator of an international project at Vetren, Bulgaria (identified with ancient Pistiros). Recent publications include: “A River Port and Emporion in Central Bulgaria: An Interim Report on the British Project at Vetren,,” ABSA 97 (2002): 309–51; and four co-edited volumes: Hellenistic Economies (2000); Making, Moving, and Managing: The New World of Ancient Economies, 323–31 bce (2005); Pistiros: Excavations and Studies 2 (2002); 3 (2007). Jan Paul Crielaard teaches Greek archaeology at the Free University Amsterdam. His research has focused on the Early Iron Age and archaic period of Greece, includ- ing long-distance exchanges and colonization, elites and elite behavior, Homeric archaeology, and ethnicity. He is currently director of excavations at L’Amastuola, an archaic indigenous-Greek settlement in the periphery of Taras (Taranto). Recent ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xiii

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publications pertinent to the current volume include an edited volume, Homeric Questions: Essays in Philology, Ancient History, and Archaeology (1995); “Basileis at Sea: Elites and External Contacts in the Euboian Gulf Region from the End of the Bronze Age to the Beginning of the Iron Age,” in: S. Deger-Jalkotzy and I. S. Lemos (eds.), Ancient Greece: From the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer (2006): 271–97; “The Ionians in the Archaic Period: Shifting Identities in a Changing World,” in A. M. J. Derks and N. G. A. M. Roymans (eds.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition (2009). John K. Davies was Rathbone Professor of Ancient History and Classical Archae- ology at the University of Liverpool 1977–2003, was elected FBA in 1985, FSA in 1986, and Corresponding Member of the German Archaeological Institute in 2000, and was Leverhulme Research Professor 1995–2000. He is the author of Athenian Propertied Families 600–300 bc (1971, revd. edn. in progress), Democracy and Classical Greece (2nd edn. 1992), and Wealth and the Power of Wealth in Classical Athens (1981), besides much activity on jointly edited volumes and as editor of JHS 1973–77 and of Archaeological Reports 1972–4. His many scholarly interests include the economies of the Hellenistic world, Delphi, Gortyn, the administrative and cultic history of the Greek states, the problems of post-Mycenaean state-formation, and the modern his- toriography of ancient Greece. Nick Fisher is Professor of Ancient History in the Cardiff School of History and Archaeology at Cardiff University. He has published widely on the political, social, and cultural history of archaic and classical Greece. His books include Hybris: A Study in the Values of Honour and Shame in Ancient Greece (1992); Slavery in Classical Greece (1993); a translation with introduction and commentary of Aeschines, Against Timarchos (2001), and a co-edited volume, Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence (1998). Lin Foxhall is Professor of Greek Archaeology and History at the University of Leicester. Her field projects include an archaeological survey in Methana, Greece, and currently a survey and excavation in Bova Marina in southern Calabria, Italy. She co-edited Greek Law in Its Political Setting: Justifications Not Justice (1996), and Money, Labour and Land: Approaches to the Economies of Ancient Greece (2002), is author of Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece: Seeking the Ancient Economy (2007), and has written extensively on gender, agriculture, and land use in classical antiquity. Hans-Joachim Gehrke is President of the German Archaeological Institute in Berlin. In the period 1987–2008 he was Professor of Ancient History at the University of Freiburg. His research and publications range widely, from archaic, classical, and hellenistic Greece to the Roman republic and empire, from social and political history to the history of political concepts and theories. His main publications include Stasis: Untersuchungen zu den inneren Kriegen in den griechischen Staaten des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (1985); Geschichte des Hellenismus (3rd edn., 2003); Alexander der Grosse (4th edn., 2005, translated into many languages), and Geschichte der Antike: Ein Studienbuch (2nd edn., 2006). ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xiv

