ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Volume Editor Harsh K. Gupta National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad, India

Editorial Board Kusumita Arora Ajay Manglik National Geophysical Research Institute National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India Anny Cazenave Sukanta Roy Laboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales (LEGOS) Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India CNES & Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées Borehole Geophysics Research Laboratory Toulouse, France Karad, India Eric Robert Engdahl Kalachand Sain Denver, CO, USA Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Uttarakhand, India Rainer Kind Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Seiya Uyeda GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Tokyo, Japan Potsdam, Germany

Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research for the past 35 years. He is also the Series Editor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU) (Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes the International Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning & Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). He has published numerous peer-reviewed technical research papers and edited or co-edited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified Professional Geological Scientist (Arvada, Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and a Chartered Marine Scientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida International University (Miami), Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (Port Everglades, Florida) and Full Professor at FAU. During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico, Jamaica; Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societies including the Geological Society of America; Soil Science Society of America; Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of Wetland Specialists. He is a recipient of the International Beach Advocacy Award (Florida Shore & Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. Chilingar Medal of Honor (Russian Academy of Natural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium).

Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Second Edition

edited by

HARSH K. GUPTA National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad, India Editor Harsh K. Gupta National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad, India

ISBN: 978-3-030-58630-0 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-030-58631-7 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-030-58632-4

Cover illustration: C.B. 3D ILLUSTRATION & ANIMATION | illustration by Christoph Burgstedt

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All rights reserved for the contributions: Earthquake Sounds; Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation; Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity; Sentinel Satellites Initiate New Era in Earth Observatories

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1st edition published by: © Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011

The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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About the Editor xiii Continental Rifts 64 A. M. Celâl Şengör Contributors xv Core Dynamo 78 Preface to the Second Edition xxxi Ulrich R. Christensen

Preface to the First Edition xxxiii Core-Mantle Coupling 86 Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou Acknowledgments xxxv Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1 Chamber 101 Richard W. Carlson Satish C. Singh

Anthropogenic Seismicity Related to Exploitation of Curie Temperature 112 Georesources 8 Vincenzo Pasquale Stanislaw Lasocki and Beata Orlecka-Sikora Deep Scientific Drilling 115 Archaeomagnetism 15 Ulrich Harms and Harold Tobin Donald H. Tarling Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes, Profiling 127 with Special Emphasis on Koyna, India 19 Kabir Roy Chowdhury Harsh K. Gupta Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner Core 144 Biogeophysics 33 Xiaodong Song Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana Earth Rotation 149 Body Waves 37 Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh Earth Tides 156 Borehole Seismic Networks and Arrays 44 John M. Wahr Marco Bohnhoff and Peter Malin Earth, Density Distribution 160 Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 53 Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan Earth’s Structure, Core 164 Continental Crustal Structure 56 Lianxing Wen Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern Earth’s Structure, Global 166 Continental Drift 63 Jean-Paul Montagner Alan G. Smith vi CONTENTS

Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 176 Earthquakes, Energy 288 Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara and Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Borman James A. Tyburczy Earthquakes, Intensity 292 Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 183 Gottfried Grünthal and Roger M. W. Musson Guust Nolet Earthquakes, Intraplate 299 Earthquake Lights 189 Prantik Mandal John S. Derr, France St-Laurent, Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault Earthquakes, Location Techniques 301 Clifford H. Thurber Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 193 Toshiyasu Nagao, Masashi Kamogawa and Earthquakes, PAGER 308 Seiya Uyeda David J. Wald, Kishor S. Jaiswal, Kristin D. Marano and Michael Hearne Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm 204 Alik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov Earthquakes, ShakeCast 312 Kuo-wan Lin, David J. Wald and Daniel Slosky Earthquake Rupture: The Inverse Problem 208 Shamita Das Earthquakes, ShakeMap 316 David J. Wald, C. Bruce Worden, Eric M. Thompson Earthquake Sounds 220 and Michael Hearne Andrew J. Michael Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion 321 Earthquake Source Theory 224 Giuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura, Raul Madariaga Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari

Earthquake, Aftershocks 229 Earthquakes, Volcanogenic 329 Mian Liu and Seth Stein J. W. Neuberg

Earthquake, Archaeoseismology 232 Electrical Properties of Rocks 339 Klaus-G. Hinzen Takashi Yoshino

Earthquake, Focal Mechanism 236 Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Emile A. Okal Interpretation 344 M. H. Loke, D. F. Rucker, J. E. Chambers, Earthquake, Foreshocks 241 P. B. Wilkinson and O. Kuras Mian Liu Electromagnetic Methods, Imaging Magma Bodies 350 Earthquake, Magnitude 243 Kathryn A. Whaler Peter Borman Electromagnetic Pulsations and Magnetic Storms 354 Earthquakes and Crustal G. S. Lakhina and B. T. Tsurutani Deformation 254 Robert McCaffrey Electronic Geophysical Year 359 William K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker, C. E. Barton, Earthquakes in the Himalaya 262 Peter Fox, Mark A. Parsons and Dibyashakti Panda, Bhaskar Kundu and Emily A. CoBabe-Ammann Vineet K. Gahalaut Energy Budget of the Earth 361 Earthquakes on Oceanic Transform Faults, Jean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart Unexpectedly Large 274 Shamita Das Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves 368 Kalachand Sain Earthquakes, Did You Feel It? 278 David J. Wald, Vincent Quitoriano and Equatorial Electrojet 372 James W. Dewey Archana Bhattacharyya

Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning 282 Fault Zone Guided Waves 375 Richard M. Allen Peter Eric Malin CONTENTS vii

