International Journal of Advanced Educational Research ISSN: 2455-6157 Impact Factor: RJIF 5.12 www.educationjournal.org Volume 2; Issue 5; September 2017; Page No. 112-118

Military castes of ancient Kashir with special reference to Rajatarangini of Kalhana

Dr. Pooja Prashar Dev Samaj College for Women, Ferozepur City, Punjab,

Abstract The Rajatarangini of Kalhana is a great source of the socio-cultural history of . No history can be completed without knowing its socio-cultural aspects. The Rajatarangini of Kalhana is not merely a ‘River of Kings’, containing dry accounts of various dynasties, rulers and their activities in court or in the field of war, but it is a veritable encyclopaedia of information on the society and culture, the way of life, religious conditions, art and architecture and economic life of the period and so on. As such it becomes a significant source of information to be studied, analysed and interpreted. Through my research, I will specially focus on military castes depicted by Kalhana in his great book Rajatarangini. I will also try to find out the social status of this particular caste in the society of Kashmir. The deep study related to traditional Hindu caste system will also undertaken.

Keywords: Varna, Tantrins, Ekangas, Lavanyas, Kshatriya, Damaras

Introduction society despite foreign onslaughts. But to think of natural The ancient Indian society has developed twofold coordinated qualities of human beings without taking account of the social system of social organization. On the one side the whole and material environment in which they are born and nurtured human life is divided into four stages namely Ashramas and would be going too far. Such a theory of the origin of the caste on the other side the society is divided into four strata namely system obviously serves the interests of those who want to varna. Both the systems are concerned with the organization perpetuate this system. It sounds like the statement of and management of the individual as well as society. Together Aristotle, per whom certain people are born to command and these two systems of varnas and Ashramas are known as others born to obey; the first become masters and the second Varnashrama Dharma, the ancient social system that was become slaves. meant to assure spiritual and material prosperity for both Per a second theory the caste system is based on notions of society and the individual. purity and impurity. The Brahamanas possess the purity of the The literal meaning of the term ‘varna’ is colour. Originally, it first degree, the Ksatriyas of the second degree, and so on. has been used to refer the distinction between Arya and Dasa. The ritual ranking of the varna and jatis is based on their Professor Ghurye says that in the Rigveda the word varna is relative purity. The Brahamanas, partly out of their honest never applied to any one of these classes. It is only the Aryan desire to preserve the purity of Vedic ritual, partly being the varna or the Arya people that is contrasted with the Dasa victims of their own ideas of ceremonial purity, and partly varna. The Satapatha Brahamana on the other hand described also owing to their consciousness of superiority over the the four classes as the four varnas. The colour connotation of aborigines [3]. But the exponents of this theory do not realise the word was strong that later when the classes came to be that notions of purity and impurity found in primitive and regular described as four varnas. Four different colours were ancient societies outside India did not give rise to the caste supposed to be distinguished.’ system. In the case of India also even working in leather was The caste system is deep rooted in the long-drawn socio- not regarded impure in Vedic times. In the Vedic age artisans economic, cultural and political history. It has brought about a including leatherworkers were parts of the tribal community deep and complete division in the Hindu society. Various called visya, but in post-Vedic times the emergent classes of explanations are given for the origin of the caste system in priests and warriors not only discarded manual and artisanal India [1]. The origin is a sharp line between various layers of labour but hated those who practiced it. In fact, the more they society. So, in place of “origin of caste” [2] we should use moved away from physical labour and primary production the plural form, viz., “origins of caste”. It is said that all human more pure and noble they came to be regarded. beings are divided into four categories per their natural There is a third theory which explains the origin of caste as a aptitudes and endowments. Some possess high spiritual and legacy from the aboriginal tribal communities of India. Per it intellectual qualities, others fighting qualities, still others every tribe is divided into several clans and members of a clan producing qualities, and accordingly, they are placed in marry within the tribe but outside the clan. When such a tribe various categories. The caste system is, therefore, based on is absorbed as a caste in the Brahmanical system it continues natural and inherent attributes found in the mankind. It is to marry within the tribe or caste and refuses to have social therefore called a contribution of the Hindu genius and intercourse with other castes. There is no doubt that once the credited with ensuring continuity and durability to Hindu caste system was set up tribes were converted into castes, but

