CONSERVATION STATUS of TROPICAL RAPTORS I

j. RaptorRes. 32(1):3-18 ¸ 1998 The Raptor ResearchFoundation, Inc.

CONSERVATION STATUS OF TROPICAL RAPTORS i

KEITH L. BILDSTEIN,WENDY SCHELSKY AND JORJE ZALLES Hawk Mountain Sanctuary,1700 Hawk Mountain Road, Kempton,PA 19529 U.S.A.

SUSIE ELLIS IUCN ConservationBreeding Study Group, Minneapolis Zoo, Minneapolis, MN U.S.A.

ABSTRACT.--Seventy-sixpercent (222) of the world's 292 speciesof diurnal raptors are found inainly or completelyin the tropics.Forty-six percent of all tropicalraptors are threatenedby habitatloss, 11% by environmentalcontaminants, and 19% by direct persecution.Seventeen percent are threatenedby two of thesefactors, 2% by all three factors.Regionally, 42% of all Neotropical,60% of all Afrotropical,60% of all Indomalayan,and 77% of all Australotropicalraptors are threatened by one of more of these factors.IUCN classifies27% of all tropical raptors (59 species)as Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endan- gered, or CriticallyEndangered. Silnilar statisticsare 23% (17 of 73 species),14% (11 of 80 species), 33% (21 of 63), and 34% (12 of 35), for the Neotropical,Afrotropical, Indolnalayan, and Australotrop- ical regions, respectively.Thirty percent of all tropical raptors are endemics.Fifty-seven percent of all tropical raptors are complete, partial, or irruptive migrants. The degree of endemism and migration behavior varies among the four regions. Although some of the regional differences in conservation statusreflect regional differences in knowledge, many appear to reflect ecological differences among the four regions. KEYWORDS: Conservationstatus;, tropics; tropical raptors; endemics; migration.

Estado de conservacionde las avesrapaces tropicales RESUMEN.--Setentay seispor ciento (222) de las especiesde avesrapaces diurnas del mundo (292) se encuentran en los trtpicos. Cuarenta y seispor ciento de todas las avesrapaces tropicales estrinamen- azadaspor la ptrdida de habitat, 11% por contaminantesambientales y 19% por persecucitndirecta. Diez y siete por ciento esfftnamenazadas por dos de estosfactores, 2% por los tres factores.Regional- mente, 42% de todaslas avesrapaces neotropicales, 60% de todaslas afrotropicales,60% de todaslas indomalayasy 77% de todaslas especiestropicales de Australia estrinamenazadas por uno o mas de estosfactores. La IUCN clasificael 27% de todaslas avesrapaces tropicales (59 especies)como Cercan- amente Amenazadas, Vulnerables, Amenazadas, o Crfticamente Amenazadas. Estadfsticas similares in- dican 23% (17 de 73 especies),14% (11 de 80 especies),33% (21 de 63) y 34% (12 de 35), para las regionesneotropical, afrotropical, indomalaya y australianarespectivamente. Treinta pot ciento de todas las avesrapaces tropicales son endtmicas. Cincuenta y siete pot ciento de todas las avesrapaces tropicales son migratorias totahnente, parciahnente o en forma irruptiva. E1 grado de endemismo y com- portamiento migratorio varia entre las cuatro regiones.Aunque las diferenciasregionales en el estado de conservacitn refiejan las diferenciasregionales de conoci•niento,parece que tmnbitn son el refiejo de las diferencias ecoltgicas entre las cuatro regiones. [Traduccitn de Ctsar Marquez]

Tropical ecosystemsare some of the most bio- Neely et al. 1988, Myers 1988, Thirgood and Heath logicallydiverse habitats on earth (Wilson 1988). 1994). Biogeographically,27% (8 of 30) of the Seventy-sixpercent of all centers of avian endem- world's ecoregionsare represented in the tropics ism (e.g., "endemic bird areas,"Bibby et al. 1992) (Bailey 1996). Tropical rainforests, which cover occur in tropical regions,and the sameis true for only 7% of the earth'sland surface,are estimated many plant and animal taxa (Gentry 1986, Mc- to contain more than half of the world's species (Wilson 1988). 1This paper is dedicatedto the memory of Hawk Moun- Previousstudies suggest that 90% of all species tain Sanctuary'slongtime friend, Roger Tory Peterson. of raptors occur, wholly or in part, in the tropics 4 BILDSTEIN ET AL. VOL. 32, NO. 1

(Kennedy1986), and that 45% of all speciesofrap- 1996), the regions defined both waysare largelycoinci- tors occur in tropical rainforests(Thiollay 1985a, dent. We define the earth's four tropical regions, the Neotropics, Afrotropics, Indomalayan Region, and Aus- 1994). Half of all tropical countries have at least tralotropics,geographically as the land massesbetween 50 speciesof raptors (Table 1). the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn in each of these Many tropical raptors, especiallyforest dwellers, four regions. are secretiveand difficult to study.The distribution Approximately85% of the Neotropicsis in the Humid Tropical Domain ecoregion (Bailey 1996), of which and statusof many speciesare poorly known (Mey- slightlymore than half is savanna;the remainder is trop- burg and van Balen 1994, Thiollay 1994, van Balen ical rainforest.Dry Domain ecoregionsin the Neotropics 1994; but seeThiollay 1985b, Kennedy 1986, Burn- include both steppe and desert. Overall, approximately ham et al. 1994, Watson and Lewis 1994). Even so, 40% of the Neotropics is in the Tropical Rainforestecore- severalpatterns are apparent. The major threat to gion. The Afrotropics include the southern half of the Ara- tropical raptors is habitat destruction (Thiollay bian Peninsulaand most of Africa and Madagascar.Ap- 1989a, 1992, 1994), followed by environmental proximately55% of the region is in the Humid Tropical contamination and shooting (Thiollay 1985a). Domain ecoregion (Bailey 1996). Dry Domain ecore- Overall, endemic speciesare more likely to be gionsin the Afrotropicsare mainly deserts,including the threatened, as are nonmigratory and Old World southern Saharaand the Namib, with somesteppe. Ap- proximately 10% of the Afrotropics is in the Tropical species. Rainforest ecoregion. Previousstudies of tropical raptors have focused The Indomalayantropics cover much of southeastAsia on individualspecies, countries, regions, or habitat and neighboring islands.More than 95% of the region types (e.g., Meyburg and Chancellor 7•989,1994, is in the Humid Tropical Domain ecoregion (Bailey 1996), of which half is savanna,and half is rainforest.Dry Baker-Gabb 1994, Thiollay 1994, van Balen 1994, Domain ecoregionsare limited to easternIndia. Overall, and references therein). We use these and other approximately50% of the Indomalayanregion is in the publishedsources, including del Hoyo et al. (1994), Tropical Rainforestecoregion. together with the unpublishedIUCN Raptor Con- The Australotropicsinclude the Moluccas,parts of Aus- servation Assessmentand Management Plan and tralia, and all of New Guinea.Approximately 60% of the region is part of the Humid Tropical Domain (Bailey Hawk Mountain Sanctuary Hawks Aloft Worldwide 1996), slightly more than half of which is savanna.Dry databases,to provide an overview of raptor diver- Domain areasof the Australotropicsinclude tropical por- sity and conservationstatus in the tropics. tions of the Great SandyDesert of interior Australia,and Specifically,we assessregional differences and its associatedsteppes. Approximately 30% of the Austral- the influence of ecological circumstanceson the otropicsis in the Tropical Rainforestecoregion. Tropical Raptors Defined. We considerraptors to be conservation status of tropical species.We detail membersof the avianfamilies Accipitridae, Sagittariidae, the distribution of the world's tropical raptors re- and Falconidae; and the avian subfamily Cathartinae gionally,assess regional differencesin diversityand (Sibleyand Monroe 1990), the birds that most authori- conservation status, and determine the extent to ties call diurnal raptors (Brown and Areadon1968, Ama- which endemism and migratory behavior are as- don and Bull 1988, del Hoyo et al. 1994, Griffiths 1994). For our purposes,tropical raptors include the subsetof sociated with conservation status. We also discuss these 292 species (Areadon and Bull 1988) whose com- how conservationistscan better protect tropical bined breeding and nonbreeding distributions,as de- raptors. Becauseour focus is global and regional, tailed in del Hoyo et al. (1994), occur whollyor mainly individual speciesare mentioned in the text only (>50%) within the tropics. Species (e.g., Swainson's Hawk [Buteoswainsoni] ), whosemigratory routes include as examples of general patterns. A list of the con- the tropics,but whosebreeding and nonbreedingranges servationstatus of individual speciesappears in Ap- lie wholly or mainly outside of the tropics, are not in- pendix 1. cluded as tropical raptors. EndemicRaptors Defined. As a group, raptorsare rel- STUDY AREA AND METHODS ativelylarge, frequentlymigratory birds that occurat low The Tropics Defined. Geographically,the tropics in- densitiesacross large areas. Few can be characterizedas clude regionson both sidesof the Equator extending to restricted-range,or endemic species(e.g., specieswith 23.5øNand S (the Tropicsof Cancer and Capricorn,re- breeding ranges below 50000 km2, Bibby et al. 1992). spectively).Terrestrial ecosystemswithin the region are Even so, some specieshave relativelysmall ranges com- characterizedby near constant day lengths, relatively pared with others. Such speciesoften are used as "um- h•gh solarradiation, and, when adjustedfor altitude,rel- brella" or "flagship" speciesfor local and regional con- anvelyhigh diurnal and nocturnal temperatures(Desh- servationefforts (e.g., Philippine Eagle [Pithecophagajejc mukh 1986). Although the tropicshave a somewhatmore feryi, Kennedy1983], Barred Forest-falcon[Micrastur rudC complex ecological definition that takes climate, as well icollis,C. Marquez, pers. comm.], Mauritius Kestrel [Falco as geography, into account (Deshmukh 1986, Bailey punctatus,Jones 1981]). Here, we considerendemic spe- MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL RAPTORS 5

Table 1. Wholly and mainly tropical countrieswith at least 50 speciesof raptors; together with the migration, distribution, and conservationstatus (sensuCollar et al. 1994) of those raptors.

NUMBER OF SPECIES

NEAR CRITICALLY COUNTRY TOTAL (MIGRANTS) ENDEMICS VULNERABLETHREATENED ENDANGERED ENDANGERED

Neotropics Argentina 61 (39) 1 10 Bolivia 68 (40) 1 7 Brazil 66 (39) 1 2 7 Colombia 75 (43) 1 10 1 Costa Rica 53 (34) 6 Ecuador 72 (37) 4 1 9 2 French Guiana 55 (31) 5 Guyana 50 (30) 6 Mexico 54 (41) 4 Panama 57 (34) 7 Paraguay 51 (37) 1 6 Peru 57 (38) 2 9 1 Venezuela 75 (38) 8 Afrotropics Angola 58 (47) 1 1 Botswana 54 (47) 2 1 Burundi 54 (34) 1 1 Cameroon 59 (47) 1 1 Central African Republic 55 (43) 1 1 Chad 52 (47) 1 1 Djibouti 50 (47) 2 1 Ethiopia 71 (61) 4 1 Ivory Coast 50 (38) 1 1 Kenya 72 (62) 3 2 Madagascar 16 (4) 11 3 Malawi 56 (46) 2 1 Mozambique 60 (50) 3 2 Namibia 56 (47) 2 2 Nigeria 59 (47) 1 1 Senegal 51 (44) 1 1 Sudan 74 (64) 3 1 Tanzania 69 (58) 2 2 Uganda 71 (59) 1 1 Zaire 65 (52) 1 Zambia 58 (49) 2 1 Zimbabwe 56 (47) 2 2 Indomalayan India 63 (59) 3 4 14 Indonesia 62 (51) (39 [39]) a 16 (8) 2 (1) 8 (6) 1 (1) Myanmar 52 (47) 4 10 Australotropical Indonesia 62 (33) (39 [22]) a 16 (9) 2 (1) 8 (2) 1 (0) • Indonesia,which spansthe Indomalayanand the Australotropicalregions, appears twice in the table.The data presentedabove representcountry- and (tropical-region)totals. 6 BILDSTEIN ET AL. VOL. 32, No. 1

Table 2. Distribution of the world's diurnal raptors as a function of tropical distribution. Taxonomy based on Areadon and Bull (1988); distribution based on del Hoyo et al. (1994).

NUMBEROF SPECIES(%) a

EXTENT OF RANGE IN TROPICS WORLDWIDE NEOTROPICS AFROTROPICS INDOMALAYAN AUSTRALOTROPICS

All of range 78 (27%) 20 (22%) 17 (15%) 22 (26%) 20 (41%) More than half of range 144 (49%) 53 (58%) 63 (56%) 41 (49%) 15 (31%) Lessthan half of range 60 (21%) 19 (21%) 32 (29%) 21 (25%) 14 (29%) None of range 10 (3%) Total 292 92 112 84 49

• Worldwide percentagesrepresent proportions of all species,including those that occur only outsideof the tropics.Regional percentagesrepresent proportions of speciesof raptorsfrom that region. ciesto be raptorswhose overall rangesare limited to one breeding or wintering distributionsthat occur, at or two countries.We considerendemic genera to be gen- least in part, within one or more tropical regions era that occur in only one tropical region. Threats to Tropical Raptors. Human threats to tropical (Table 2). Sevencountries have 70 or more species raptors include habitat destruction and fragmentation, of tropical raptors (Table 1). The distribution and pollution and pesticide use, and direct human persecu- statusof the world's 222 wholly or mainly tropical tion (Newton and Chancellor 1985, Diamond and Love- raptors appear in Appendix 1. joy 1985, Meyburg and Chancellor 1989, 1994, and references therein). Raptor faunas differ considerablyamong the StatisticalTests. We usedlog-likelihood ratio (G) tests four regions. Eighty-nine percent of tropical rap- w•th Yates correction in tests where df = 1 (Zar 1984), tors occur in a single tropical region, and except to assessregional differences in the endemic, migration for the contiguousIndomalayan and Australotrop- and conservationstatus of tropical raptors, as well as to ical regions, there is little speciesoverlap among determine the extent to which endemism and migration were associated with differences in the conservation sta- regions (Table 3). Regional faunal specificityis tus of the birds. In all analyses,differences were consid- greatestin the Neotropics,where 72 of 73 species ered significantif P < 0.05. have tropical distributionsrestricted to that region; the single exception being the nearly cosmopolitan RESULTS Osprey (Pandion haliaetus)(Table3). Twenty-six Distribution, Endemism, and Migratory Status. Neotropical genera (50 species)occur only in that Seventy-eightspecies of raptors(27%) occurwhol- tropical region, compared with 12 (19), 5 (10), ly within the tropics. An additional 144 species and 4 (5), genera (species),respectively, in the Af- (49%) occur mainly within the tropics.Overall, rotropics,Indomalayan Region, and Australotrop- 282 species (97%) of the world's raptors have ics (Table 4).

Table 3. Regional distribution of tropical raptors. Specieswith region-restrictedranges are those that occur in only one tropical region. Widespreadspecies occur in more than one tropical region.

NUMBEROF SPECIES(%)

EXTENT OF RANGE WORLDWIDE NEOTROPICS AFROTROPICS INDOMALAYAN AUSTRALOTROPICS

Wholly tropical raptors Region-restricted 77 (99%) 20 (100%) 17 (100%) 21 (95%) 19 (95%) Widespread 1 (1%) 0 0 1 (5%) 1 (5%) Mainly tropical raptors Region-restricted 121 (84%) 52 (98%) 48 (76%) 18 (44%) 3 (20%) Widespread 23 (16%) 1 (2%) 15 (24%) 23 (56%) 12 (80%) Wholly and mainly tropicalraptors Region-restricted 198 (89%) 72 (99%) 65 (81%) 39 (62%) 22 (63%) Widespread 24 (11%) 1 (1%) 15 (19%) 24 (38%) 13 (37%) MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL RAPTORS 7

Table 4. Distribution of tropical endemics. Endemic 0.001; vs. Indomalayan: G = 4.8, df = 1, P < 0.05; speciesare specieswhose range is restrictedto one, or at vs. Australotropics:G = 11.5, df = 1, P < 0.001; most, two countries;endemic genera are genera restrict- Table 5). ed to one tropical region. ConservationStatus. More than half of all tropical raptors are threatened by habitat loss,environ- NUMBER(%) NUMBER(%) mental contaminants,direct persecution, or com- REGION ENDEMIC SPECIES ENDEMIC GENERA binations of these factors (Table 6). Habitat loss Neotropics 7 (10%) (a)a 26 (76%) (a) appears to be the greatest threat (habitat loss vs. Afrotropics 12 (15%) (a) 12 (38%) (b) environmental contaminants: log-likelihood ratio Indomalayan 18 (29%) (b) 5 (21%) (b) test: G = 69.3, df = 1, P < 0.001; habitat loss vs. Australotropics 22 (63%) (c) 4 (25%) (b) direct persecution: G = 35.2, df = 1, P < 0.001; All regions 67 (30%) 47 (70%) Table 6). Neotropical raptors appear to be less a Regions with the same letters are not significantlydifferent threatened than those from other tropical regions from one another (log-likelihood ratio [G] test;species: df = 1; (Table 6). Direct persecution,especially, appears to P < 0.05; genera: df = 1; P < 0.05). occur lessin the Neotropics than in other tropical regions (Table 6). Environmental contaminants, Endemism is high in tropical raptors. Fifty-six including pesticides,appear to be particularly im- percent of all whollytropical raptors (44 of 78 spe- portant threatsin the Australotropics(Table 6). cies) occur in only one or two countries,compared Thirty-sevenspecies of wholly or mainly tropical with only 12% of all other raptors (log-likelihood raptors (17% of the world's tropical raptors) are ratio test: G = 54.3, df = 1, P < 0.001). The Aus- listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or tralotropics have more endemic speciesthan any Vulnerable (Collar et al. 1994; Table 7). An addi- other tropical region (vs. Neotropics: log-likeli- tional 22 species(10%) are listed as Near Threat- hood ratio test: G = 30.7, df = 1, P < 0.001; vs. ened. Two speciesare listed as data deficient (Ta- Afrotropics: G = 23.6, df = 1, P < 0.001; vs. In- ble 7). Wholly tropicalraptors appear be at greater domalayan:G = 9.6, df = 1, P < 0.005; Table 4). risk than are mainly tropical raptors (log-likeli- Ninety-one percent of all endemic tropical rap- hood ratio test: G = 17.1, df = 1, P < 0.001; Table tors (51 of 58 species)occur on islands,mainly in 7). Nonmigratory speciesappear to be at greater the Indian and South Pacific oceans. Three coun- risk than migratory ones (log-likelihood ratio test: tries, Indonesia (16), Papua New Guinea (14), and G = 19.3, df = 1, P < 0.001; Table 8). Forty (68%) Madagascar (11), together have 41 speciesof en- of all Threatened and Near Threatened speciesare demic raptors. forest-dependent (Appendix 1). Twenty-eight at- Nine percent of all wholly,and 32% of all mainly risk species(47%) are restrictedto islands.Twenty- tropical raptors, are complete or partial migrants one at-risk species(36%) are both forest-depen- (Kerlinger 1989). An additional 6% and 24%, re- dent and island-restricted. spectively,are local or irruptive migrants (Table 5). Countries with Endangered or Critically Endan- There are significantlymore migratory raptors (lo- gered tropical raptors include Colombia (1 Endan- cal-irruptive speciesincluded) in the Afrotropics gered, 0 Critically Endangered), Cuba (1,0), Do- than in any other tropical region (vs. Neotropics: minican Republic (1,0), Ecuador (2,0), Haiti (1,0), log-likelihoodratio test: G = 17.4, df = 1, P < Peru (1,0), Madagascar (0,2), Mauritius (1,0), In-

Table 5. Migratory statusof wholly and mainly tropical raptors. Statusis basedprimarily on Kerlinger (1989), as modified by del Hoyo et al. (1994) and HawksAloft Worldwide.

MIGRATORY STATUS WORLDWIDE NEOTROPICS AFROTROPICS INDOMALAYAN AUSTRALOTROPICS

Complete 11 (5%) 2 (3%) 7 (9%) 7 (11%) 3 (9%) Partial 61 (27%) 16 (22%) 33 (41%) 21 (33%) 7 (20%) Local-irruptive 54 (24%) 16 (22%) 24 (30%) 11 (17%) 6 (17%) Total migratory 126 (57%) 34 (47%) (a) a 64 (80%) (b) 39 (62%)(a) 16 (46%) (a) Nonmigratory 96 (43%) 39 (53%) 16 (20%) 24 (38%) 19 (54%) Regionswith the same letters are not significantlydifferent from one another (log-likelihood ratio [G] test; df = 1; P < 0.05). 8 BILDSTEINET AL. VOL. 32, NO. 1

Table6. Threatsto tropicalraptors. Threats are based,principally, on informationin del Hoyoet al. (1994).

NUMBEROF SPECIESAFFECTED (%) THP.FAT WOP.LDWlDE NEOTROPICS AFROTROPICS INDOMALAYAN AUSTRALOTROPICS Wholly tropical raptors Habitat loss 38 (49%) 7 (35%) 10 (59%) 8 (36%) 14 (70%) Environmental contaminants 6 (8%) 0 2 (12%) 0 4 (20%) Direct persecution 10 (13%) I (5%) 2 (12%) 2 (9%) 5 (25%) Total number of species affected 40 (51%) 7 (35%) 11 (65%) 8 (36%) 15 (75%) Number of speciesaffected by: two threats 12 (15%) 1 (5%) 3 (18%) 2 (9%) 6 (30%) three threats 1 (1%) 0 0 0 I (5%) Mainly tropical raptors Habitatloss 64 (44%) 20 (38%) 25 (40%) 26 (63%) 8 (53%) Environmental contaminants 18 (13%) 6 (11%) 10 (16%) 7 (17%) 5 (33%) Direct persecution 33 (23%) 5 (9%) 22 (35%) 13 (32%) 8 (53%) Total number of species affected 81 (56%) 24 (45%) 37 (59%) 30 (73%) 12 (80%) Number of speciesaffected by: two threats 26 (18%) 6 (11%) 16 (25%) 10 (24%) 4 (27%) three threats 4 (3%) 0 2 (3%) 3 (7%) 2 (13%) Wholly and mainly tropical raptors Habitat loss 102 (46%) 27 (37%) (a)a 35 (44%) (a, b) 34 (54%) (a, b) 22 (63%) (b) Environmental contaminants 24 (11%) 6 (8%) (a) 12 (15%) (a, b) 7 (11%) (a) 9 (26%) (b) Direct persecution 43 (19%) 6 (8%) (a) 24 (30%) (b) 15 (24%) (b) 13 (37%) (b) Total number of species affected 121 (55%) 31 (42%) (a) 48 (60%) (b) 38 (60%) (b) 27 (77%) (b) Number of speciesaffected by: two threats 38 (17%) 7 (10%) 19 (24%) 12 (19%) 10 (29%) three threats 5 (2%) 0 2 (3%) 3 (5%) 3 (9%) Regionswith the sameletters are not significantlydifferent from one another(log-likelihood ratio [G] test;clf = 1; P < 0.05). donesia (1,0), the Philippines (0,1), Papua New tween at-risk conservation status and endemism, Guinea (1,0), and the Solomon Islands (1,0)(Col- sedentarybehavior, forest-dependence and island- lar et al. 1994). dwelling,and there are significantregional differencesin the extent of migration behavior,endera- DISCUSSION ism, and conservation status. Our analysesdemonstrate several patterns that Diversityand Endemismin Tropical Raptors. should be of use to conservationists.They show More than three-quarters of the world's diurnal that there are high levelsof within-countrydiver- birds of prey occur wholly or mainly within the sity and endemismin all tropical regions,there is tropics, and more than one-third of these occur high congruenceof raptorspecies diversity and en- only within this region. Three "megadiversity" demisin with those of other taxa, there is an indi- countries(sensu Mittermeier 1988) in the NeDtrop- cation that habitat loss (as opposed to environ- ics (Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) and four mental contaminantsand direct persecution)pos- in the Afrotropics (Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, and es the greatest threat, there are associationsbe- Uganda) eachcontain 70 or more speciesof rap- MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL RAPTORS 9

Table 7. Conservationstatus of tropicalraptors based on Collar et al. (1994).

AUSTRALO- CONSERVATION STATUS WORLDWIDE NEOTROPICS AFROTROPICS INDOMALAYAN TROPICS

Wholly tropical raptors Criticallyendangered 3 (4%) 0 2 (12%) I (5%) 0 Endangered 6 (8%) 3 (15%) 1 (6%) 1 (5%) 1 (5%) Vulnerable 7 (9%) 1 (5%) 0 3 (14%) 3 (15%) Total Threatened 16 (21%) 4 (20%) 3 (18%) 5 (23%) 4 (20%) Near Threatened 18 (23%) 3 (15%) 1 (6%) 8 (36%) 6 (30%) Not Threatened 42 (53%) 13 (65%) 13 (76%) 8 (36%) 9 (45%) Insufficient data 2 (3%) 0 0 1 (5%) 1 (5%) Mainly tropical raptors CriticallyEndangered 0 0 0 0 0 Endangered 1 (1%) 0 0 0 I (7%) Vulnerable 5 (3%) 2 (4%) 2 (3%) 0 1 (7%) Total Threatened 6 (4%) 2 (4%) 2 (3%) 0 2 (13%) Near Threatened 19 (13%) 8 (15%) 5 (8%) 8 (20%) 0 Not Threatened 119 (83%) 43 (81%) 56 (89%) 33 (80%) 13 (87%) Insufficient data 0 0 0 0 0

Wholly and mainly tropical raptors CriticallyEndangered 3 (1%) 0 2 (3%) 1 (2%) 0 Endangered 7 (3%) 3 (4%) 1 (1%) I (2%) 2 (6%) Vulnerable 12 (5%) 3 (4%) 2 (3%) 3 (5%) 4 (11%) Total Threatened 22 (10%) 6 (8%) 5 (6%) 5 (8%) 6 (17%) Near Threatened 37 (17%) 11 (15%) 6 (8%) 16 (25%) 6 (17%) Not Threatened 161 (73%) 56 (77%) 69 (86%) 41 (65%) 22 (63%) Insufficient data 2 (1%) 0 0 I (2%) I (3%) tors and have at least one-quarter of the world's man 1990, Hannah et al. 1994), host 24% (18 spe- raptor species each. Fourteen rainforest "hot cies) of all Threatened and Near Threatened spe- spots" (Myers 1988) which together compriseless cies of raptors. than 1% of the earth's land surface contain more The tropics are home to most of the world's en- than 30% of the world's raptor species(Thiollay demic raptors,as well as to most of its endangered 1994). species.Indonesia, alone, has 24% (16 of 67 spe- Tropical islands,many of whosenatural habitats cies) of all endemic birds of prey. Indeed, one rea- have been or are being destroyed(Green and Suss- son for the high speciesdiversity of tropicalraptors is high regionalendemism. For example,while the Table 8. Conservationstatus of nonmigratory and mi- Nearctic and WesternPalearctic share 11% (8 spe- gratory wholly and mainly tropical raptors compared cies) of their combined raptor faunas,their tropi- (conservation status based on Collar et al. [1994]). cal counterparts(e.g., the Neotropics and Afro- tropics)share less than 1% (1 of 152) of their com- NON- bined faunas.Although overlap among the Afro- CONSERVATION STATUS MIGRATORY MIGRATORY tropics, Indomalayan Region, and Australotropics Criticallyendangered 3 (3%) 0 is higher than that between these regions and the Endangered 6 (6%) I (1%) Neotropics (Table 3), differences in faunal com- Vulnerable 7 (7%) 5 (4%) position among tropical regions is extensive,over- Total threatened 16 (17%) 6 (5%) all. Seventypercent of all tropical genera (47 of Near threatened 24 (25%) 13 (10%) 67) occurin a singletropical region. Not threatened 54 (56%) 107 (85%) Congruence of Raptor Diversity with Biodiver- Insufficient data 2 (2%) 0 sity in Other Groups of Plants and Animals. Geo- 10 BILDSTEIN ET AL. VOL. 32, NO. 1 graphic centersof raptor diversityand speciesen- Red-footed Falcons [E amurensis], and Lesser Kes- demism are highly congruentwith thosefor many trels [E naumanni]), also appear to be particularly groups of plants and animals (Gentry 1986, Mc- vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation. Be- Neely et al. 1988, Myers 1988, Bibby et al. 1992, causemembers of thesespecies operate over enor- Thirgood and Heath 1994). Countries with ex- mous ecologicalneighborhoods, local habitat loss tremely high raptor diversity,as well as centersof can significantlyaffect regional, and even conti- raptor endemism,are important conservationsites nental populationsof theseraptors (Bucher 1992). for plants and other animals,too. The social nature of these species,together with Principal Threats to Raptors. Habitat loss re- the fact that they frequentlyfeed on prey that are mains the principal threat to tropical raptors.Many considered agricultural pests, means that large natural ecosystemsin the region are being con- numberscan be poisonedby a singlepesticide ap- verted to human-dominated landscapes (Myers plication (Thiollay 1989b, del Hoyo et al. 1994, 1984). A recent global analysisof human habitat Woodbridge et al. 1995). Even when individuals disturbance (Hannah et al. 1994), for example, are not poisoned, large-scaleefforts to remove in- suggeststhat the Indomalayan and Afrotropical sectpests, including swarminglocusts from tropical realms are the two most disturbed biogeographical regions,can threaten these speciesby significantly realms (sensuUdvardy 1975) on earth. Many bio- reducing prey availability(Thiollay 1989b). geographicalprovinces, including the Cuban and Overall, the increasing use of agriculturalpesti- Greater Antillean provincesin the Neotropics,the cidesin many tropical countries (Goulston 1996) Malagasywoodland-savanna province in the Afro- suggeststhat this threat, which has long been a tropics, and the Java and Philippinesprovince in concern in temperate agriculturalized countries the Indomalayan Realm, are overwhelminglydom- (Hickey 1969, Cooke et al. 1982), is likely to in- inated by human landscapes(Hannah et al. 1994). crease.Tropical raptors alsoare threatenedby the Many disturbedprovinces harbor endemic and at- useof pesticidesto control insectvectors of human risk speciesof raptors.Because many tropical hab- diseases(Thiollay 1989b). itats are only now being threatenedby human dis- Although direct persecutionas a threat to trop- turbance (Hannah et al. 1994), habitat losswill re- ical raptors appears to be decreasing overall main a principal concern for some time. (Thiollay 1994), shootingremains a threat in cer- Overall, 68% of all Threatened and Near Threat- tain countries (van Balen 1994, Bildstein et al. ened tropical raptorsare forest-dependentspecies. 1995). Social speciessuch as vultures, and species Many of these speciesrequire enormous tracts of that flock on migration or that roost communally, contiguousforest (Thiollay 1989a, 1993), and are as well as those that are consideredto be agricul- thus particularly vulnerable to habitat loss (Dia- tural or aquacultural pests,are especiallyvulnera- mond and Lovejoy1985, Meyburg and Chancellor ble (Thiollay 1989b). Given the region'sincreasing 1989, 1994, and references therein). All but one of dependence upon aquaculture as a source of hu- Australia's 15 Threatened raptors are forest dwell- man protein (World Resources Institute 1996), ers (Baker-Gabb 1994). persecution of piscivorousraptors is likely to in- Almost half (28 of 59 species)of all Threatened crease (FAO 1989 and references therein). and Near Threatened tropical raptors are restrict- Regional Differences. The current geographic ed to islands.Current levelsof habitat degradation distributionof tropical raptorsis the resultof com- on tropical islands(Hannah et al. 1994), together plex interactionsamong climatic,geomorphologic, with the recent historyof human-inducedavian ex- and ecologicalprocesses operating acrossnumer- tinctions at such sites (Moors 1985, Temple 1986, ous temporal and spatial scales (Sankovskiand Wotzkow1994), suggeststhat thesespecies, too, are Pridnia 1995). In the Indomalayan and Australo- at high risk. tropical regions,for example, raptor diversityis en- Gregarious and nomadic, open-habitat species, hanced because of numerous island endemics in including those that depend upon superabundant Indonesia (16 species) and New Guinea (14 spe- prey associatedwith seasonallyfluctuating wetlands des), respectively(Table 4). In the Afrotropics,on (e.g., Snail Kites [Rostrhamussodabills]), and upon the other hand, where speciesdiversity is bolstered swarming locusts(e.g., Montagu's [ Circuspygargus] in part by island endemicsfrom Madagascar,much and Pallid Harriers [C. macrourus], Swainsoh's of the region's diversityresults from the high num- Hawks, Western [Falco vespertinus]and Eastern ber of migrantsfrom the Western and EasternPa- MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL RAPTORS 11 learcftc (Newton 1995)(Table 5). In the Neotrop- One of the greatestchallenges facing conserva- ics, diversityappears to result from geographicfea- tionists interested in protecting tropical raptors is tures and evolutionaryprocesses particular to the our ignoranceof the biologyof many of these spe- region (e.g., forest refugia and centers of endem- cies. This is true not only of secretiveforest-dwell- ism, Haffer 1974 and Cracraft 1985). As a result, ing, range-restricted endemics (Meyburg and while the Neotropics have fewer endemic species Chancellor 1994, and references therein), but also (7) than any other region, they have significantly for wide-rangingmigratory specieswhose ecology more endemic genera (26)(Table 4). outside of the tropicsis relativelywell studied (Sen- The Neotropics, and to a lesser extent the Af- her and Fuller 1989, Newton 1995). Indeed, while rotropics (particularly when only continental Afri- we appear to have good information on speciesdis- ca is considered), have proportionately fewer at- tributions,we lack reasonablepopulation estimates risk speciesthan do the Indomalayan and Austral- for many speciesof tropical raptors (del Hoyo et otropics. This difference appears to be attribut- al. 1994), as well as information on factorslimiting able, mainly, to two factors:the greater number of their distribution and abundance. We also know island speciesin the Indomalayan Region and the relatively little about the extent to which tropical greater incidence of disturbed ecosystemsthere residentsinteract with migrants overwintering in (Hannah et al. 1994). the region (but see Kirk and Gosler 1994). Final Thoughts and Suggestions.Many conser- We stronglyrecommend the expansion of field- vation biologistshave suggestedfocusing conser- work in tropical areas. Initiatives to gather infor- vation efforts on megadiversitycountries (Mitter- mation on species' ecology, distributions, and meier 1988), biodiversity "hot spots" (Myers abundances (Burnham et al. 1994) and Hawk 1988), specifichabitats types (Wilson 1988 and ref- Mountain Sanctuary'sHawks Aloft Worldwide,which erences therein), or endemic bird areas (Bibby et uses the spectacle of long-distance migration to al. 1992). Thiollay (1994), for example, usesthis strengthen local conservationactivities along ma- approach in identifying four priority areasof trop- jor migratory corridors in the tropics (Bildstein et ical forest raptor diversity,which together contain al. 1995), togetherwith meetingsand publications 40% of all tropical forest raptor species.All four that focus on tropical raptors (Meyburg and Chan- areas, however,occur in only two tropical regions cellor 1989, 1994), should be continued and ex- (the Indomalayan and Australotropical), and fo- panded. cusing on these siteswill do little to protect the Because the fate of tropical raptors ultimately very different raptor communities of other rests in the hands of the human inhabitants of regions. these areas,individuals and organizationsinterest- Recently, several conservation biologists have ed in protecting tropical raptors need to encour- suggestedthat when choicesneed to be made on age and support training opportunities for conser- which speciesto protect, efforts should focus on vationistsand biologistsliving in the region. specieswith the greatest "phylogenetic diversity" (e.g., thosemost distantlyrelated to other existing ACKNOWLEDGMENTS taxa, Forey et al. 1994). Eleven tropical raptors be- We thank the hundreds of raptor biologists,conserva- long to genera in which all membersof the genus tionists, and field-workers who contributed data essenual are Threatened or Near Threatened. The Neotrop- to this manuscript.We especiallythank the contributors and compilers of del Hoyo et al. (1994), including R O. ics have five such species(Harpyhaliaetus solitarius, Bierregaard, W.S. Clark, s.J.S. Debus, A. Elliot, D.C. H. coronatus,Morphnus guianensis, Harpia harpyja, Houston, J. del Hoyo, A.C. Kemp, L.F. Kiff, B.-U. Mey- and Spizasturmelanoleucus), the Afrotropics have burg, P.D. Olsen, J. Orta, A.F. Poole, J. Sargatal,J.-M. one (Eutriorchisastur), the IndomalayanRegion has Thiollay, and C.M. White. We also thank the dozens of participantsof IUCN raptor CAMP workshopsin Bada- three ( Ichthyophagahumilis, I. ichthyaetus,and Pithe- joz, Spain, Asunci6n, Paraguay,and Duluth, MN U.S.A, cophagajefferyc), and the Australotropicshave two the taxon and geographiceditors associatedwith that ef- ( Lophoictiniaisura and Harpyopsisnovaeguineae) . fort, and the 10 conservationorganizations working to- Ten of these speciesare largely or entirely seden- gether on the project (BirdLife International, Fonds tary, eight are large eagles (>1500 g), six are for- d'Intervention pour les Rapaces,The Hawk and Owl Trust, Hawk Mountain Sanctuary,The National Birds of est-dependentspecies, and three are island forms. Prey Centre, The Peregrine Fund, The Raptor Conser- These species,especially, deserve focused conservation Group, The Raptor Research Foundation, The vation efforts. World Working Group for Birds of Prey and Owls, IUCN- 12 BILDSTEIN ET AL. VOL. 32, NO. 1