Fiber Optic Distributed Strain Sensing for Seismic Geomagnetic Field, IGRF 500 Applications 379 Aude Chambodut Thomas Reinsch, Philippe Jousset and Charlotte M. Krawczyk Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques 502 Mioara Mandea and Anca Isac Fiber-Optic Sensing in Geophysics, Temperature Measurements 384 Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals 507 Jan Henninges and Ali Masoudi Carlo Laj

Floating Seismographs (MERMAIDS) 395 Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation 514 Yann Hello and Guust Nolet Monika Korte

Fractal Scaling of Earthquakes 399 Geomagnetic Field, Theory 515 Simanchal Padhy and Vijay P. Dimri Friedrich H. Busse

Fractals and Chaos 405 Geomagnetically Induced Currents 523 Ravi P. Srivastava, Nimisha Vedanti and G. S. Lakhina, R. Hajra and B. T. Tsurutani Vijay P. Dimri Geophysical Well Logging 527 Free Oscillations of the Earth 412 Miroslav Kobr Sarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani Geothermal Heat Pumps 537 Geodesy, Figure of the Earth 423 Ladislaus Rybach Kusumita Arora Geothermal Record of Climate Change 541 Geodesy, Ground Positioning, and Levelling 427 Michael G. Davis, David S. Chapman and Stelios P. Mertikas Robert N. Harris

Geodesy, Networks, and Reference Systems 434 GPS, Data Acquisition, and Analysis 547 Hayo Hase Carine Bruyninx, Wim Aerts and Juliette Legrand

Geodesy, Physical 442 GPS, Tectonic Geodesy 558 V. Chakravarthi Jeffrey T. Freymueller

Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad Band 447 Gravimeters 578 Carla Braitenberg Andrew Hugill

Geodynamics 452 Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation 585 Alessandro M. Forte Mikhail K. Kaban

Geoelectromagnetism 454 Gravity Data, Advanced Processing 591 Antal Adam and Laszló Szarka Christopher J. Swain and Jonathan F. Kirby

Geoid 465 Gravity Data, Regional-Residual Separation 596 Paramesh Banerjee Kumarendra Mallick, Vasanthi Anthwar and Krishna Kant Sharma Geoid Determination, Computational Methods 470 Michael G. Sideris Gravity Field of the Earth 608 Christopher Jekeli Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles 476 Michael G. Sideris Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from Space Techniques 621 Geoid Undulation, Interpretation 482 Anny Cazenave, J. L. Chen and G. Ramillien Petr Vaníček Gravity Field, Time Variations from Surface Geomagnetic Excursions 486 Measurements 626 Martha Schwartz Virendra M. Tiwari and Jacques Hinderer

Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern 488 Gravity Measurements, Absolute 633 Susan Macmillan Mark A. Zumberge viii CONTENTS

Gravity Method, Airborne 637 International Gravity Formula 789 Uwe Meyer Hans-Jürgen Götze

Gravity Method, Principles 640 International Polar Year 2007–2008 790 Hans-Jürgen Götze David J. Carlson

Gravity Method, Satellite 645 International Year of Planet Earth 792 G. Balmino Eduardo F. J. de Mulder and Wolfgang Eder

Gravity Method, Surface 656 Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks 796 Dinesh Chandra Mishra and Virendra M. Tiwari William A. Sandham and David J. Hamilton

Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation 662 Inverse Theory, Global Optimization 807 Jean-Pierre Barriot and Lydie Sichoix Mrinal K. Sen and Paul L. Stoffa

Gravity, Data to Anomalies 668 Inverse Theory, Linear 814 Ron Hackney Pravin K. Gupta

Gravity, Global Models 677 Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method 821 Nikolaos K. Pavlis Malcolm Sambridge and Kerry Gallagher

Gravity, Gradiometry 692 Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition 827 Christopher Jekeli Ajay Manglik

Great Earthquakes 708 Isostasy 831 Roger M. W. Musson A. B. Watts

Heat and Ground Water Flow 717 Isostasy, Thermal 847 Vincenzo Pasquale, Massimo Verdoya and Derrick Hasterok and David S. Chapman Paolo Chiozzi KTB Depth Laboratory: A Window into the Heat Flow Determinations, Continental 722 Upper Crust 855 John H. Sass and Graeme Beardsmore Ulrich Harms and Jochem Kück

Heat Flow, Continental 727 Legal Continental Shelf: Geology, Geophysics, and Paul Morgan Tectonics 861 Elana Geddis, Ray Wood and Vaughan Stagpoole Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations 736 Earl E. Davis and Andrew T. Fisher Lithosphere, Continental 866 David E. James Height Systems, Vertical Datums and Their Unification 749 Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure 872 Michael G. Sideris Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal

High-Frequency Seismology 757 Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties 884 Simanchal Padhy Evgueni Burov

Impact Craters on Earth 769 Lithosphere, Oceanic 893 Richard A. F. Grieve and Gordon R. Osinski James S. McClain

Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity 776 Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure 906 M. H. Loke, O. Kuras, J. E. Chambers, D. F. Rucker Earl E. Davis and David S. Chapman and P. B. Wilkinson Lithospheric Magnetic Anomalies from Satellite Instrumentation, EM 782 Data 915 Steven Constable Stavros Kotsiaros

International Geophysical Year 786 Magnetic Anisotropy 923 Ralph W. Baird Leonardo Sagnotti CONTENTS ix

Magnetic Anomalies: Interpretation 935 Mapping of Magnetic Variations from Space 1115 E. Thébault Nandini Nagarajan

Magnetic Anomaly Map, Global 943 Microcontinents 1120 Kumar Hemant Singh Carmen Gaina and Joanne Whittaker