112 International Journal of Advanced Educational Research the earliest history of tribal amalgamations would show that the slaves became two castes or varna (colour). The white- tribes entered marriage relations with one another because of skinned and the dark-skinned as they are labelled in the war and trade. Marriage served as a form of exchange of Rigveda. women between groups, and this exchange was considered Now the duties of society were divided and the vis itself was necessary to keep life going. Insistence on marriage within the split into three parts. The main body. i.e., the Vaisya followed caste began because of the need of maintaining the privileges productive pursuits like agriculture, cattle rearing and trade. of the upper orders, which automatically barred the lower The surplus wealth went towards the maintenance of two new orders from having social intercourse with the upper castes castes (varnas), the Brahamana and the Kshatriya, marked not and condemned them to marriage within their circles. by the colour of their skin but by their profession. The A fourth theory accounts for the origin of the caste system in Brahamana performed sacrifices for general welfare, studied terms of the division of labour. It is said that the need for the Vedas and formulated social laws (dharma) based on occupational division leading to more production and custom and equity. The Kshatriya was charged with the economic efficiency gave rise to castes. There is some validity defence of the realm and the running of the administration. in this theory. But what is ignored is the hereditary aspect of The three varna specialized in their avocations and each was the caste system. In Vedic times castes were occupational in accorded a place in the social hierarchy suitable to the dignity nature, and change from one occupation to the other was of its service. Below the three was the fourth caste of Sudra or possible. But over the centuries this change became Dasa serving the former and no longer an alien race but a impossible. What is further important, division of labour was subordinate partner within the Aryan system. The Purusasukta effected in such a manner that Brahamanas or priests and of the Rigveda gives a mythical story of the origin of the four Ksatriyas or warriors were withdrawn from direct production, castes from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Lord which was placed in the hands of the Vaisyas and Sudras. Brahma [7]. The origin and growth of the caste system can be better In the beginning the vocations of the varna were not strictly appreciated if we bear in mind that caste is a form of social hereditary. A Kshatriya could excel in philosophical pursuits differentiation. Since social differentiation arises out of social and become a Brahamana. A well-known story in Vedic conflicts and unequal distribution of resources and produce, literature is that of Visvamitra who was born a Kshatriya but the origin and growth of the caste cannot be understood became a Brahamana by acquiring Brahmanical knowledge without a study of social processes which again are intimately and virtues. The Satapatha Brahamana gives a similar story connected with changes in material life [4]. Of the many about Janaka, king of Videha [8]. A Brahamana might acquire cultures flourished in India the literary records of the Indo- a kingdom by dint of his velour and become a Kshatriya. He Aryan culture are not only the earliest but contain the first became known as Brahma Kshatriya. In the Matsya Purāna mention and a continuous history of the factors that make up the Brahamanas descended from the sage Bhrigu are caste [5]. described as founders of royal houses [9]. The Vaisya and the Of the many cultures that flourished in India the literary Sudra could improve their status provided they possessed the records of the Indo-Aryan culture are not only the earliest but necessary talents and virtues. Conversely, by choice or by contain the first mention and a continuous history of the accident, one might be demoted from a higher to a lower factors that make up caste. In the Rig Vedic time, there was no caste. The Aitareya Brahamana and the Puranas give place for individual enterprise. Whether for hunting or for instances of these two categories. Later, caste and vocation animal keeping, for safety or for settlement the tribe had to were strictly fixed by heredity per the laws of the Smritis. work collectively. Hence distribution also was collective and Social and economic divisions were identified and graded. equal. Since struggle for existence was hard and the food The Brahamana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra were separated scarce, the goal was expansion of the tribe (praja) and of from and related to one another by a set of laws framed per a animals (pashu) for food [6]. scheme of division and synthesis. The one-caste society of the Krta age is the mythicised Rise of individual enterprise necessarily led to the institution version of the tribal herd bound by ties of kingship and tribal of private property. Anyone could recover some wasteland, discipline. Men were governed by tribal rules of hunting and turn the virgin