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Postwar Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals in History and Memory

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Postwar Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals in History and Memory JUSTICE AND RECONCILIATION: POSTWAR PHILIPPINE TRIALS OF JAPANESE WAR CRIMINALS IN HISTORY AND MEMORY by Sharon Williams Chamberlain BA, 1971, Bucknell University MA, 1979, University of Maryland A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 31, 2010 Dissertation directed by Shawn McHale Associate Professor of History and International Affairs The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Sharon Williams Chamberlain has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of November 24, 2009. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. JUSTICE AND RECONCILIATION: POSTWAR PHILIPPINE TRIALS OF JAPANESE WAR CRIMINALS IN HISTORY AND MEMORY Sharon Williams Chamberlain Dissertation Research Committee: Shawn McHale, Associate Professor of History and International Affairs, Dissertation Director Daqing Yang, Associate Professor of History and International Affairs, Committee Member Edward A. McCord, Associate Professor of History and International Affairs, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2010 by Sharon Williams Chamberlain All rights reserved iii Dedication To Mary Morrow Chamberlain and Richard Williams Chamberlain iv Acknowledgments I wish to thank the chair of my dissertation committee, Shawn McHale, for his encouragement, good counsel, and thought-provoking insights as I undertook this long but satisfying journey. The (for me) entirely fortuitous decision to take Professor McHale’s excellent graduate seminar on Modern Southeast Asia opened up possibilities beyond the study of Japan and led me to the exploration of Japan-Philippine relations and thence to the subject of this dissertation. I am also very appreciative of the help I received from Daqing Yang, who acted as the de facto co-chair of my committee and was instrumental in encouraging my exploration into issues of memory and reconciliation. Edward McCord, the other member of my committee, offered not just helpful advice as my research began but also a thoughtful critique of my dissertation in progress. My thanks also to Professors Mike Mochizuki and Gregg Brazinsky, who graciously agreed to serve on my defense committee and posed challenging and thoughtful questions. Reaching the finish line would have been far more difficult without the financial and institutional support I received from The George Washington University. The many professors and staff members affiliated with the university’s History Department and the Sigur Center for Asian Studies provided a collegial and academically satisfying environment in which to pursue my degree. Searching archives overseas can be a time-consuming as well as exciting enterprise. Much of the credit for any eureka moments along the way must go to the many archivists and librarians who offered their expertise and enthusiastic v encouragement during my many forays into their hallowed halls and dusty shelves. At the University of the Philippines, University Librarian Salvacion Arlante and librarians Christine Manglal-lan and Eimee Lagrama (among many others) opened library doors and guided me towards collections important for my work. Likewise, librarians and archivists at the National Library of the Philippines (especially director Prudenciana Cruz and librarians Ellen Alfonso and Malou Mortil) and the National Archives of the Philippines made possible my review of materials unavailable elsewhere. The staff of the Diplomatic Record Office of Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and National Diet Library never failed to impress me with their helpfulness and efficiency as they guided me towards needed materials. I am also grateful to Professors Ricardo T. Jose of the University of the Philippines and Nakano Satoshi of Hitotsubashi University for their willingness to discuss my work and offer helpful suggestions for additional research materials, and to Dr. Bernardita Churchill for her help and good counsel in suggesting avenues of research during my stay in the Philippines. Dr. Al Schmidt, Kathy Schmidt, and Dr. Paula Newberg likewise each offered cogent advice and a sympathetic ear when I needed it. The journey from start to finish may have been long, but it was never less than challenging and absorbing. It would have been less so without the support and friendship of my fellow graduate students. My thanks in particular to Matthew Russell and Terrance Rucker, who shared the challenges of course work, language study and comps with grace and good humor. And I cannot say enough about the help and encouragement I received from two GW professionals and friends—Takako Suzuki and Ikuko Turner, who found research materials and provided translating advice when I needed it. vi The support of my family and friends has been invaluable. I am so very grateful and thankful for the unstinting love, support and encouragement I have received from my sisters Ann and Janice Chamberlain and brother-in-law Mark Schwarz, who never doubted that I would finish. Alice Donoghue, Sue Eby and Anne (Stuie) Oliver have been so generous with their encouragement—I cherish our ongoing email dialogue that has extended across years and continents. And finally, I cannot begin to express fully my appreciation to the members of my “Broadmoor family,” so many of whom offered frequent encouragement, sought reports on the progress I was making, and cheered the completion of my journey. vii Abstract of Dissertation JUSTICE AND RECONCILIATION: POSTWAR PHILIPPINE TRIALS OF JAPANESE WAR CRIMINALS IN HISTORY AND MEMORY At the close of World War II, the United States and its allies made a commitment to mete out “stern justice” to all Japanese guilty of war crimes. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, established to try Japan’s military and civilian leaders, has been the focus of considerable debate; some have criticized it as a classic case of “victors’ justice,” fraught with legal and procedural flaws. Much less well known or studied are the roughly concurrent trials, by individual allied governments, of Japanese charged with “ordinary” war crimes—violations of the laws and customs of war. As one of the conveners of these trials, the Republic of the Philippines, newly independent and still reeling from three years of a harsh wartime Japanese occupation, put 155 Japanese on trial, convicted 138, and sentenced 79 to death. This dissertation, relying extensively on archival research in the Philippines, Japan and the United States, traces the process by which the Philippine government assumed responsibility for trying war crimes suspects, the course of their trials, and the outcomes for individual Japanese. It focuses directly on issues of justice, memory construction, and reconciliation, and ultimately concludes that, as important as the question of the essential fairness of the trials may be in legal terms, the trials’ deeper significance lies in the larger purposes they served and the separate narratives they engendered in both Japan and the Philippines. Such narratives solidified, for both countries, divergent views of the trials but were not allowed to impede the eventual viii restoration of a bilateral relationship. These judicial proceedings were a necessary, if insufficient, component of progress toward any sort of “reconciliation.” ix Table of Contents Dedication iv Acknowledgments v Abstract of Dissertation viii Table of Contents x List of Tables xi Abbreviations xii Introduction 1 Chapter 1: War Crimes Trials: Necessary Contexts 15 Chapter 2: War Criminals: Trials, Evidence, and Outcomes 47 Chapter 3: Awaiting their Fate: Sentence Reviews, Reprieves, and Executions 102 Chapter 4: From Retribution to Resolution: The Journey from Executions to Pardons 148 Chapter 5: Trials and Outcomes: Assessing Significance and Impact 207 Epilog 219 Bibliography 222 Appendix I 235 x List of Tables Table 1: Military Defendants by Service and Rank 71 Table 2: Philippine War Crimes Case Verdicts 73 Table 3: Results of Sentence Reviews 110 xi Abbreviations AFWESPAC Armed Forces, Western Pacific IMTFE International Military Tribunal for the Far East KALIBAPI Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod the Bagong Pilipinas MAKAPILI Makabayang Katipunan ng mga Pilipino NWCO National War Crimes Office PCPI Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence PHILRYCOM Philippines-Ryukyus Command SCAP Supreme Commander Allied Powers xii INTRODUCTION On May 14, 1998, an elderly Japanese walked out of Ninoy Aquino International Airport and into the glaring sunshine of a stifling Manila afternoon. Fifty years ago a Philippine military tribunal had convicted Shirota Gintar ō of war crimes and sentenced him to death. Now he was back, intent on revisiting the prison in Muntinglupa where he had been incarcerated for some five years before being granted a pardon in 1953. On his journey back in time, Shirota and those from his home town who accompanied him visited the hill near the prison where 17 Japanese war criminals had been executed. There was no longer any trace of where the gallows had stood or the dead had been buried. “Everyone cried. The war had been over for six years when these young men lost their lives here, and one couldn’t help but cry and cry at how pitiable they were.”1 Shirota may have been on a personal pilgrimage of sorts, but not necessarily one of individual remorse or contrition. The writer who chronicled his return to the Philippines focused not on wartime brutalities but rather the pathos and suffering of the Japanese with whom Shirota shared prison life in the years following the end of World War II. Shirota is portrayed as a victim of circumstance—convicted primarily by virtue of his association with the Japanese military police headquarters at Fort Santiago, a notorious place where Filipinos were tortured and killed. The Japanese committed atrocities in the Philippines, but Shirota and the others in Muntinglupa were victims too, made to take responsibility for the crimes of others including Japan’s wartime leaders. 2 1 Emiko Arai, “Montenrupa no Atsui Kaze,” Shio 475 (September 1998): 253. 2 Ibid, 248-255.
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