Magnetic Data Enhancements and Depth Numerical Methods for Flow in Fractured Porous Estimation 957 Media 1125 Clive Foss Luca Formaggia, Alessio Fumagalli and Anna Scotti Magnetic Domains 971 Susan L. Halgedahl Numerical Methods, Boundary Element 1130 Michele Cooke Magnetic Gradiometry 983 Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition 1133 Magnetic Gradiometry in Archaeo-geophysics 987 Alfio Quarteroni and Luca Formaggia Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg Numerical Methods, Finite Difference 1137 Magnetic Methods, Airborne 993 Johan O. A. Robertsson and Joakim O. Blanch Mike Dentith Numerical Methods, Finite Element 1145 Magnetic Methods, Principles 999 J. N. Reddy Kusumita Arora Numerical Methods, Multigrid 1149 Magnetic Methods, Surface 1007 Wim A. Mulder Nandini Nagarajan Ocean Bottom Seismics 1155 Magnetic Modeling, Theory, and Computation 1015 Ingo A. Pecher, Jörg Bialas and Ernst R. Flueh Mioara Mandea, Carmen Gaina and Vincent Lesur Ocean, Spreading Center 1162 Magnetometers 1029 K. S. Krishna Ivan Hrvoic Orogenic Belts 1166 Magnetotelluric Data Processing 1036 A. M. Celâl Şengör Gary Egbert Paleomagnetic Field Intensity 1187 Magnetotelluric Interpretation 1042 Andrew Biggin, Greig A. Paterson, Neil Suttie and John F. Hermance John Shaw

Magnetotellurics, Crustal Imaging 1050 Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy 1193 Prasanta K. Patro Donald R. Prothero

Magnetovariation Studies 1056 Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques and Nandini Nagarajan Instrumentation 1202 T. Radhakrishna, J. D. A. Piper and Mantle Convection 1059 Asanulla R. Mohamed David Bercovici and Elvira Mulyukova Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander 1215 Mantle D00 Layer 1079 Jean Besse, Vincent Courtillot and Marianne Greff Thorne Lay Paleomagnetism, Principles 1225 Mantle Plume: Spreading Ridge Interactions 1085 William Lowrie K. S. Krishna and M. Ismaiel Paleoseismology 1235 Mantle Plumes 1094 Shinji Toda Cinzia G. Farnetani and Albrecht W. Hofmann Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving and Mantle Viscosity 1107 Resisting Forces 1248 W. R. Peltier Giampiero Iaffaldano and Hans-Peter Bunge x CONTENTS

Plate Tectonics, Precambrian 1256 Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone 1390 Y. J. Bhaskar Rao, T. Vijaya Kumar and Lev P. Vinnik E. V. S. S. K. Babu Seismic Hazard 1394 Plate-Driving Forces 1267 Andrzej Kijko Alessandro M. Forte Seismic Imaging, Overview 1407 Plates and Paleoreconstructions 1274 Gerard T. Schuster Alan G. Smith Seismic Instrumentation 1419 Poroelasticity 1280 Duncan Carr Agnew Ran Bachrach Seismic Microzonation 1425 Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fumio Yamazaki and Yoshihisa Maruyama Fundamentals 1283 Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma and Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions 1429 Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros Paul G. Richards, Zhongliang Wu, Won-Young Kim and David P. Schaff Radioactivity in Earth’s Core 1293 V. Rama Murthy Seismic Noise 1442 Dhananjay Kumar and Imtiaz Ahmed Radiogenic Heat Production in the Continental Crust 1298 Seismic Phase Nomenclature: The IASPEI Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal Standard 1447 Johannes Schweitzer, Dmitry A. Storchak and Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks 1304 Peter Borman Christoph Clauser Seismic Properties of Rocks 1459 Recovery of Source Magnetization Direction from Nikolas I. Christensen Magnetic Field Data 1310 Clive Foss Seismic Quiescence and Activation 1464 Gennady Sobolev Remanent Magnetism 1319 Laurie Brown and Suzanne McEnroe Seismic Ray Theory 1472 Vlastislav Červený and Ivan Pšenčík Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Tectonic Studies 1325 Seismic Reservoir Characterization 1487 Semere Solomon and Woldai Ghebreab Dhananjay Kumar

Remote Sensing, Applications to Seismic Seiches 1492 Geophysics 1330 Art McGarr Hojjatollah Ranjbar Seismic Signals in Well Water Observations 1493 SAR Interferometry 1335 R. K. Chadha Masato Furuya Seismic Stereotomography 1498 Satellite Altimetry 1343 Gilles Lambaré and Thibaut Allemand Stelios P. Mertikas and Constantine Kokolakis Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges 1502 Seafloor Spreading 1349 Donald W. Forsyth Richard N. Hey Seismic Tomography 1507 Sedimentary Basins 1353 Guust Nolet Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth Seismic Velocity and Temperature Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing 1365 Relationships 1511 Kabir Roy Chowdhury Kalachand Sain

Seismic Diffraction 1385 Seismic Viscoelastic Attenuation 1512 Enru Liu Vernon F. Cormier CONTENTS xi

Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media: Seismology, Rotational 1673 Numerical Modeling Approaches 1525 William H. K. Lee Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros and Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma Sentinel Satellites Initiate New Era in Earth Observatories 1685 Seismic Waves, Scattering 1537 Randy Showstack Ludovic Margerin Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics and Seismic Zonation 1550 Earthquake Stress-Forecasting 1687 Yanxiang Yu, Mengtan Gao and Guangyin Xu Stuart Crampin

Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation 1557 Single and Multichannel Seismics 1697 Michel Campillo, Philippe Roux and Tamás Tóth Nikolai M. Shapiro Slow Earthquake 1705 Seismic, Artificial Intelligence to Neural Intelligence Teruyuki Kato for Advanced Interpretation 1562 Kalachand Sain and Priyadarshi Chinmoy Kumar Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields 1714 Seismic, Migration 1567 Nikolaos K. Pavlis Samuel H. Gray and Nittala Satyavani Statistical Seismology 1724 Seismic, Receiver Function Technique 1580 David A. Rhoades, Annemarie Christophersen Rainer Kind and Xiaohui Yuan and Sebastian Hainzl

Seismic, Reflectivity Method 1592 Subduction Zones 1728 Mrinal K. Sen Geoffrey A. Abers

Seismic, Super-Virtual Refraction Surface Waves 1738 Interferometry 1602 Barbara Romanowicz Sherif M. Hanafy T Waves 1751 Seismic, Velocity, and Density Relationships 1607 Emile A. Okal Kalachand Sain Tectonic Geomorphology 1753 Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography 1608 Sampat Kumar Tandon and Vinee Srivastava Yanghua Wang and Ying Rao Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Seismicity, Intraplate 1621 Rocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat 1760 Paul Bodin Christoph Clauser

Seismicity, Subduction Zone 1625 Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Akira Hasegawa Rocks, II: Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity 1769 Seismogram Interpretation 1635 Christoph Clauser Ota Kulhanek and Leif Persson Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard Assessment 1787 Seismological Networks 1644 Zhongliang Wu István Bondár and Eric Robert Engdahl Time-Reversal in Seismology 1790 Seismology and Environment 1655 Carène Larmat and Clarence S. Clay Jean-Paul Montagner, Anne Mangeney and Eléonore Stutzmann TOPO-EUROPE: From the Deep Earth to the Surface of Continental Europe and Its Margins 1794 Seismology, Global Earthquake Model 1661 Sierd Cloetingh and TOPO-EUROPE Working John F. Schneider, Jephraim Oro, Anselm Smolka, Group Peter Suhadolc and Zhongliang Wu Total Electron Content in Seismo-ionospheric Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT 1669 Studies 1802 Zhongliang Wu and Paul G. Richards J. K. Catherine and R. Rajesh xii CONTENTS

Tracking Earth’s Water in Motion from Satellite Unified Scaling Law for Earthquakes that Gravity Observations 1813 Generalizes the Fundamental Gutenberg-Richter J. L. Chen Relationship 1893 Vladimir Kossobokov Trans-European Suture Zone 1819 H. Thybo and I. M. Artemieva Vertical Seismic Profiling 1897 James W. Rector III and Maria-Daphne Mangriotis Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-Source Seismic Data 1828 Very Long Baseline Interferometry 1902 Colin A. Zelt Helmut Wiesemeyer and Axel Nothnagel

Tsunami 1848 Wavelet Analysis 1909 Steven N. Ward Mikhail Kulesh

Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers 1868 Author Index 1917 Shailesh Nayak, Srinivasa Kumar Tummala and E. Pattabhi Rama Rao Subject Index 1921

Tsunami: Bay of Bengal 1880 Vineet K. Gahalaut

Uncertainties in Geomodelling Related to Geophysical Inversion 1885 Hans-Jürgen Götze and Florian Wellmann About the Editor

Harsh K. Gupta is currently a member of the Atomic Prof. Gupta chaired the Steering Committee of the Global Energy Regulatory Board (India) and president of the Seismic Hazard Program. After the disastrous 2004 Sumatra Geological Society of India. He has previously been a earthquake, he spearheaded the establishment of the Indian member of the National Disaster Management Authority Tsunami Early Warning System. He has published over (India); secretary to the Government of India, Department 200 articles in reviewed journals, authored 5 books that of Ocean Development; director of the National Geophys- have been published by Elsevier and Springer. Prof. Gupta ical Research Institute, Hyderabad; vice chancellor of is a recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, Waldo Cochin University of Science and Technology; and profes- E. Smith Medal of American Geophysical Union, USSR sor at the University of Texas at Dallas, USA. He is Academy of Sciences “100 years of International Geophysics internationally respected for his work on artificial water Memorial Medal,” the Axford Gold Medal of the Asia Oce- reservoir–triggered earthquakes and developing criteria to ania Geosciences Society (AOGS), and the National Mineral distinguish them from normal earthquakes. As leader of the Award of Excellence, among many honors. He is a fellow of third Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica during the Indian National Science Academy, the World Academy 1983–1984, he succeeded in setting up India’s first perma- of Sciences, and American Geophysical Union. Prof. Gupta nent Antarctic research station “Dakshin Gangotri” in just has been president of the IUGG and the AOGS and is the one Antarctic summer, which is still a record. founder president of the Asian Seismological Commission. ThiS is a FM Blank Page Contributors

Geoffrey A. Abers Kusumita Arora Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory National Geophysical Research Institute Columbia University Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Palisades, NY, USA Hyderabad, India

Antal Adam I. M. Artemieva Geodetic and Geophysical Research, Institute of the Marine Geodynamics Hungarian Academy of Sciences GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research Sopron, Hungary Kiel, Germany and Wim Aerts Department of Geophysics KU Leuven, Electrical Engineering (ESAT) TC Stanford University Diepenbeek Campus Palo Alto, CA, USA Diepenbeek, Belgium Estella Atekwana Duncan Carr Agnew College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, Scripps University of Delaware Institution of Oceanography Newark, DE, USA University of California San Diego La Jolla, CA, USA Jonathan M. Aurnou Imtiaz Ahmed Department of Earth and Space Sciences BP University of California Houston, TX, USA Los Angeles, CA, USA