soil by means of slaves and bullocks and war. Tribal wars were fought to extermination. In course of become owner of agricultural land. In industrial arts, the old time human labour was replaced by animal labour. Cattle- collective enterprise still prevailed but the income was shared produce and animal labour yielded a surplus of wealth. It was and not jointly owned. The trader made his fortune by possible to feed and use men and women captured in tribal exchanging the products of agriculture and industry. In the feuds. The animal was yoked to the plough and the captive wake of caste and property came the state. The place of the vis alien harnessed behind. Like animal man became booty of was taken by the rashtra (country); the Vispati (patriarch) plunder and an article of use. This is how slavery came, the became Bhupati (lord of the land). The Kulapatis two-caste society, social laws and fusion of tribal blood. When (paterfamilias) who were sharers in the tribal common-wealth Aryan and non-Aryan tribes settled down and commingled, were replaced by amatyas (officers and councilors), paid men the tradition of uni-caste society gave way to the bi-caste of the king. The state protected private property and took a society of Deva (gods) and Asura (demons) or the Arya and part of private income as revenue (bhaga). It had no hand in Dasa (master and slave). It was not the result of disintegration social regulation and was only the guardian of the rules of of the original vis but was produced by the impact of the duty (Dharmasya gopta). hostile aboriginals who were admitted as slaves and wage- The caste system was conceived with recognition of variations earners (bhataka) within the Aryan society. The masters and in human nature and as a plan to fit these variations in a

113 International Journal of Advanced Educational Research graded structure per the needs of society. This was a scheme supremacy of the Brahamana is challenged in these texts [16]. of cooperation and synthesis to ensure progress. Given This view is also indirectly supported by the . sufficient flexibility this was an excellent solution of the Although in theory priestly power is higher than the royal dichotomy of the individual and the community. power, and the king is a creation of the priest, in practice the The law gives sought to give caste system an inflexible king often gets the upper hand. This is quite natural, as the rigidity. The codes of Gautama, Baudhayana and Apastamba whole political organisation was behind the king, whereas the followed by later canon fixed the Varna irrevocably to birth priesthood had not been organised into a worldly power and imposed restrictions on marriage and social relations. That independent of the state. In any case the Epic, rarely, indicates these laws were meant to be obeyed is shown in descriptive that the king dictated and the priest obeyed. literature. The narratives of the Ramaya a and the The Buddhist texts also show that caste was not rigidly tied to Mahabharata and the Jataka stories of the Pali canon further craft in those days. They tell of a Kshatriya working show that at first Varna not only remained in enjoyment of successively as a potter, basket maker, reed-worker, garland- dignity and position but also to rise to wealth and power. maker, and cook [17]. also of a Setthi (Vaisya) ‘working as a As in the closing period of the Vedic Age, the Varna (the tailor and a potter [18]. Without loss of prestige in both cases. classes or the castes) and Ashrama(the four orders or stages of We find Ksatriyas of the Sakya and Koliya clans cultivating life) are the dominant features of society [10]. They gradually their fields. The Dasa Brahamana-Jataka states how become rigid and fixed, but the Hindu society was far from Brahamanas in those days pursued ten occupations against attaining its normal and standardized form in this age. The rules: as (1) physicians, carrying sacks filled with medicinal caste system developed rigidity so far as the Sudras were roots and herbs; (2) servants and wagon-drivers; (3) tax- concerned but there was no rigidity among the upper three collectors who would not leave a household without collecting classes [11]. The duties of the different castes, as enumerated in alms; (4) diggers of the soil in ascetic garb with their long the Dharma sutras, have been very pithily put in his inimitable hairs and nails and covered with dust and dirt; (5) traders analytical manner by Kautilya in his Arthasastra [12]. He selling fruits, sweets and the like; (6) farmers; (7) priests enumerates the duties of the Brahamana as (1) Adhyayana interpreting omens; (8) policemen with arms to guard (study), (2) Adhyapana (teaching), (3) Yajna (worship), (4) caravans and shops, like Gopas and Nisadas; (9) hunters in the Yajana (officiating at worship), (5) Dana (making gifts) and garb of hermits killing hares, cats, fish, tortoises and the like; (6) Pratigraha (accepting gifts). The svadharma or duties of and (10) menials of kings who helped them in their baths in the Kshatriya comprised (1) Adhyayana, (2) Yajna (3) Dana, the garb of Yajnikas. Similarly, the Vasettha Sutta refers to (4) Sastrajiva (profession of arms as source of livelihood) and Brahamanas working as cultivators, craftsmen, messengers, (5) Bhutarakshana (protection of living beings). The duties of sacrifices and landlords. The fragment on Silas mentions the Vaisya are (1) Adhyayana, (2) Yajna, (3) Dana, (4) Krishi Brahamanas following many diverse occupations as (agriculture), (5) Pasupalya (cattle-rearing) and (6) Vanijya physicians, sorcerers, architects, story-tellers, cattle breeders, (trade). The functions assigned to the Sudra are (1) farmers and the like. The Jatakas refer to Brahamanas Dvijatisusruka (menial service of the three twice-born castes), pursuing the following callings: tillage, tending cattle, trade, (2) Varta (production of wealth), (3) Karukarma (arts) and (4) hunting, carpentry, weaving, policing of caravans, archery, Kusilavakarma (crafts). It will be seen from the above that driving of carriages, and even snake-charming; and hold up a Kautilya points out the common duties of the three higher Brahamanas peasant as a supremely pious man and even a castes as Study (Adhyayana), Worship (Yajna), and Making Bodhisattva. Gifts (Dana). Both Jain and Buddhist works describe the normal The picture of the caste system as given in Hindu text, Brahamana either as a citizen serving society or as a hermit however, is very different from what we find in the Buddhist who has renounced society. The second type is called a tapasa and Jain texts, and even in some parts of the epics [13]. Thus or a rishi living in his Ashrama in the forest. The first class of the Mahabharata [14]. lays down that one does not become a Brahamanas served as the king's priests and sacrificers, as Brahamana by birth but by his conduct, a theory frequently well as ministers, ambassadors and military officers. Besides met with in an elaborate form in the Buddhist texts. The the four established castes or Hindu society the Buddhist Pali Mahabharata also declares [15] that the son of a Brahamana is text-books speak of the peoples ranking socially below them a Brahamana, even though his mother is a Kshatriya or as hina-jati, "low tribes", marked out by their pursuits of ‘low Vaisya. This view is also repeated in Buddhist texts. We are crafts', hina-sippa, and instance the workers in rushes, fowlers told that when Prasenajit came to learn that his queen was and cart makers, who were aboriginal peoples; as also mat- really a slave woman, he reported the matter to the Buddha makers, barbers, potters, weavers and leather workers. Some who said: texts apply the general term Milakkha to peoples lying outside "Wise men of old have said, what matters the mother's birth? the pale of Aryan society [19]. These include the hina-jatis, The birth of the father is the measure." He also cited a famous mentioned as five in the Vinaya-Sutta-Vibhaga, [20] viz. instance in support of this view. When the king of Kosala Candala, Vena, Nesada, Rathakara and Pukkusa. Some of heard this, he was pleased and treated the queen and her son as these counted as Sudras belonging to Aryan society, while suited their rank. others lay outside its pale. The former is called by Panini [21] The Buddhist and Jain texts also always openly declare the aniravasita (abahiCkAta) Sudra and the latter, niravasita. As Ksatriyas to be less superior to the Brahamanas, and name the examples of the latter, the Sasayama Sutta mentions the Jonas Ksatriyas first in enumerating the four castes. Thus, although and Cambodia’s whose society knew of only two classes, the general framework of the caste system is admitted, the employers and employed, or rather master (aye) and slave

114 International Journal of Advanced Educational Research

(data). no inter-caste marriages [24]. A graphic account of the caste system is given by Megatheres, So, we can say that from this time society in India became the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maura. He more and more mechanical under the regulations of the enumerates seven classes or castes into which the whole Sastras. The castes and sub castes were rigidly separated. population of India is divided, viz. (1) Philosophers, (2) Inter-caste contact was prohibited with strict rules of dining, Husbandmen, (3) Herdsmen, (4) Artisans, (5) Military, (6) marriage, touch and ceremonials. Overseers or Spies, and (7) Councilors and Assessors. He adds A close study of the Rajatarangini shows that the population that "no one can marry out of his own caste, or to exchange of Kashmir in early times comprised of several castes. There one profession or trade for another or to follow more than one is, however, no well-defined caste system mentioned either by business." Kalhana or by his predecessors. Though the concept of the This is undoubtedly a characteristic of the rigid caste system population as consisting of the four traditional castes was not as enunciated in the brahmanical texts, but it is difficult to unknown to him [25], as he has used many terms like believe that the seven categories mentioned by Megasthenes Brahamana, Rajaputra, Kiratas, Candala, Nona etc., but there really conformed to this. Neither of the last two classes of was no such caste as Ksatriyas, Vaisya and Sudra in early officials could really form such a close social corporation, and Kashmiri society. Many scholars like S. the fourth class, the artisans, must have included several such C. Ray believe that there was no intermediate caste in social units. There is no doubt that Megasthenes confused the Kashmir, not even Sudra [26]. The society of Kashmir was castes with the professions or occupations with which he was divided along the occupational or socio-economic lines. The more familiar than others. It is significant that he makes no one reason believed to be is the Buddhism which was mention of the fourfold divisions of caste, and his obvious introduced into Kashmir by Asoka and subsequently, confusion between castes and occupations probably indicates flourished under the Kushanas, had been accepted by the that the broad division of society was based on this latter masses and was for several centuries the dominant faith in the factor rather than on the theoretical classification in the Valley. Caste system, hence, had lost all rigidity and except brahmanical texts of the period. Whatever ‘we might think of for the Brahamanas who maintained their traditions the accuracy or otherwise of Megasthenes's observations tenaciously and who were responsible later in re-establishing about the caste-divisions in general, we get interesting the Hindu faith among the people of Kashmir, and low-caste glimpses of the social conditions of his time from the tribes who followed the calling of scavengers, night watchmen particulars he records of them. Special interest attaches to his and boatmen. description of the ‘Philosophers' whom he divides into two The fighting castes of old Kashmir are represented by the classes- Brachmanes and Sarmanes. There is no doubt that the Kshatriya, Tantrins, Ekangas and Lavanyas. The first of these refers to the Brahamanas. The second is Rajatarangini does not make specific references to Ksatriyas generally taken as the Buddhist Srama as, but most likely as in the context of Kashmir’s ancient history but it is believed refers to ascetics as a class irrespective of the religious sect to that from the ancient period Ksatriyas have remained which they belonged. influential in Kashmir. Ksatriyas in Kashmir would attach Around the third century CE the Vaisya -Sudra social "aditya" word with their name. Pratapaditya, Lalitaditya, formation was afflicted with a deep social crisis. The crisis is Vajraditya, Baladitya, Ranaditya, Vedaditya and clearly reflected in the descriptions of the Kali age in those are some of the instances. Rajputs or Rajputra portions of the Puranas which belong to the third and fourth were associated with the fighting and the ruling caste [27]. century CE. Emphasis on the importance of coercive There are occasional references to the Ksatriyas in the Nilmata mechanism (Dana) in the Santi Parva and the description of Purana indicating their martial character. They are described anarchy (arajakta) in the epics possibly belongs to the same as skilled in the use of all sorts of weapons [28]. The Nirajana age and point to the same crisis. The Kali age is characterized ceremony, in which Durga-the goddess of war-is worshipped by Varna-sanskara, i.e., peasants, artisans and laborers, either and the weapons of war are also worshipped in the temple of refused to stick to the producing functions assigned to them or Durga [29], seems to have been a kind of military ceremony else the Vaisya peasants declined to pay taxes and the Sudra s associated with the Ksatriyas. refused to make their labour available. This made the About their status in society, their mention after the functioning of the state and society difficult [22]. Brahamanas indicates their social status in accordance with Early in the 5th century CE, Fa-Hien testified. to the the vartika on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi [30], which lays down the prosperous condition of Northern India under the rule of the rule that the castes should be mentioned in the order of status, Imperial Guptas. He clearly depicted the picture of rigid caste the highest one to come first and the lowest one last. At one system of that time. He says that the low caste Candala dwells place this order seems to have been upturned but the sense of on the outskirts of the city [23]. gradation is not lost sight of there too. While bathing the king, Hsuen Tsang, who came to India in the 7th century CE and the higher castes come later to assure the highest purity at the travelled more widely over the country than his predecessors time of coronation. We have noted the position of the wrote a detailed account of the life of the people. He Brahamana Purohita and the Brahamana Samvatsara in the mentioned that the division of society was based on caste. court of the king. The kings paid respect to the Brahamanas as Concept of untouchables was in existence. Candala or the is shown by the treatment Candradeva and Mahapadma Sudras had to reside outside the city or village. The received from Nila and Visvagasva respectively [31]. There is Brahamanas were held in the highest esteem. The Chinese reference, no doubt, to Paraśurāma killing the Ksatriyas pilgrim noticed the king was generally Ksatriyas. There were twenty-one times [32] put as Pargiter has pointed out; this

115 International Journal of Advanced Educational Research account is purely a tale of brahmanical tradition with little Uccala. They also they also participated in action against king historical background. Anyway, from the version of the story, Rada-Sankharaja and helped the consecrated Garga as king. as preserved in the Nilmata, making the significant assertion He worried king Sussala’s force by surprise attacks and in a that some Ksatriyas afraid of had sought refuge in fight killed Trailokyaraja and other prominent Tantrins [49]. Kashmir [33], we may infer the lack of Brahamana-Kshatriya When Sussala marched back to Kashmir with other conflict in Kashmir of the age of the Nilmata. councilors, Tantrins in league with Janakasimha, came to meet him [50]. Thus Tantrins acted as true praetorians and 1) Tantrins king-makers. If any person found close union with them, only Tantrins, the second military class, mentioned by Kalhana then he could succeed [51]. In the Rajatarangini Tantrins are appear to have formed in a caste of strong organization. The compared with cruel snake-charmers [52]. name Tantrin survives in the tribal name of Tantri which is borne by a considerable section of the Muhammadan 2) Ekangas agriculturist population of Kashmir. Families claiming the The exact meaning of the term Ekangas cannot be established Tantri Kram or surname may be found in most of the towns with certainty. It is frequently used in Books Five to seven of and villages throughout the Valley [34]. At this period of the Rajatarangini for the designation of an armed force. chronicle Tantrin foot-soldiers had formed a confederacy and Troyer assumed them to have been the royal bodyguards and were strong [35] enough to punish or to favour the rulers of the various references in the chronicle, show that he is not wrong. land [36]. During the period of internal troubles between the They are mentioned along with samantas (feudal lords), succession of Partha and the defeat of Sankaravarman (906- ministers, Tantrins and , (officials) as influencing 936 CE), they organized themselves into a powerful the affairs of the court and the state [53]. condottiere and were at the height of their power [37]. In 933- After the death of her husband king Sankaravarman, Queen 34 CE the Tantrins overthrew Cakravarman and made Sugandha assumed the royal power in her hand. Kalhana tells Suravarman, the son of Pangu from Mrgavati, king [38]. But that she ruled for two years relaying on the Ekangas and his uncles and ministers had no affection for him. They were through the good-will of the Tantrins [54]. On one occasion, solely looking to their own advantage, caused the overthrow Kalhana tells that she assembled the ministers, feudal chiefs, of the king by not paying what was due to the Tantrins [39]. Tantrins and Ekangas in council, in order to invest some fit Kalhana further tells that though the prince was of great person with the regal power [55]. In another story, Tantrin character but he could not keep his ruling powers without the made Partha king, who was the son of king Nirjitvarman, and favour of Tantrins and for that purpose he had to give them queen Sugandha was forced to leave the royal palace [56]. At rich gifts [40]. After one year the Tantrins dethroned Pangu and this point of time Ekangas troops went forth united, and seeing the chance of profit, made the liberal Partha once more brought back Sugandha from Huskapura, where she had king [41]. When king Cakravarman could not pay money to stayed [57]. But when Tantrins heard of her approach, they Tantrins, in terror he fled in the month Pausha of the same marched forth in fury [58]. In this battle Ekangas were defeated year [42]. Later on he sent Sambhuvardhana to negotiate with and Queen Sugandha was captured [59]. the Tantrins [43]. But he deceived his elder brother and got At another place Kalhana mentions, when Partha was them to install himself on the throne. Kalhana says that the overthrown by his father, Pangu, with the help of Tantrins but kings were in the service of the Tantrins, and ousted each soon Pangu died and another son Cakravarman, was placed on other, like village officials, by offering greater and greater thrown [60]. Thereupon the Tantrin footsoldiers, taking the side bribes [44]. of Partha, who was anxious to seize his father’s thrown, In another reference, he tells that in this land, the rulers of fought a battle with the Ekangas, who were protecting which had conquered Kanyakubja and other countries, the Cakravarman. Before his death, king Yasaskara, who was king now maintained themselves by giving bills of exchange suffering from an abdominal disease, in the presence of his (hundika) to the Tantrins [45]. They raised different claimants ministers, Ekangas and feudal lords, appointed Varnata as a to the throne of Kashmir, one after the other, demanding king. Varnata was the son of his paternal grand-uncle larger and larger bribes from each puppet king and oppressed Ramadeva [61]. After the death of king Hariraja, his mother the land by their heavy exactions. Queen Sugandha, after Srilekha wished the thrown for herself. When she was coming Sankaravarman’s death, ruled for two years through the good after taking the bath where the arrangements for the will of Tantrins [46]. At one occasion she assembled the installation had been made, the assembled Ekangas and the ministers, feudal lords, Tantrin and Ekangas in council, in king’s milk-brother, Sagara, made his child-son Ananta king order to invest some fit person with the regal power [111]. [62]. Subsequently they formed an important and often troublesome Ekangas fought with the Tantrins, who supported another element in the army, in which they seem to have served as claimant to the crown [63], and saved Queen Didda from a foot soldiers [47]. They are in the several references made in rebel force, whose onslaught they opposed in orderly array at the Rajatarangini as clearly distinguished from the mounted the palace gate [64]. They protected king Ananta with equal forces and figure as royal guards. On the eighth day of the devotion against a pretender. When Tribhuvana, the powerful bright half of Caitya, the foot-soldiers marched out for battle commander-in-chief of Ananta, collected the favour of with Sankarvardhana. King Parvagupta also took the favour Damaras and become to deprive the king of the throne, it was of Tantrins to secure throne [48]. Later this same king tried to the honesty of Ekangas that they did not leave the king’s side control the increasing power of Tantrins and grew his terror in [65]. In another incident, when king Ananta was in war field their hearts. The Tantrins also joined the conspiracy against with Tribhuvana and his army, he saw at every step of war

116 International Journal of Advanced Educational Research field Ekangas’s bodies were slashed with cuts. Ekangas were hair dress and who had prominent appearance [74]. He even under the office of Aksapatala. Who were probably character killed travellers, taking them as Lavanyas [75]. Those who of be the chief office of account. The king, to show his brought heads of Lavanyas were paid heavily. Kalhana tells gratitude, freed the Ekangas from the harassing service at the that wherever king took his abode, there the people Aksapatala, i.e. a sort of pension [66]. It is near the formed wide-spreading triumphal garlands with the horrible Akshapatala that Harsha endeavoured to collect a force of heads of Lavanyas [76]. With this ferocious action of Harsa, Ekangas for a final struggle [67]. Lavanyas became so frightened that they fled in all directions The later references show that Ekangas were a force organized [77]. and the king was praised for the destruction of the in a military fashion but employed chiefly for police duties. Lavanyas [78]. When Brahamanas rebelled against the king, King Tunga had employed thirty brave Ekangas in his service Kalhana said that this was worse than the rebellion of and who died in a battle field [68]. Ekangas are also referred as Lavanyas [79]. feudal lords as well. Kalhana tells that Parvagupta wanted to Kalhana tells that the Lavanyas caused so much trouble dethrone Samgramadeva, but could not do this from the fear throughout the reign of king Sussala and subsequently killed of a rising of the Ekangas. So, he arranged witchcraft for this him. Later, Sussala’s son Jayasimha took the revenge and purpose [69]. But he could not achieve his aim. Fearing the killed all Lavanyas [80]. All ruling kings or those who wanted hostile Ekangas [70], and losing command over himself owing to be ruling power tried to do so with the favour of Lavanyas. to his rising agitation and apprehensions, he became so Kalhana in eighth book of the Rajatarangini tells that once miserable day and night that he suddenly collected his troops king Bhikshacara came to Vijayesvara to make the on a day when people did not even move outside because a Brahamanas of the agrahara s to give up their fast. Tilaka heavy snow-fall, and surrounded the palace. Ultimately, he who was the commander-in-chief of king Bhikshacara, assured the throne. When Parvagupta become king, Ekangas advised him to kill all Lavanyas. But he did not accept this were afraid of him. An Ekangas called Madanaditya, who was advice. Later Bhikshacara along with Lavanyas got defeated descended from the race of Suyya, burst his large drum by Sussala and thought of going abroad from fear of Sussala through carelessness in the king’s assembly-hall. The angry [81]. Even the Shrivaka, the brave Brother-in-law of Yashoraja, king had his garments taken off and ill-treated him. Having his never took hostile action against the Lavanyas. On the hair and beard shaved off, he became an ascetic. But from the contrary, they passed the time secretly in doing each other text it is not clear whether Kalhana means the Madanaditya’s favour [82]. Bhikshacara took the favour of Lavanyas to gain family following him in to his new status, or that the Ekangas, the throne [83]. When king Sussala returned to in 1121 who had after his humiliating punishment turned in to a CE, he entered the palace in search of Bhikshu, who was the mendicant, married again subsequently [71]. In another place son of Bhoja and Vibhavamati. But he took the favour of Kalhana tells that an equerry, Trailokya by name tells Harsha Lavanyas, who helped him in saving his life [84]. Bhoja also that his grandfather (Ananta) once won a victory with the wanted to take the favour of Lavanyas to strengthen his Ekangas and the mounted man. Therefore, he should go to the position [85]. Lavanyas are also depicted as robbers. In Akshapatala [office] to collect them because if they will join Jayasimha time, villages were plundered by the Lavanyas [86]. him, he can win over his enemy [72]. Ekangas’s modern counterpart would be customs and forest Conclusion guards, and other revenue collecting agents. Till the beginning Thus, we can say that like traditional caste system, in Kashmir of the present century the ‘Patan Nizamat' was a regiment, as well, Brahmans were at top and next to them were worrier specially maintained in Kashmir for the support of the civil class. It is true that there was no such caste as Kshatriya, authorities for the collection of revenue etc. Vaisya and Sudra in the early Kashmir but we cannot deny this fact that Kalhana in his chronicle has used many terms 3) Lavanyas related to the traditional caste system of India e.g. The Lavanyas, who played a great part in the internal troubles Brahamana, Rajaputra, Dombas, Candala etc. It appears from which occurred in Kashmir during the closing years of the what has been said above that the Kashmir society became eleventh and the beginning of twelfth centuries, seem to have something like a federation of castes and sub-castes, whose formed an important tribal section of the rural population who members did sometimes intermarry, more frequently in earlier took to arms. Their name, too, survives in the modern Kram of than in later ages, but which nevertheless retained their Lon [73]. The numerous passages in which the Lavanyas as a separate identity. Society consisted of many groups which had body of individuals is referred to, tell us nothing about their been brought into the same spiritual and cultural framework, origin, but show that many of them must have held a position but which had been only partially fused together. Caste was of influence as land-owners or tribal headmen. Up to not altogether static, for new sub castes frequently arose from Jonaraja’s time, the Lavanyas seem to have retained a certain migration, fusion or sub-division. Old sub-castes sometimes importance as their name is of frequent occurrence in his lost their identity and rose or fell in status. In Rajatarangini, Chronicle, but by Srivara, the later historian, they are Kalhana gives ample examples that how this class mentioned only once. In the Rajatarangini, Kalhana shows overpowered not only Brahmans but ruling class as well. They that the Lavanyas of this period were so powerful that who so had very strong position in the society of Kashmir specially ever powerful ruler came, they first tried to crush them. When when ruling class was surrounded by tremolos. Kings tried Harsa attacked the Lavanyas of Holada in Madavar, he killed many times to get the favour of worrier class to strengthen the Lavanyas so ruthlessly that he left not even Brahamanas their position. They were shown as employees as well as alive if they were dressed liked Lavanyas e.g. who wore high independent to ruling powers. Like other parts of India, in

117 International Journal of Advanced Educational Research

Kashmir we also find different sub castes of this caste as well. 51. Ibid., V.928. We cannot Deny that throughout the period of Rajatarangini 52. Ibid., V.338. worrier classes of Kashmir strongly influenced the history not 53. RT., V, 341, 446, VI, 91-132, VII, 135-143, VIII, 776. only of Kashmir but the whole of India too. 54. Ibid., V.249. 55. Ibid., V.250. References 56. Ibid., V.255. 1. Sharma, R.S., Perspectives in Social and Economic 57. Ibid., V.259. History of Early India, 23. 58. Ibid., V.122. 2. Ketkar SV. History of Caste in India, 18. 59. Ibid., V.261. 3. Ghurye GS. Caste and Race in India, 176-177. 60. Ibid., V.288. 4. Sharma RS. Perspectives in Social and Economic History 61. Ibid., VI.90-91. of Early India, 25. 62. Ibid., VII.135. 5. Ghurye GS. Caste and Race in India, 162-163. 63. Bamzai, P.N.K., A , p. 189. 6. Chopra PN. Society, Religion and Literature, in Ancient 64. Jamwal, Suman, Agriculture and Commerce in early and Medieval Period, 7. medieval Kashmir, p. 121. 7. Rigveda, X.90. 65. Rajatarangini, VII. 155. 8. Jataka, VI, 544. 66. Ibid., VII. 161. 9. Matsya Purana, chp. 193. 67. Ibid., IV. 14. 10. Aiyar CPR. The Cultural Heritage of India, 2, 558. 68. Ibid., VII. 94. 11. Mahajan VD. A , 48. 69. Ibid., V. 120. 12. Arthasastra, 3-4. 70. Ibid., V.124. 13. Majumdar RC. The Age of Imperial Unity, 546. 71. Ibid., V.133. 14. Mahabharata, Bombay edition, 3:313, 108. 72. Ibid., VIII.1604. 15. Ibid., 12. 47, 17. 73. Ibid., VIII.131. 16. Majumdar RC. The Age of Imperial Unity, 547. 74. Ibid., VII. 1229. 17. Jataka, V. 290. 75. Ibid., VII. 1230. 18. Ibid., VI. 312. 76. Ibid., VII.1237. 19. Digha Nikaya, III.264. 77. Ibid., VII. 1233. 20. Anguttara, I. 107, II. 85. 78. Ibid., VII. 1378. 21. Panini, Ashtadhyayi, II. 4, 10. 79. RT., VIII, 776. 22. Sharma, R.S., Perspectives in Social and Economic 80. Ibid., VIII.3447. History of Early India, 31. 81. Ibid., VIII.1268. 23. Chatterjee S. Indian Civilization and Culture, 279. 82. Ibid., VIII.1010. 24. Stephin SJ. Literature, Caste and Society, 20. 83. Ibid., VIII.1032. 25. RT., I. 117, IV. 111. 84. Ibid., VIII.956. 26. Ray SC. Early History and , 101. 85. Ibid., VIII.2538. 27. RT., 6, 8. 86. Ibid., VIII.1541. 28. Nilmata Purana, V.15. 29. Ibid., V, 739-740. 30. Vartika on Astadhyayi, II.2.34. 31. Nilmata Purana, 358-365, 978-979. 32. Ibid., V. 1167. 33. Ibid., V. 1168 34. RT., vol. I, p. 430. 35. Ibid., V, 248. 36. Ibid., V, 287. 37. Ibid., V.292. 38. Ibid., V.293. 39. Ibid., V.294. 40. Ibid., V.295. 41. Ibid., V.302. 42. Ibid., V.328. 43. Ibid., V.265. 44. Ibid., V.266. 45. Ibid., V.249. 46. Ibid., V.250. 47. Ibid., V.250. 48. Ibid., V.421. 49. Ibid., VIII. 597. 50. Ibid., VIII. 928.

118