xiv Contributors

Jonathan M. Hall is the Phyllis Fay Horton Professor in the Humanities, Professor and Chair of Classics, and Professor in the Department of History and the College at the University of Chicago. His interests include the construction and maintenance of social, cultural, and ethnic identity in antiquity and the relationship between literary texts and material culture. He is the author of Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (1997), which won the American Philological Association’s Charles J. Goodwin Award for Merit in 1999; Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture (2002), which won the University of Chicago Press’ Gordon J. Laing Prize in 2004; and A History of the Archaic Greek World (2007). Sanne Houby-Nielsen is Director of the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities and of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, both in Stockholm. She was keeper of the Royal Cast Collection (National Museum of Fine Arts, Copenhagen), 1995–7 and on-site leader of the Greek–Danish Excavations at Chalkis in Aetolia, Greece, 1995–2005. She has published several articles on burial customs in ancient Athens in Proceedings of the Danish Institute at Athens and is editor-in-chief of the journal Medelhavsmuseet: Focus on the Mediterranean. A volume on Chalkis Aitolias, II: The Archaic Period is forthcoming. Nigel Kennell is currently a senior associate member of the American School of Classical Studies and instructor at the International Center for Hellenic and Mediterranean Studies in Athens. His research interests include Spartan history, Greek epigraphy, and Greek civic institutions. He is the author of The Gymnasium of Virtue: Education and Culture in Ancient Sparta (1995), which was a Choice Outstanding Academic Book for 1996; Ephebeia: A Register of Greek Cities with Citizen Training Systems in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods (2006), and Spartans: A New History (in press). Iphigeneia Leventi is Assistant Professor in Classical Archaeology in the University of Thessaly. She has taken part in several excavations in the Peloponnese, Naxos, and Athens. Since 2004 she has been assistant director of her university’s excava- tion at Soros in Magnesia. Her main research and teaching interests are sculpture, iconography, and cult. Recent publications include Hygieia in Classical Greek Art (2003); “The Mondragone Relief Revisited: Eleusinian Cult Iconography in Campania,” Hesperia 76 (2007): 107–141; “Der Fries des Poseidon-Tempels in Sounion” (forthcoming). Nino Luraghi is Professor of Classics at Princeton University. His main areas of interest include Greek historiography, the history and culture of the Greeks of Sicily and southern Italy, archaic Greek tyranny, and ethnicity and ethnic memory in the ancient Peloponnese. He is the author of The Ancient Messenians: Constructions of Ethnicity and Memory (2008) and co-editor of Helots and Their Masters in Laconia and Messenia (2003) as well as The Politics of Ethnicity and the Crisis of the Peloponnesian League (2009). Irad Malkin is Professor of Greek History at Tel Aviv University, Incumbent of Cummings Chair for Mediterranean History and Cultures, and co-founder and co-editor of the Mediterranean Historical Review. His interests focus on Greek reli- gion, colonization, ethnicity, networks, and, more generally, Mediterranean history. ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xv