Thibaut Allemand E. V. S. S. K. Babu CGG Geochronology Division Massy, France CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad, India Richard M. Allen Berkeley Seismological Laboratory, Department of Earth Ran Bachrach and Planetary Science Geophysics and Planetary Sciences Department University of California Tel Aviv University Berkeley, CA, USA Tel Aviv, Israel

Vasanthi Anthwar Ralph W. Baird National Geophysical Research Institute Baird Petrophysical International Hyderabad, India Houston, TX, USA xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Daniel N. Baker Joakim O. Blanch Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics BHP University of Colorado Houston, TX, USA Boulder, CO, USA

G. Balmino Paul Bodin Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN) Toulouse, France University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA Paramesh Banerjee Earth Observatory of Singapore Sigrid Böhm Prayukti Geomatics Pte Ltd Research Division Higher Geodesy, Department of Singapore, Singapore Geodesy and Geoinformation TU Wien Vienna, Austria Jean-Pierre Barriot Observatoire Géodésique de Tahiti University of French Polynesia Marco Bohnhoff Faaa-Tahiti, French Polynesia GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences Geomechanics and Scientific Drilling C. E. Barton Potsdam, Germany Australian National University Canberra, ACT, Australia István Bondár Graeme Beardsmore Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences University of Melbourne Geodetic and Geophysical Institute Parkville, VIC, Australia Kövesligethy Radó Seismological Observatory and Budapest, Hungary Hot Dry Rocks Pty Ltd Windsor, VIC, Australia Peter Borman (Deceased) David Bercovici Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Yale University Carla Braitenberg New Haven, CT, USA Department of Mathematics and Geosciences University of Trieste Trieste, Italy Jean Besse Laboratoire de Paléomagnétisme Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Laurie Brown Paris, France Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA Archana Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of Geomagnetism Carine Bruyninx Navi Mumbai, India Department of Reference Systems and Planetology Royal Observatory of Belgium Jörg Bialas Brussels, Belgium Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften University of Kiel Hans-Peter Bunge Kiel, Germany Geophysics Section, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich Andrew Biggin Munich, Germany Geomagnetism Lab, Department of Earth, Ocean and Ecological Sciences University of Liverpool Evgueni Burov Liverpool, UK (Deceased) CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Friedrich H. Busse J. L. Chen Institute of Physics, University of Bayreuth Center for Space Research Bayreuth, Germany University of Texas Austin, TX, USA Michel Campillo Observatoire de Grenoble Paolo Chiozzi Université Joseph Fourier and CNRS Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences Grenoble, France University of Genoa Genoa, Italy David J. Carlson Nikolas I. Christensen British Antarctic Survey Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences IPY International Programme Office University of British Columbia Cambridge, UK Vancouver, BC, Canada

Richard W. Carlson Ulrich R. Christensen Department of Terrestrial Magnetism Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung Carnegie Institution of Washington Göttingen, Germany Washington, DC, USA Annemarie Christophersen J. K. Catherine GNS Science CSIR-NGRI Lower Hutt, New Zealand Hyderabad, India Christoph Clauser Anny Cazenave Institute for Applied Geophysics and Geothermal Energy LEGOS, Observatoire Midi Pyrénées RWTH Aachen University Toulouse, France Aachen, Germany Vlastislav Červený Department of Geophysics, Faculty of Mathematics and Clarence S. Clay Physics (Deceased) Charles University Praha, Czech Republic Sierd Cloetingh R. K. Chadha Tectonics Group, Department of Earth Sciences CSIR:National Geophysical Research Institute Utrecht University Hyderabad, India Utrecht, The Netherlands

V. Chakravarthi Emily A. CoBabe-Ammann Centre for Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Research and Innovations Office University of Hyderabad University of Colorado Hyderabad, India Boulder, CO, USA

J. E. Chambers Steven Constable Geophysical Tomography Team Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics British Geological Survey Scripps Institution of Oceanography Keyworth, Nottingham, UK La Jolla, CA, USA Aude Chambodut Institut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg Michele Cooke Université de Strasbourg/Ecole et Observatoire des Geosciences Department Sciences de la Terre, CNRS University of Massachusetts at Amherst Strasbourg Cédex, France Amherst, MA, USA

David S. Chapman Vernon F. Cormier Department of Geology and Geophysics Physics Department The University of Utah University of Connecticut Salt Lake City, UT, USA Storrs, CT, USA xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Vincent Courtillot Wolfgang Eder Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris GeoCentre, Geobiology Paris, France University of Göttingen Göttingen, Germany Stuart Crampin British Geological Survey Gary Egbert Murchison House College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences Edinburgh, UK Oregon State University Corvallis, OR, USA Shamita Das Department of Earth Sciences Eric Robert Engdahl University of Oxford ’ Oxford, UK Center for Imaging the Earth s Interior, Department of Physics University of Colorado at Boulder Earl E. Davis Boulder, CO, USA Pacific Geoscience Centre Geological Survey of Canada Sidney, BC, Canada Cinzia G. Farnetani Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Paris, France Michael G. Davis Department of Physical Sciences Andrew T. Fisher Arkansas Tech University Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Russellville, AR, USA University of California at Santa Cruz Santa Cruz, CA, USA Paul M. Davis Earth and Space Sciences Ernst R. Flueh UCLA Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften Los Angeles, CA, USA University of Kiel Kiel, Germany Eduardo F. J. de Mulder Earth Science Matters Foundation Luca Formaggia Haarlem, The Netherlands MOX, Department of Mathematics Politecnico di Milano Milan, Italy Mike Dentith School of Earth Sciences (M004) The University of Western Australia Donald W. Forsyth Crawley, WA, Australia Department of Geological Sciences Brown University Providence, RI, USA John S. Derr Tijeras, NM, USA Alessandro M. Forte James W. Dewey Department of Geological Sciences U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center University of Florida Lakewood, CO, USA Gainesville, FL, USA