SSC ConservationBreeding SpecialistGroup). Also, we DESHMUKH,I. 1986. Ecology and tropical biology.Black- thank the more than 400 individuals who have contrib- well Scientific, Palo Alto, CA U.S.A. uted data to Hawk Mountain Sanctuary's Hawks Aloft DIAMOND,A.W. AND TE. LOVEJOY[EDS.]. 1985. Conser- Worldwide initiative. vation of tropical forest birds. ICBP, Tech. Publ. No. We thank Rick Watson for inviting us to participate in the symposium on tropical raptors, and Rick Watson, 4, Cambridge, U.K. Marc Bechard, and two anonymous referees, for editing FAO. 1989. Report of the EIFAC working party on pre- and improving our ms. Eric Atkinson providedstatistical vention and control of bird predation in aquaculture advice and analyses.This is Hawk Mountain Sanctuary and fisheries operations. Food and Agriculture Or- contribution number 54. ganization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. FOREY,P.L., CJ. HUMPHRIESAND R.I. VANE-WRIGHT[Los.]. LITERATURE CITED 1994. 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Appendix 1. Conservationand distributionstatus of the world's tropical raptors.

IUCN CONSERVATION FOREST ISLAND TROPICAL SPECIES STATUS ENDEMIC DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION

Neotropics Coragypsatratus Nt a No No No Mainly Cathartesaura Nt No No No Mainly Cathartesburrovianus Nt No No No Mainly Cathartesmelambrotus Nt No Yes No Wholly Sarcoramphuspapa Nt No No No Mainly Pandionhaliaetus b Nt No No No Mainly Leptodoncayanensis Nt No Yes No Mainly Chondrohieraxuncinatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Elanoidesforficatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Gampsonyxswainsonii Nt No No No Mainly Elanus leucurus Nt No No No Mainly Rostrhamussociabilis Nt No No No Mainly Rostrhamushamatus Nt No Yes No Wholly Havpagrusbidentatus Nt No No No Mainly Havpagrusdiodon Nt No Yes No Mainly Ictinia plumbea Nt No No No Mainly Circusbuffoni Nt No No No Mainly Accipiterpoliogaster Near tThreatened No Yes No Mainly Accipitersuperciliosus Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipitercollaris Near threatened No Yes No Wholly Accipitergundlachi Endangered Yes No Yes Wholly Accipiter&'color Nt No No No Mainly Geranospizacaerulescens Nt No No No Mainly Leucopternisschistacea Nt No Yes No Wholly Leucopternisplumbea Near threatened No Yes No Wholly Leucopternisprinceps Nt No Yes No Wholly Leucopternismelanops Nt No Yes No Wholly Leucopterniskuhli Nt No Yes No Wholly Leucopternislacernulata Vulnerable Yes Yes No Mainly Leucopternissemiplumbea Near threatened No Yes No Wholly Leucopternisalbicollis Nt No Yes No Wholly Leucopternisocddentalis Endangered Yes Yes No Wholly Leucopternispolionota Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Asturinanitida Nt No No No Mainly Buteogallusaequinoctialis Nt No Yes No Mainly Buteogallussubtilis Nt No Yes No Wholly Buteogallusanthradnus Nt No Yes No Mainly Buteogallusurubitinga Nt No No No Mainly Buteogallusmeridionalis Nt No No No Mainly Parabuteounicinctus Nt No No No Mainly Busarellusnigricollis Nt No No No Mainly Geranoaetusmelanoleucus Nt No No No Mainly Harpyhaliaetussolitarius Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Harpyhaliaetuscoronatus Vulnerable No No No Mainly Buteomagnirostris Nt No No No Mainly Buteoleucorrhous Nt No Yes No Mainly Buteoridgwayi Endangered Yes No Yes Wholly Buteoplatypterus Nt No Yes No Mainly Buteobrachyurus Nt No No No Mainly Buteogalapagoensis Vulnerable Yes No Yes Wholly Buteoalbicaudatus Nt No No No Mainly MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPIGAL RAPTORS 15

Appendix 1. Continued.

IUCN CONSERVATION FOREST ISLAND TROPICAL SPECIES STATUS ENDEMIC DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION

Buteopoecilochrous Nt No No No Mainly Buteoalbonotatus Nt No No No Mainly Morphnusguianensis Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Harpia harpyja Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Spizasturmelanoleucus Near threatened No No No Mainly Spizaetusornatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Spizaetustyrannus Nt No Yes No Mainly Spizaetusisidori Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Daptriusater Nt No Yes No Wholly Daptriusamericanus Nt No Yes No Mainly Phalcoboenuscarunculatus Nt Yes No No Wholly Polyborusplancus Nt No No No Mainly Milvago chimachima Nt No No No Mainly Herpetotherescachinnans Nt No No No Mainly Micrasturruficollis Nt No Yes No Mainly Micrasturgilvicollis Nt No Yes No Wholly Micrasturmirandollei Nt No Yes No Wholly Micrastursemitorquatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Micrasturbuckleyi Nt Yes Yes No Wholly Falcofemoralis Nt No No No Mainly Falcorufigularis Nt No Yes No Mainly Falcodeiroleucus Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Afrotropics Pandionhaliaetus b Nt No No No Mainly Avicedacuculoides Nt No Yes No Mainly Avicedamadagascariensis Nt Yes Yes Yes Mainly Pernisapivorus Nt No No No Mainly Macheiramphusalcinus b Nt No Yes No Mainly Elanuscaeruleus b Nt No No No Mainly Chelictiniariocourii Nt No No No Wholly Milvusmigrans b Nt No No No Mainly Haliaeetusvocifer Nt No No No Mainly Haliaeetusvociferoides Critically endangered Yes No Yes Wholly AeKypiustracheliotus Nt No No No Mainly AeKypiusoccipitalis Nt No No No Mainly Necrosyrtesmonachus Nt No No No Mainly Gypsrueppellii Nt No No No Wholly Gypsafricanus Nt No No No Mainly Neophronpercnopterus b Nt No No No Mainly Gypohieraxangolensis Nt No Yes No Mainly Circaetusgallicus • Nt No No No Mainly Circaetuscinereus Nt No No No Mainly Circaetusfasciolatus Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Circaetuscinerascens Nt No Yes No Wholly Terathopiusecaudatus Nt No No No Mainly Dryotriorchisspectabilis Nt No Yes No Wholly Eutriorchisastur Criticallyendangered Yes Yes Yes Wholly Polyboroidestypus Nt No No No Mainly Polyboroidesradiatus Nt Yes Yes Yes Mainly Melieraxpoliopterus Nt No No No Wholly Melieraxmetabates Nt No Yes No Mainly 16 BILDSTEIN ET AL. VOL. 32, NO. 1

Appendix 1. Continued.

IUCN CONSERVATION FOREST ISLAND TROPICAL SPECIES STATUS ENDEMIC DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION

Melierax canorus Nt No No No Mainly Melieraxgabar Nt No No No Mainly Kaupifalcomonogrammicus Nt No Yes No Mainly Butasturrufipennis Nt No No No Wholly Circusmacrourus • Near threatened No No No Mainly Circuspygarg'us • Nt No No No Mainly Circusaeruginosu• Nt No No No Mainly Circusranivorus Nt No No No Mainly Circusmaillardi Near threatened Yes No Yes Mainly Acdpitertachiro Nt No Yes No Mainly Acdpitercastanilius Nt No Yes No Wholly Accipiterbrevipes Nt No No No Mainly Accipiterbadius • Nt No No No Mainly Accipiterfrancesii Nt Yes Yes Yes Mainly Accipitererythropus Nt No Yes No Wholly Accipiterminullus Nt No No No Mainly Accipitermadagascariensis Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Mainly Acdpiterovampensis Nt No Yes No Mainly Acdpiterrufiventris Nt No No No Mainly Accipitermelanoleucus Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipiterhenstii Near threatened Yes No Yes Wholly Urotriorchismacrourus Nt No No No Wholly Buteooreophilus Nt No Yes No Mainly Buteobrachypterus Nt Yes Yes Yes Mainly Buteoaug'uralis Nt No Yes No Wholly Buteoaugur Nt No No No Mainly Aquilapomarina •' Nt No No No Mainly Aquilarapax • Nt No No No Mainly Aquilaverreauxii Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetuswahlbergi Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetusfasdatus • Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetusspilogaster Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetuspennatus • Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetusayresii Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetusbellicosus Nt No No No Mainly Spizaetusocdpitalis Nt No No No Mainly Spizaetusafricanus Nt No Yes No Wholly Spizaetuscoronatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Sagittariusserpentarius Nt No No No Mainly Polihieraxsemitorquatus Nt No No No Mainly FalconaumannP Vulnerable No No No Mainly Falconewtoni Nt Yes No Yes Mainly Falcopunctatus Endangered Yes Yes Yes Wholly Fatcoalopex Nt No No No Wholly Falcoardosiaceus Nt No No No Wholly Falcodickinsoni Nt No No No Mainly Falcozoniventris Nt Yes No Yes Mainly Falcochicquera b Near threatened No No No Mainly Falco concolor Nt No No No Mainly P•tlcocuvieri Nt No No No Mainly Falcobiarmicus Nt No No No Mainly Falcofasciinucha Vulnerable No No No Mainly MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL RAPTORS 17

Appendix 1. Continued.

IUCN CONSERVATION FOREST ISLAND TROPICAL SPECIES STATUS ENDEMIC DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION

Indomalayan Pandionhaliaetus b Nt No No No Mainly Avicedajerdoni Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Avicedasubcristata b Nt No No Yes Mainly Avicedaleuphotes Nt No Yes No Mainly Pernisptilorhynchus Nt No No No Mainly Perniscelebensis Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Macheirhamphusalcinus b Nt No Yes No Mainly Elanuscaeruleus b Nt No No No Mainly Milvusmigrans b Nt No No No Mainly Haliasturindus b Nt No No No Mainly Haliaeetusleucogaster b Nt No No No Mainly Ichthyophagahumilis Near threatened No No No Mainly Ichthyophaga,ichthyaetus Near threatened No Yes No Mainly Aegypiuscalvus Near threatened No No No Mainly Gypsindicus Near threatened No No No Mainly Gypsbengalensis Near threatened No No No Mainly Neophronpercnopterus b Nt No No No Mainly Circaetusgallicus b Nt No No No Mainly Spilornischeela Nt No No No Mainly Spilorniskinabaluensis Data deficient Yes Yes Yes Wholly Spilornisminimus Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Spilorniselgini Near threatened Yes No Yes Wholly Butasturteesa Nt No No No Mainly Butasturliventer Near threatened No No No Wholly Butasturindicus b Nt No Yes No Mainly Circusmacrourus b Near threatened No No No Mainly Circusmelanoleucos Nt No No No Mainly Circuspygargus b Nt No No No Mainly Circusaeruginosus b Nt No No No Mainly Accipitertrivirgatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipitergriseiceps Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterbadius b Nt No No No Mainly Accipiterbutled Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipitersoloensis b Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipitertrinotatus Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterfasciatusb Nt No No No Mainly Accipiternovaehollandiae b Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipitervirgatus Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipiternanus Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipitererythrauchen b Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Acdpiterrhodogaster Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Pithecophagajefferyi Criticallyendangered Yes Yes Yes Wholly Ictinaetusmalayensis Nt No Yes No Mainly Aquilapomarina b Nt No No No Mainly Aquilarapax b Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetusfasciatus b Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetuspennatus b Nt No No No Mainly Hieraaetuskienerii Nt No Yes No Mainly Spizaetuscirrhatus Nt No No No Mainly Spizaetusbartelsi Endangered Yes Yes Yes Wholly Spizaetuslanceolatus Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly 18 BILDSTEIN ET AL. VOL. 32, NO. 1

Appendix 1. Continued.

IUCN CONSERVATION FOREST ISLAND TROPICAL SPECIES STATUS ENDEMIC DEPENDENT DEPENDENT DISTRIBUTION

Spizaetusphilippensis Vulnerable Yes Yes Yes Wholly Spizaetusalboniger Nt No Yes No Wholly Spizaetusnanus Vulnerable No Yes No Wholly Polihieraxinsig'nis Near threatened No No No Wholly Microhieraxcaerulescens Nt No No No Mainly Microhieraxlatifrons Near threatened Yes No Yes Wholly Microhieraxerythrogenys Nt Yes No Yes Wholly FalconaumannP Vulnerable No No No Mainly Falcoaraea Vulnerable Yes No Yes Wholly Falcomoluccensis Nt Yes No Yes Wholly Falcochicquera b Near threatened No No No Mainly Falcoseverus b Nt No Yes No Mainly Falcojugger Nt No No No Mainly Australotropical Pandionhaliaetus b Nt No No No Mainly Avicedasubcristata b Nt No No Yes Mainly Henicopernislongicauda Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Henicopernisinfuscatus Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Macheirhamphusalcinus b Nt No Yes No Mainly Elanuscaeruleus b Nt No No No Mainly Lophoictiniaisura Vulnerable Yes No No Mainly Hamirostramelanosternon Nt Yes No No Mainly Milvus migransb Nt No No No Mainly Haliasturindus b Nt No No No Mainly Haliaeetusleucogaster b Nt No No No Mainly Haliaeetussanfordi Vulnerable Yes Yes Yes Wholly Butasturindicus b Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipitersoloensis b Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipiterfasciatusb Nt No No No Mainly Accipiternovaehollandiae b Nt No Yes No Mainly Accipitermelanochlamys Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiteralbogularis Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterrufftorques Nt Yes No Yes Wholly Accipiterhaplochrous Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterhenicogrammus Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterluteoschistaceus Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterimitator Endangered Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterpoliocephalus Nt Yes No Yes Wholly Acdpiterprinceps Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterbrachyurus Vulnerable Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipitererythrauchen b Nt Yes Yes Yes Wholly Accipitermeyerianus Nt No Yes Yes Wholly Accipiterbuergersi Data deficient Yes Yes Yes Wholly Acdpiterradiatus Endangered Yes No No Mainly Accipiterdatiae Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Buteosolitarius Near threatened Yes No Yes Wholly Harpyopsisnovaeguineae Vulnerable Yes Yes Yes Wholly Aquila Kurneyi Near threatened Yes Yes Yes Wholly Falcoseverus b Nt No Yes No Mainly a Not threatened. b Occursin more than one tropical region.