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His publications include Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece (1987); Myth and Territory in the Spartan Mediterranean (1994); The Returns of Odysseus: Colonization and Ethnicity (1998), and Networks in the Archaic Mediterranean (forthcoming). Alexander Mazarakis Ainian is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Thessaly (Volos). He is the scientific director of several European Union research programs and director of excavations at the Early Iron Age settlement at Oropos in Attica, the archaic–hellenistic sanctuary of Kythnos, the ancient harbor of Kythnos, and the sanctuary of Apollo at Soros in Thessaly. His main field of specialization is the archaeology and architecture of Early Iron Age and archaic Greece. His pub- lications include From Rulers’ Dwellings to Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in Early Iron Age Greece, 1100–700 bc (1997); Homer and Archaeology (2000, in Greek) as well as co-edited volumes on Kea-Kythnos: History and Archaeology (1998), and Oropos and Euboea in the Early Iron Age (2007). Catherine Morgan is Director of the British School at Athens and Professor of Classical Archaeology at King’s College London. Her interests focus on the art and archaeology of Early Iron Age and archaic Greece, with particular reference to the Peloponnese and western Greece. She currently directs the Stavros Valley Project on Ithaca for the British School, and co-directs the School’s excavations in the ancient theatre at Sparta. Her recent publications include Pindar’s Poetry, Patrons and Festivals (co-edited, 2006); Early Greek States Beyond the Polis (2004), Isthmia VIII (1999), and Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century bc (1990). Ian Morris is Jean and Rebecca Willard Professor of Classics and Professor of History at Stanford University. His interests cover economic and social history, long-term comparative history, and archaeology. From 2000 to 2006 he was director of Stanford University’s excavations on the acropolis of Monte Polizzo, Sicily. His recent pub- lications include The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (co- authored, 2007); The Greeks: History, Culture, and Society (co-authored, 2nd edn., 2009); Why the West Rules? For Now (2009). He is also co-editor of The Dynamics of Ancient Empires (2009). Oswyn Murray is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Danish Academy, and the Scuola Normale di Pisa. He was a Classics Fellow at Balliol College, Oxford (1968–2004). His books include Early Greece (2nd edn., 1993, translated into six languages) and (co-)edited volumes: The Oxford History of the Classical World (1986); The Greek City from Homer to Alexander (1990), Sympotica: A Symposium on the Symposion (1994), and A Commentary on Herodotus I–IV (2007). Massimo Nafissi is Associate Professor in Greek History at the University of Perugia. His research focuses on Spartan history, Olympia and Elis, colonization and South Italy, Greek religion, and epigraphical work in Iasos (Caria). His publications include: La nascita del kosmos. Ricerche sulla storia e la società di Sparta (1991); “From Sparta to Taras: Nomima, Ktiseis and Relationships between Colony and Mother City,” in S. Hodkinson and A. Powell (eds.), Sparta: New Perspectives (1999): 245–72; “The Great Rhetra (Plut. Lyc. 6): A Retrospective and Intentional Construct?” In ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xvi

xvi Contributors

L. Foxhall, H. J. Gehrke, and N. Luraghi (eds.), Intentionale Geschichte: Spinning Time (forthcoming). Thomas Heine Nielsen is Lecturer (Associate Professor) in Ancient Greek in the Section for Greek and Latin in the Saxo Institute at the University of Copenhagen. In 2003 he was awarded the prize for young scholars for research in the Humanities by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. His publications include Arkadia and Its Poleis in the Archaic and Classical Periods (2002); Olympia and the Classical Hellenic City-state Culture (2007), and a co-edited volume, An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis (2004). François de Polignac is Directeur d’Etudes at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris. His main interests bear on religion, society, and institutions in ancient Greece, on the archaeological history and anthropology of archaic Greece, the history of archae- ology in Rome, and the legend of Alexander the Great in Arabic medieval literature. He currently serves as the Director of the Centre Louis Gernet de recherches com- parées sur les sociétés anciennes, Paris, and coordinator of the research program CIRCE (cultual interpretations, representations, and constructions of space in ancient soci- eties). His publications include La naissance de la cité grecque: cultes, espace et société VIII e−–VII e siècles av. J.-C. (1984, Engl. translation 1995) and recently Athènes et le politique. Dans le sillage de Claude Mossé (2007), as well as a coedited collection, L’individu et la communauté. Regards sur les identités en Grèce ancienne, Revue des Études Anciennes 108 (2006): 5–153. Kurt A. Raaflaub is David Herlihy University Professor and Professor of Classics and History as well as Director of the Program in Ancient Studies at Brown University. His research has been devoted mainly to the social, political, and intellectual history of archaic and classical Greece and the Roman republic as well as the comparative history of the ancient world. Among his recent publications are The Discovery of Freedom in Ancient Greece (2004, winner of the James Henry Breasted Prize of the American Historical Association); Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece (co-authored, 2007), and War and Peace in the Ancient World (ed., 2007). A co-edited volume on Epic and History is forthcoming (2009). Peter W. Rose is Professor of Classics at Miami University of Ohio. His main aca- demic interests are Greek literature, history, literary theory, and film. He is the author of Sons of the Gods, Children of Earth: Ideology and Literary Form in Ancient Greece (1992). More recently he has published “Teaching Classical Myth and Confronting Contemporary Myths,” in Martin Winkler (ed.), Classical Myth and Culture in the Cinema (2001): 291–318, and “Divorcing Ideology from Marxism and Marxism from Ideology: Some Problems,” Arethusa 39.1 (2006) 101–36. James Roy is Honorary Research Fellow in the School of Humanities at the University of Nottingham, where he taught for many years before his retirement. His research interests are Greek social and institutional history, the Greek country- side, and the local history and archaeology of Arkadia and Elis. Recent publications include “The Achaian League,” in K. Buraselis and K. Zoumboulakis (eds.), The Idea of European Community in History, II (2003): 81– 95; “Elis,” in M. H. Hansen and ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xvii

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T. H. Nielsen (eds.), An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis (2004): 489–504; “The Ambitions of a Mercenary,” in R. L. Fox (ed.), The Long March (2004): 264–88. Henk Singor teaches Ancient History at the University of Leiden. His main inter- ests are Greek military history and Sparta as well as the history of Early Christianity. His publications include “Eni prDtoisi machesthai: Some Remarks on the Iliadic Image of the Battlefield,” in J. P. Crielaard (ed.), Homeric Questions (1995): 183–99; “The Military Side of the Peisistratean Tyranny,” in H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg (ed.), Peisistratos and the Tyranny (2000): 107–29; “The Spartan Army at Mantinea and Its Organization in the Fifth Century bc,” in W. Jongman and M. Kleijwegt (eds.), After the Past: Essays in Ancient History in Honour of H. W. Pleket (2002): 235–84. Michael Stahl is Professor of Ancient History at the Technical University of Darmstadt. His interests focus on archaic and classical Greece, politics and culture in the Roman empire, Romans in Germany as well as Greece and Rome in the eighteenth to twen- tieth century. Some of his publications: Aristokraten und Tyrannen im archaischen Athen (1987); two volumes on Gesellschaft und Staat bei den Griechen (2003, archaic and classical periods, respectively); Botschaften des Schönen. Kulturgeschichte der Antike (2008). Elke Stein-Hölkeskamp teaches at the University of Münster, Germany. She is a corresponding member of the German Archaeological Institute. Her main interests concern the cultural history of archaic and classical Greece and Imperial Rome. Her publications include Adelskultur und Polisgesellschaft. Studien zum griechischen Adel in archaischer und klassischer Zeit (1989, 2nd edn., forthcoming); “Perikles, Kleon und Alkibiades als Redner: Eine zentrale Rolle der athenischen Demokratie im Wandel,” in C. Neumeister and W. Raeck (eds.), Rede und Redner: Bewertung und Darstellung in den antiken Kulturen (2000): 79–93; Das römische Gastmahl. Eine Kulturgeschichte (2005). Carol G. Thomas is Professor of History, Chair of European Studies, and Chair of Hellenic Studies at the University of Washington, Seattle. Her interests have focused on pre-classical Greece through the archaic age, Linear B, ancient historiography, and, most recently, ancient Macedonia with special interest in its historical geo- graphy. Her co-authored book, Citadel to City State: The Transformation of Greece 1200–700 bce (1999, paperback 2003) achieved History Book Club status. Recent publications include The Trojan War (co-authored, 2005); Finding People in Early Greece (2005); Alexander the Great in His World (2006). Gocha R. Tsetskhladze teaches classical archaeology at the Centre for Classics and Archaeology at the University of Melbourne. His main interests are the archae- ology of the archaic and classical Mediterranean, Black Sea archaeology, and Greek colonization. His most recent publications include The Eastern Edge of the Ancient Known World: A Brief Introduction to Black Sea Archaeology and History (2007); Greek Colonisation: An Account of Greek Colonies and other Settlements Overseas, 2 vols. (ed., 2006, 2008). He is founder and editor-in-chief of the journal Ancient West & East and of its monograph supplement Colloquia Antiqua. ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xviii

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Christoph Ulf is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Innsbruck, Austria. His main research interests focus on the history of archaic Greek societies, the inter- action between archaic Greece and the cultures of the near east, sports, and ancient society, and the impact of political beliefs on historiography. His many publications include Die homerische Gesellschaft. Materialien zur analytischen Beschreibung und his- torischen Lokalisierung (1990); Wege zur Genese griechischer Identität. Die Bedeutung der früharchaischen Zeit (ed., 1996); Griechische Archaik zwischen Ost und West: Interne Entwicklungen – externe Impulse (co-ed., 2004). Robert W. Wallace is Professor of Classics at Northwestern University. He has worked widely in Greek history, law, music theory, and numismatics. Among many publi- cations, he is the author of The Areopagos Council, to 307 bc (1989); “The Sophists in Athens,” in D. Boedeker and K. A. Raaflaub (eds.), Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-century Athens (1998): 203–22; Reconstructing Damon: Music, Wisdom Teaching, and Politics in Democratic Athens (forthcoming), and co-author of Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece (2007). Uwe Walter is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Bielefeld. His research interests are devoted to archaic and classical Greece, the political culture of the Roman republic, Greek and Roman historiography, and Wissenschaftsgeschichte in the field of ancient history. He is co-editor of Historische Zeitschrift and one of the leaders of the collaborative research center “The Political as Communicative Space in History” at his university. His main publications: An der Polis teilhaben. Bürgerstaat und Zugehörigkeit im Archaischen Griechenland (1993); “Das Wesen im Anfang suchen: Die archaische Zeit Griechenlands in neuer Perspektive,” Gymnasium 105 (1998) 537–52; “The Classical Age as a Historical Epoch,” in Konrad Kinzl (ed.), A Com- panion to the Classical Greek World (2006): 1–25. Hans van Wees is Professor of Ancient History at University College London. He has published widely on the social and economic history of archaic Greece, as well as on archaic and classical Greek warfare. He is the author of Status Warriors: War, Violence and Society in Homer and History (1992); Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities (2004), and The World of Achilles (forthcoming); he has edited or co- edited several volumes, including Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence (1998). James Whitley is Professor of Mediterranean Archaeology at Cardiff University. His main interests have focused on the archaeology of Early Iron Age and archaic Greece, particularly Crete, as well as mortuary archaeology, ethnicity, hero cults, social agency, and literacy. He has directed surveys and excavations around the city of Praisos in eastern Crete and was Director of the British School at Athens (2002–7). His recent publications include The Archaeology of Ancient Greece, 1000–300 bc (2001, winner of the Runciman prize in 2002); “Praisos: Political Evolution and Ethnic Identity in Eastern Crete, c.1400–300 bc,” in S. Deger-Jalkotzy and I. Lemos (eds.), Ancient Greece from the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer (2006): 597–617; Building Communities: House, Settlement and Society in the Aegean and Beyond (co-ed., 2007). ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xix

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Josef Wiesehöfer is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Kiel and Director of its Department of Classics. He is a member of the Centre for Asian and African Studies at his university, corresponding member of the German Archaeological Institute and the Academy of Sciences at Göttingen, and (co-)editor of various series: Oriens et Occidens (Stuttgart), Asien und Afrika (Hamburg), Achaemenid History (Leiden), and Oikumene (Frankfurt). His main interests are in the history of the ancient near east and its relations with the Mediterranean world, in social history, the his- tory of early modern travelogues, and the history of scholarship. His main publica- tions include Das antike Persien von 550 v. Chr. bis 651 n. Chr. (4th edn., 2005; English translation 3rd edn., 2001); Das Reich der Achaimeniden. Eine Bibliographie (co-authored, 1996); Das frühe Persien (3rd edn., 2006); Iraniens, Grecs et Romains (2005). John-Paul Wilson is currently Research Development and Training Officer at the Graduate Research School of the University of Worcester, UK. His research inter- ests have focused on early Greek literacy, the alphabet, colonization, trade and exchange, and research student training and development. His recent publications include “The ‘Illiterate Trader’?” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 44 (1997–8): 29–53; Greek and Roman Colonization: Origins, Ideologies and Interactions (co-ed., 2006), and “Ideologies of Greek Colonization,” in the same volume, 25–58. ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xx

Preface

Nothing seems certain any longer in the study of archaic Greece. In recent years, staples of older textbooks such as “tyranny,” “colonization” and “the rise of the hoplite phalanx” have been thoroughly reconceptualized or even consigned to the dustbin of history – at least by a few scholars. Most historical dates, beginning with the year 776 bc as marking the foundation of the Olympic Games and the start of the archaic age, are now widely considered unreliable. Iconic events such as the Lelantine and Messenian Wars may never have taken place. Perhaps some of the scepticism driv- ing such reassessments has gone too far, but it is certainly an important positive devel- opment that recent scholarship has been characterized by a more critical approach to the literary evidence. Meanwhile, other kinds of evidence – archaeological and iconographic – as well as numerous topics in the field of social, economic, and cul- tural history have been demanding increasing attention. As a combined effect of these developments, archaic Greek history has virtually been transformed beyond recog- nition. Recent surveys by, for example, Robin Osborne (1996) or Jonathan Hall (2007), make an admirable effort to highlight new perspectives and assessments. Still, the task has perhaps become almost too complex for one scholar, and it is high time for an even more comprehensive approach. As is typical of the genre, this Companion to Archaic Greece pursues two complementary goals: to offer, from the perspective of many specialists in various fields, a multi-authored survey of the current state of the evidence and the latest insights on the period, and to give new impulses or sug- gest new directions for future research. The Introduction establishes the context of this volume in two ways. It provides the intellectual background by tracing changes in historiography since the nine- teenth century that have brought us to the present state of scholarship (ch. 1), and it lays out the physical context of geography and communications in the wider Mediterranean world, which did so much to shape Greek history (ch. 2). A narrative history of the archaic age has always been difficult to write, even for those with great confidence in the accuracy of our later sources for the period. By now it seems virtually impossible. The written record mentions very few events or ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xxi

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individuals, scattered across the cities and centuries. More importantly, much that has survived is not contemporary but represents archaic Greece as selectively remem- bered by later generations with their own interests, agendas and presuppositions. Nevertheless, enough contemporary texts and material remains survive to allow us to reconstruct the history of the period in broad outline, as shown in Part II, Histories. We begin with the long-term historical background to developments of the archaic period in what is rightly no longer called “the Dark Age” (ch. 3) and proceed with an analysis of the changes of the eighth century bc and the beginnings of urban- ization which shape the fundamental structures of the archaic age (ch. 4). Alongside the archaeological evidence on which these two chapters are based, the society and culture of the early archaic period are potentially illuminated by the controversial evidence of Homer and Hesiod, which is analysed next (ch. 5). The political, mili- tary and social history of the following centuries is outlined in three chapters which concentrate on the widespread phenomenon of tyranny (ch. 6) and on the only two states about which we are sufficiently well informed to attempt a continuous and coherent interpretation of developments, Athens (ch. 7) and Sparta (ch. 8), the latter a subject of particularly lively debate in the last decade or so. Part II closes with a study of relations between Greece and Persia, stripped as far as possible of its usual Greek bias, culminating in the great war which conventionally marks the transition to the classical period (ch. 9). The ever bigger, better and better-published body of evidence from archaeolo- gical excavation and survey is the main focus of Part III, Regions. As several of the contributors note, the areas covered by each of the chapters are not always unified and often have notable similarities to and links with other regions with which they might profitably have been combined in a single study. In order to ensure com- prehensive and even coverage, however, we have divided up the Greek world into eight broad regions each of which has at least some significant distinguishing char- acteristics. In view of their special status in Greek history, the territories of Athens (ch. 10) and Sparta (ch. 12) deserve separate treatment, while the rest of the Greek homeland is covered in four wide-ranging chapters on the cities of the Aegean (ch. 11), the Peloponnese (ch. 13), Crete (ch. 14) and northern Greece (ch. 15). We have unfortunately been unable to include the very different world of the Greeks in Cyprus, but the “colonial” Greek settlements receive their due in two chapters dedicated to the western Mediterranean (ch. 16) and the Black Sea area (ch. 17). The fourth, final and longest part, Themes, offers fourteen new perspectives on key themes in archaic Greek society and history. The rise of a world of poleis is studied from several angles, taking in urbanization as well as the developments of the concepts of “city” and “countryside” (ch. 18), the nature of the “foundation’ of cities and the creation of Mediterranean-wide networks linking them (ch. 19), the establishment of complex republican institutions and popular sovereignty (ch. 20), the continuing role of charismatic political leadership in its various guises (ch. 21), and the crucial role of sanctuaries and festivals in binding communities together at every level (ch. 22). Basic features of archaic society are surveyed in studies of eco- nomy (ch. 23) and class (ch. 24) as forces for historical change, and on concepts of gender as expressed in literature and material culture (ch. 25). The symposium (ch. 26) and sporting and other competitions (ch. 27) not only dominated social ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xxii

xxii Preface

life but also inspired a great deal of the literature and art of the period – among the most remarkable achievements of Greek culture, along with the adoption of the alphabet and the spread of literacy (ch. 28), and, perhaps most important of all, the spirit of critical enquiry which produced scientific, philosophical and political thought (ch. 29). The volume closes with a look at the Greek world as an international system, analysing both the changing shapes of war and diplomacy (ch. 30) and the formulation of ethnic identities in a world where many cultures met and influenced one another across the Mediterranean and Near East (ch. 31). Many more themes might have been added. Readers may be surprised to find no chapter devoted to, for example, art and architecture, or lyric poetry. These and other topics are not ignored, but discussed – albeit relatively briefly – under different head- ings, as an aspect of, say, economic development or of sympotic culture, as well as in the regional surveys. We believe that in such cases the loss of detail in the treat- ment is off-set by the insights gained from looking at these subjects from a broader historical perspective. Not the least important feature of this Companion is that the contributing authors represent an exceptionally wide range of scholarship and scholarly traditions: thirty- five authors of a dozen different nationalities working in thirteen different countries, all leading experts with innovative approaches to their subjects, including some whose important work is rarely published in English. Both the range and the sheer size of this volume – which could have been much larger still if we had not brutally cut large amounts of excellent material from numerous chapters – are, we think, eloquent testimony to the renewed vitality and enduring fascination of archaic Greek history and culture.

The first drafts of many of the papers in this volume were written several years ago, and comprehensive updating has not always been possible, but authors and editors have made every effort to include the most recent bibliography. US spelling and punc- tuation have been adopted as standard; all ancient Greek has been transliterated, and contributors have been allowed their own preference in rendering long vowels (marked by circumflex, macron, or acute accent, or not marked at all). The editors wish to acknowledge the important contributions made to this volume by David Yates who, together with Jennifer Yates, translated a chapter and compiled the indices, by Amy Flynn and especially by Mark Thatcher, who did most of the work towards compiling the consolidated bibliography of more than 2,500 entries, by Al Bertrand, who commissioned the project, and staff at Blackwell for their assistance at various stages of the long road towards completing this Companion. We are also grateful to Errietta Bissa for further assistance with the bibliography and to Nino Luraghi for help with the maps, which are based on relief maps provided by C. Scott Walker of the Harvard University Maps Collection. Thanks for financial assistance in funding the work of graduate students are owed to the Humanities Research Fund and the Royce Family Fund for Teaching Excellence at Brown University.