Domenico Di Giacomo Clive Foss Department 2: Physics of the Earth Mineral Resources GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences CSIRO Potsdam, Germany Lindfield, NSW, Australia

Vijay P. Dimri Peter Fox CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Hyderabad, India Troy, NY, USA CONTRIBUTORS xix

Friedemann T. Freund Samuel H. Gray Code SCR CGGVeritas NASA Ames Research Center/San Jose State University Calgary, AB, Canada Moffett Field, CA, USA

Jeffrey T. Freymueller Marianne Greff Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Michigan State University Paris, France East Lansing, MI, USA Richard A. F. Grieve Alessio Fumagalli Department of Earth Sciences Department of Mathematics University of Western Ontario Politecnico di Milano London, ON, Canada Milan, Italy and Institute for Earth and Space Exploration Masato Furuya University of Western Ontario Department of Natural History Sciences London, ON, Canada Hokkaido University Sapporo, Japan Gottfried Grünthal Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Vineet K. Gahalaut German Research Centre for Geosciences GFZ National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR) Potsdam, Germany Hyderabad, India

Carmen Gaina Harsh K. Gupta – National Geophysical Research Institute Department of Geosciences, CEED Centre for Earth fi Evolution and Dynamics Council of Scienti c and Industrial Research University of Oslo Hyderabad, India Oslo, Norway Pravin K. Gupta Kerry Gallagher Department of Earth Sciences UMR 6118 – Géosciences Rennes Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Geosciences, Université de Rennes 1 Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India Rennes Cedex, France Ron Hackney Mengtan Gao Petroleum and Marine Division Institute of Geophysics Geoscience Australia China Earthquake Administration Canberra, ACT, Australia Beijing, China

Edward J. Garnero Sebastian Hainzl School of Earth and Space Exploration GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Arizona State University Potsdam, Germany Tempe, AZ, USA

Elana Geddis R. Hajra Harbour Chambers Indian Institute of Technology Indore Wellington, New Zealand Simrol, Indore, India

Woldai Ghebreab Department of Geology and Environmental Science Susan L. Halgedahl University of Akron Department of Geology and Geophysics Akron, OH, USA University of Utah Salt Lake City, UT, USA Hans-Jürgen Götze Institute of Geosciences, Working group Satellite- and Aerogeophysics David J. Hamilton Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel Consultraining Kiel, Germany Edinburgh, UK xx CONTRIBUTORS

Sherif M. Hanafy Jacques Hinderer College of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences (CPG) Institut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, CNRS King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Université de Strasbourg (KFUPM) Strasbourg, France Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Klaus-G. Hinzen Ulrich Harms Department of Geosciences Scientific Drilling Universtity of Cologne GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Cologne, Germany Potsdam, Germany Albrecht W. Hofmann Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Columbia University Robert N. Harris Palisades, NY, USA College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences and Oregon State University Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie Corvallis, OR, USA Mainz, Germany

Ivan Hrvoic Hayo Hase GEM Systems, Inc Geodätisches Observatorium Wettzell Markham, ON, Canada Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie Bad Kötzting, Germany Andrew Hugill Scintrex Ltd Akira Hasegawa Concord, ON, Canada RCPEV, Graduate School of Science Tohoku University Giampiero Iaffaldano Sendai, Japan Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management Derrick Hasterok University of Copenhagen Earth Sciences Department Copenhagen, Denmark University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia Anca Isac Geological Institute of Romania Michael Hearne Surlari National Geomagnetic Observatory U.S. Geological Survey Bucharest, Romania Denver Federal Center Lakewood, CO, USA M. Ismaiel Yann Hello Centre for Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences IRD Geoazur and Université Côte d’AZUR University of Hyderabad Sophia Antipolis, France Hyderabad, India

Jan Henninges Alik Ismail-Zadeh Geoenergy Institute of Applied Geosciences GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Potsdam, Germany Karlsruhe, Germany and John F. Hermance Institute of Earthquake Prediction Theory and Department of Geological Sciences Mathematical Geophysics Brown University Russian Academy of Sciences (IEPT RAS) Providence, RI, USA Moscow, Russia

Richard N. Hey Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, School of Facultad de Ciencias, Departmento de Mathemáticas Ocean and Earth Science and Technology Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad University of Hawaii Universitaria Honolulu, HI, USA México City, Mexico CONTRIBUTORS xxi

David D. Jackson Andrzej Kijko Department of Earth and Space Sciences Natural Hazard Centre, Africa University of California Los Angeles University of Pretoria Los Angeles, CA, USA Pretoria, Republic of South Africa

Won-Young Kim Kishor S. Jaiswal Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory U.S. Geological Survey Columbia University Denver Federal Center Palisades, NY, USA Lakewood, CO, USA Rainer Kind David E. James Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Department of Terrestrial Magnetism GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Carnegie Institution of Washington Potsdam, Germany Washington, DC, USA and Freie Universität Fachrichtung Geophysik Claude Jaupart Berlin, Germany Université de Paris Institut de Physique du Globe Paris, France Jonathan F. Kirby School of Earth and Planetary Sciences Christopher Jekeli Curtin University Division of Geodetic Science, School of Earth Sciences Perth, WA, Australia Ohio State University Columbus, OH, USA Miroslav Kobr Institute of Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology and Applied Geophysics Philippe Jousset Charles University in Prague GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Prague, Czech Republic Potsdam, Germany Constantine Kokolakis Mikhail K. Kaban Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering Laboratory, School Department 1: Geodesy and Remote Sensing, Sektion 1.3: of Mineral Resources Engineering Earth-System Modelling Technical University of Crete Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam – GFZ Chania, Greece Potsdam, Germany Monika Korte Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Yan Y. Kagan GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Department of Earth and Space Sciences Potsdam, Germany University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA Vladimir Kossobokov Institute of Earthquake Prediction Theory and Masashi Kamogawa Mathematical Geophysics Division for Earthquake Prediction Research Russian Academy of Sciences (IEPT RAS) Global Center for Asian and Regional Research, Moscow, Russia University of Shizuoka Shizuoka, Japan Stavros Kotsiaros Planetary Magnetospheres Lab Teruyuki Kato NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Earthquake Research Institute Greenbelt, MD, USA The University of Tokyo and Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan University of Maryland College Park College Park, MD, USA and Hartmut Kern Technical University of Denmark (DTU) Kiel, Germany Kongens Lyngby, Denmark xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Charlotte M. Krawczyk Cristina La Mura Institute for Applied Geosciences Department of Geosciences Technical University Berlin University of Trieste Berlin, Germany Trieste, Italy and GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Potsdam, Germany Carlo Laj Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat Unité mixte CEA-CNRS-UVSQ K. S. Krishna Gif-sur-Yvette, France Centre for Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences University of Hyderabad Hyderabad, India G. S. Lakhina Indian Institute of Geomagnetism New Panvel (W), Navi Mumbai, India Jochem Kück Scientific Drilling GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Gilles Lambaré Potsdam, Germany CGG Massy, France Mikhail Kulesh Information Technology Carène Larmat DIS AG Geophysics Group, EES-17, MS D542 Mahlow, Germany Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos, NM, USA

Ota Kulhanek Department of Earth Sciences, Section of Seismology Stanislaw Lasocki Uppsala University Department of Seismology Uppsala, Sweden Institute of Geophysics Polish Academy of Sciences Warsaw, Poland

Dhananjay Kumar Chevron Thorne Lay Houston, TX, USA Earth and Planetary Sciences Department and University of California BP Santa Cruz, CA, USA Houston, TX, USA William H. K. Lee Priyadarshi Chinmoy Kumar U.S. Geological Survey Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Menlo Park, CA, USA Dehradun, India

Juliette Legrand T. Vijaya Kumar Department of Reference Systems and Planetology Geochronology Division Royal Observatory of Belgium CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Brussels, Belgium Hyderabad, India

Bhaskar Kundu Vincent Lesur Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, NIT Rourkela CNRS Rourkela, India Paris, France

O. Kuras Kuo-wan Lin Geophysical Tomography Team U.S. Geological Survey British Geological Survey Denver Federal Center Keyworth, Nottingham, UK Lakewood, CO, USA CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Enru Liu Ajay Manglik China University of Mining and Technology National Geophysical Research Institute (Council of Xuzhou, China Scientific and Industrial Research) Hyderabad, India Mian Liu Department of Geological Sciences Maria-Daphne Mangriotis University of Missouri School of Geosciences and Grant Institute of Earth Science Columbia, MO, USA University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, UK M. H. Loke and Geotomo Software Sdn. Bhd. Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering Penang, Gelugor, Malaysia Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh, UK William Lowrie Institute of Geophysics Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Kristin D. Marano Zürich, Switzerland U.S. Geological Survey Denver Federal Center Susan Macmillan Lakewood, CO, USA Geomagnetism Team British Geological Survey Edinburgh, UK Jean-Claude Mareschal Raul Madariaga Centre GEOTOP-UQAM Ecole Normale Supérieure, Université PSL University of Québec Paris, France Montréal, QC, Canada

Peter Malin GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences Ludovic Margerin Geomechanics and Scientific Drilling Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie Potsdam, Germany Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées/C.N.R.S. Toulouse, France Peter Eric Malin Earth and Ocean Sciences Duke University Yoshihisa Maruyama Durham, NC, USA Graduate School of Engineering Chiba University Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan Kumarendra Mallick National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad, India Ali Masoudi ORC Prantik Mandal University of Southampton Earthquake Seismology Southampton, UK CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad, Telangana, India Robert McCaffrey Department of Geology Mioara Mandea Portland State University CNES – Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales Portland, OR, USA Paris, France

Anne Mangeney James S. McClain Seismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du Globe Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Université de Paris, UMR CNRS/7154 University of California, Davis Paris, France Davis, CA, USA xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Suzanne McEnroe Elvira Mulyukova Norwegian Geological Survey Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Trondheim, Norway Yale University New Haven, CT, USA Art McGarr Earthquake Science Center Roger M. W. Musson U.S. Geological Survey British Geological Survey Menlo Park, CA, USA Edinburgh, UK and Allen K. McNamara School of Geosciences Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Edinburgh Michigan State University Edinburgh, UK East Lansing, MI, USA Toshiyasu Nagao Rolf Meissner Institute of Oceanic Research and Development (Deceased) Tokai University Shizuoka, Japan Stelios P. Mertikas Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering Laboratory, School Nandini Nagarajan of Mineral Resources Engineering National Geophysical Research Institute Technical University of Crete Hyderabad, India Chania, Greece Shailesh Nayak Uwe Meyer National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS) Sub-Department Geophysical Reconnaissance – Bengaluru, India Resources and Near Surface Processes Federal Agency for Geosciences and Mineral Resources J. W. Neuberg Hannover, Germany Institute of Geophysics and Tectonics, School of Earth and Environment Andrew J. Michael University of Leeds USGS Leeds, UK Moffett Field, CA, USA Guust Nolet Dinesh Chandra Mishra IRD Geoazur and Université Côte d’Azur (Deceased) Sophia Antipolis, France

Asanulla R. Mohamed National Centre for Earth Science Studies Axel Nothnagel Trivandrum, India VLBI Research Group, Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation University of Bonn Jean-Paul Montagner Bonn, Germany Seismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du Globe University Paris-Diderot, UMR CNRS/7154 Paris, France Emile A. Okal Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Paul Morgan Northwestern University Colorado Geological Survey Evanston, IL, USA Denver, CO, USA Beata Orlecka-Sikora Wim A. Mulder Department of Seismology Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department Institute of Geophysics Polish Academy of Sciences of Geoscience and Engineering Warsaw, Poland Delft University of Technology Delft, The Netherlands and Jephraim Oro Shell Global Solutions International BV GEM Foundation Amsterdam, The Netherlands Pavia, Italy CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Gordon R. Osinski Ingo A. Pecher Department of Earth Sciences GNS Science University of Western Ontario Lower Hutt, New Zealand London, ON, Canada and and Institute of Petroleum Engineering Institute for Earth and Space Exploration Heriot-Watt University University of Western Ontario Edinburgh, UK London, ON, Canada W. R. Peltier Simanchal Padhy Department of Physics Seismological Observatory University of Toronto CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Toronto, ON, Canada Hyderabad, India Leif Persson Department of Underwater Research Dibyashakti Panda FOI Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Stockholm, Sweden NIT Rourkela Rourkela, India William K. Peterson Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics Giuliano F. Panza University of Colorado Department of Geosciences Boulder, CO, USA University of Trieste Trieste, Italy and J. D. A. Piper Earth System Physics Section/Sand Group Geomagnetism Laboratory, Department of Earth and The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Ocean Sciences Physics University of Liverpool Trieste, Italy Liverpool, UK

Mark A. Parsons Donald R. Prothero Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Department of Geology Troy, NY, USA Occidental College Los Angeles, CA, USA

Vincenzo Pasquale Ivan Pšenčík Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences Department of Geophysics, Faculty of Mathematics and University of Genoa Physics Genoa, Italy Charles University Praha, Czech Republic and Greig A. Paterson Institute of Geophysics Geomagnetism Lab, Department of Earth, Ocean and Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic Ecological Sciences Praha, Czech Republic University of Liverpool Liverpool, UK Alfio Quarteroni MOX, Department of Mathematics Prasanta K. Patro Politecnico di Milano CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Milan, Italy Hyderabad, India and CMCS-MATHICSE, EPFL Lausanne, Switzerland Nikolaos K. Pavlis Geodesy and Geophysics Basic and Applied Research Vincent Quitoriano National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center Reston, VA, USA Lakewood, CO, USA xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

T. Radhakrishna David A. Rhoades National Centre for Earth Science Studies GNS Science Trivandrum, India Lower Hutt, New Zealand and GITAM University Paul G. Richards Nagadenehalli, Bengaluru, India Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Columbia University R. Rajesh Palisades, NY, USA CSIR-NGRI Hyderabad, India Paul H. Roberts Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics V. Rama Murthy University of California (Deceased) Los Angeles, CA, USA

G. Ramillien Johan O. A. Robertsson GET, Observatoire Midi Pyrénées Institute of Geophysics, Department of Earth Sciences Toulouse, France ETH-Zürich Zürich, Switzerland Sunita Rani Department of Mathematics Fabio Romanelli Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology Department of Geosciences Hisar, India University of Trieste Trieste, Italy Hojjatollah Ranjbar Department of Mining Engineering Barbara Romanowicz Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman Berkeley Seismological Laboratory Kerman, Iran Berkeley, CA, USA and Collège de France E. Pattabhi Rama Rao Paris, France Earth System Science Ogranisation–Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (ESSO–INCOIS) Hyderabad, India Philippe Roux Observatoire de Grenoble Université Joseph Fourier and CNRS Ying Rao Grenoble, France College of Geophysics China University of Petroleum (Beijing) Beijing, China Kabir Roy Chowdhury Department of Earth Sciences Y. J. Bhaskar Rao Utrecht University Geochronology Division Utrecht, The Netherlands CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad, India D. F. Rucker hydroGEOPHYSICS, Inc. Tucson, AZ, USA James W. Rector III Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Ladislaus Rybach University of California at Berkeley Institute of Geophysics Berkeley, CA, USA ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland J. N. Reddy Department of Mechanical Engineering Leonardo Sagnotti Texas A&M University Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia College Station, TX, USA Rome, Italy

Thomas Reinsch Kalachand Sain GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Potsdam, Germany Dehradun, India CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Malcolm Sambridge Johannes Schweitzer Seismology and Mathematical Geophysics NORSAR Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian Kjeller, Norway National University Canberra, ACT, Australia Anna Scotti Department of Mathematics Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma Politecnico di Milano Instituto de Ingeniería Milan, Italy Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh México City, Mexico Department of Nature and Applied Sciences Al-Aflaj Community College, AL-Kharj University William A. Sandham Al-Aflaj, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Scotsig Glasgow, UK Mrinal K. Sen Department of Geological Sciences, UT Institute for John H. Sass Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences (Deceased) The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX, USA

Nittala Satyavani Ş Seismic Group A. M. Celâl engör National Geophysical Research Institute Faculty of Mines, Department of Geology and Eurasia Hyderabad, India Institute of Earth Sciences Istanbul Technical University Istanbul, Turkey David P. Schaff Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Nikolai M. Shapiro Columbia University Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Palisades, NY, USA Paris, France

Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth Krishna Kant Sharma Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre Department of Applied Geology for Geosciences University of Madras Potsdam, Germany Chennai, India and RWTH Aachen University John Shaw Aachen, Germany Geomagnetism Lab, