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Through Hell and High Sludge: Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Justice at the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation

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Through Hell and High Sludge: Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Justice at the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation Through Hell and High Sludge: Traditional Knowledge and Environmental Justice at the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation Dylan Nelson A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH HONORS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN March 31, 2017 Advised by Professor Tiya Miles ii For Grandma Doana, a true left-hander iii iv Contents Acknowledgements vi Terms and Abbreviations vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Locating the Mountain: Environmental Imaginations at and Around Fort Belknap from the mid-19th to the late 20th Century 19 Chapter 2. The Unsteady Foundation of Pegasus Gold Corporation in the Little Rocky Mountains, 1978-1990 61 Chapter 3. A Collision of Environmental Imaginations: Early Contests Over the Little Rocky Mountains, 1990-1995 101 Chapter 4. The Final Years of Mining in the Little Rocky Mountain, 1993-2000 139 Conclusion 173 Works Cited and Consulted 199 v Acknowledgements Sometimes you get lucky. Other times you get so lucky you’re incapable of talking about it without seeming histrionic. This is how I feel about my time with the Department of History and the Native American Studies program at the University of Michigan. I therefore write in gratitude to an incomplete list of people that contributed so much to this project: To Tiya Miles, for too many things to list and many more that it will take me years to understand, but above all, for teaching me how to be critical and kind to myself at the same time. To Scott Lyons, for letting me chew your ear off after class and for opening me up. To Professors Greg Dowd, Joe Gone, and Phil Deloria, for being good examples. To Professor Michael Witgen, for teaching me I am only 50% full of shit. To the staff at the Montana Historical Society, the Aaniih Nakoda College Library, and the Stephen S. Clark Library, for lending me your time and space. To Matt, Josh, and Addi, for introducing me to Evan Stephens Hall, Kyrie Irving, Bill Ratchet, and Ross Gay. To my multispecies family, for being patient with me. To the members of the Red Thunder Oral History Project, for the gift of sharing your lives, and your dreams. And to Professor John Carson, for being a role model in all things and for making my undergraduate career extraordinary. vi Terms and Abbreviations Acid rock drainage: potentially indefinite outflows of acidic water in drainages of mining operations BLM: Bureau Land Management (federal) Cyanide heap-leaching: an industrial mining process in which large quantities of rock are sprayed with a cyanide solution to dissolve precious metals (i.e. gold and silver) from the rock and later recover the minerals from the solution; this was pioneered by Pegasus Gold Corporation at the Zortman and Landusky mines as a large-scale, open-pit operation DEQ: Department of Environmental Quality (Montana) DHES: Department of Health and Environmental Sciences (Montana) DSL: Department of State Lands (Montana) EIS: environmental impact statement EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (federal) Fort Belknap Indians: American Indian members of the Fort Belknap Indian Community, especially those that lived on the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation in north-central Montana Grinnell agreement: an agreement made between a subset of the population of the recently created Fort Belknap Reservation and William C. Pollock, George Bird Grinnell, and Walter M. Clements, representing the Secretary of the Interior, on October 9, 1895 that involved the cession of most of the Little Rocky Mountains to the federal government IBLA: Interior Board of Land Appeals (federal) IMP: Island Mountain Protectors Little Rockies: the Little Rocky Mountains, at the southern edge of the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation Loud Thunder: cultural group that operated out of Great Falls, Montana, during the 1990s that consistently collaborated with Red Thunder Pegasus: Pegasus Gold Corporation Red Thunder: 501(c)(3) grassroots advocacy group that operated mainly out of the Lodgepole area of the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation during the 1990s to protest the destruction of the Little Rocky Mountains by Pegasus Gold Corporation The Council: Fort Belknap Community Council ZMI: Zortman Mining, Inc. Zortman and Landusky mines: the gold and silver mining complex that was operated in the Little Rocky Mountains from 1979 to 1997 by Pegasus Gold Corporation; the complex contained two cyanide heap leach mines that were each hundreds of acres large 1872 Mining Law: General Mining Act of 1872, enacted by the 42nd United States Congress to protect the right of all United States citizens over the age of eighteen to place mining claims on public lands administered by the federal government vii Introduction In July 1993, residents of Zortman, Montana seeking shelter from the storm raging around them looked out their windows to see a nearly phosphorescent stream of orange sludge running through the town’s main road. Nestled into the southeastern edge of the Little Rocky Mountains, Zortman welcomes visitors to “The friendliest little town in Montana! Population: 50, 48 nice people and two grouches.”1 Just north of the Little Rockies less than 10 air miles north of Zortman, residents of Lodgepole, one of the main settlements of the adjacent Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, likely sat in their living rooms contemplating the violent weather, discussing tribal politics, and telling stories about storms of days gone by. Though the people in Lodgepole did not witness the peculiar glow of the wastewater that day, for at least a few years they had been concerned about how the nearby Zortman and Landusky mines might have been affecting local streams and wildlife, and their children. Months before and almost 300 miles southwest in Helena, a hydrogeologist for the Montana Department of State Lands reviewing water monitoring reports found evidence of the presence of acid rock drainage (an outflow of acidic water from metal or coal mines) in waterways leading from the Zortman and Landusky gold mines, which operated in the heart of the Little Rockies.2 Later that July, the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a citation to Pegasus Gold Corporation, the company that operated the Zortman and Landusky sites, for illegally discharging cyanide, 1 I came across this sign while visiting Zortman. It is also one of the first results in a Google images search of the town. 2 The presence of acid rock drainage in waterways surrounding the mines is well known by those familiar with the story of Zortman and Landusky, but here I refer specifically to an interview I conducted with Wayne Jepson on October 16, 2016, who has worked on the Zortman and Landusky mines since the early 1990s. He is now a hydrologist for the Operating Permit Section of the Hard Rock Mining Bureau of the Montana Department of Environmental Quality. 1 arsenic, lead, and acid into their drainages.3 The years that followed would be full of courtroom theatrics, petition drives, confidential meetings, countless letters and reports, and a good deal of prayer. By 1998, Pegasus had declared bankruptcy and what was once one of the largest gold- mining complexes in the United States had been abandoned. Six years later, the federal Bureau of Land Management listed this region of the Little Rockies under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, the same legislation that controls Superfund sites. Today, grasses and a few weeds slowly grow over sheared rock faces at the Landusky site but the young vegetation does little to conceal the smell of sulfur or the stark contrast with the forested peaks surrounding the mines. This story of the Little Rocky Mountains over the last several decades is a familiar one. The United States of America, and especially Indian Country, is rife with scarred landscapes. From the first explorations of Columbus to the warzone that erupted at the Standing Rock Reservation in the fall and winter of 2016,4 sites of environmental destruction have served as venues for both highly visible and lesser known political and economic dramas—exchanges of land, natural resources, funds, and tears—such as the one in the Little Rocky Mountains in the 1990s. It is not a coincidence that these encounters have involved the intersection of ecological 3 Heather Abel, “The rise and fall of a gold mining company,” High Country News (December 22, 1997). 4 Leading up to the 2016 Presidential election in the United States, one of the most publicized and controversial stories in popular and alternative media was the fight over the Dakota Access Pipeline, a 1,172-mile oil pipeline project that, among other things, ran through the Standing Rock Indian Reservation in southern North Dakota and posed a significant pollution risk to the Missouri River. During the second half of 2016, protesters at Standing Rock caught the attention of indigenous and environmental activists from around the country as many flocked to the reservation, many without invitation or a clear purpose. In November 2016, state and federal forces used water cannons, tear gas, security dogs, and other measures to undermine resistance efforts. Many protesters were also arrested and held in custody without foreseeable trial as the protests were ongoing. For better or for worse, these events have set a paradigm for conversations about indigenous environmental justice. The script at Standing Rock has been seen many times across Indian Country for decades: an extractive project threatens or inflicts environmental and cultural harm on Native lands, Native people respond with a variety of claims, their efforts receive wider attention when celebrities and other sympathetic non-Indians show support or visit those Native lands, non-Indian interest is not sustainable or necessary desired by resident Indians, ultimate outcomes are less well- known and generally equivocal.
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