Kurt A. Raaflaub Hans van Wees ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xxiii

Abbreviations

Chronology

EIA Early Iron Age ca. 1100–700 bc LBA Late Bronze Age ca. 1600–1100 bc LG Late Geometric ca. 750–700 bc LHIIIC Late Helladic IIIC ca. 1200–1100 bc LMIIIC Late Minoan IIIC ca. 1200–1100 bc MG Middle Geometric ca. 850–750 bc PG Protogeometric ca. 1050–900 bc SPG SubProtogeometric ca. 900–750 (in Euboea) Archaic ca. 750–480 bc

Standard Works

DK Diels and Kranz 1951–2 DNP Der Neue Pauly Icr Inscriptiones Creticae: Guarducci 1935–50 IG Inscriptiones Graecae Inventory Hansen and Nielsen 2004 ML Meiggs and Lewis 1969 (1988) Nomima van Effenterre and Ruzé 1994–5 OCD Oxford Classical Dictionary RE Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft SIG Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/200912:14PMPagexxiv

R. Danube CAUCASUS Caspian Sea SCYTHIANS Black Sea MASSAGETAE Gordion Bogazköy

ys al PHRYGIA H . URARTU LYDIA R Sardis ASSYRIA ME Niniveh CILICIA SOPOTAM R.Euphrat R HINDU . Al Mina Tigris KUSH IA es Ecbatana PHOENICIA Opis Bisitun Cyrene Sippar ZAGROS Barca Pelusium Babylon Susa MOUNTAINS CYRENAICA Naucratis ELAM Pasargadae Heliopolis Memphis Persian GulfPersepolis Naqsh-i Rustam EGYPT R.Indus INDIA Red Sea ARABIA Elephantine

Abu Simbel

Map 1 The eastern Mediterranean and the Persian empire ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/200912:14PMPagexxv

Nikaia Massalia Pharos Agathe ETRUSCANS Issa CORSICA Black Rhode Tarquinia Alalia Corcyra EPIRUS Emporion Pyrgi/Gravisca RomePraeneste Tyrrhenian Kyme (Cumae) Epidamnos Sea Dikaiarkhia Apollonia Pithekoussai Pandosia Taras Metapontion Vitsa SARDINIA Neapolis Lake Elea Siris Herakleia Ioannina Poseidonia Sybaris Dodona Cagliari Thourioi Kroton Ambrakia Panormos Himera Corcyra Nora Lipara Kaulonia /Corfu Anaktorion Chalcis Segesta Zankle Motya Mylai Lokroi Epizephyrioi Corinth Eretria TARTESSOS Lilybaion Rhegion Leukas Athens ace Mazara Soloels Naxos Tauromenion Elis Katana ToscanosMain Herakleia Minoa Leontinoi Huelva Akragas Sparta Carthage/ Megara Hyblaia Gades Gadir Qart Hadasht Selinous Gela Syracuse Akrai Heloros Kamarina Lixus Kasmenai

Apollonia Taukheira Cyrene Barca Mogador Euhesperides

Map 2 The western Mediterranean ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/200912:14PMPagexxvi

Helike Aigai Megara Athens H A I A Perachora Dyme C Is A Sikyon thm Lechaion u s AZANIA Lousoi Corinth Isthmia Kleitor Pheneos Phleious Aegina Nemea Kyllene s Mycenae eio Pen Elis Orchomenos ARGOLIS Epidauros ELIS D I A Argos Argive Heraion PISATIS K A Mantinea Nauplia AKTE R Hysiai eios Alph A Asine Heraia Hermion Tegea Samikon Epeion Megalopolis Vigla Athena Alea Olympia TRIPHYLIA THYREATIS Halieis Prasidhaki Mavriki Dholiana Tourkoleka Kombothekra Neda Asea Pallantion Lepreon Ayios Elias Pyrgos Phigaleia MESSENIA Sparta

LAKONIA

Map 3 The Peloponnese ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xxvii

Argos

Tegea Hysiae

THYREATIS

Sellasia MOUNT PARNON Tsakona Sparta Menelaion Amyclae R . E u Geronthrae ro tas MOUNT Helos TAYGETOS Plain Aigiai Molaoi Gytheum Epidauros Asopos Limera

CAPE CAPE MALEA TAENARUM

CYTHERA

Map 4 Laconia ACA_a01.qxd 26/02/2009 12:14PM Page xxviii

Map 5 Messenia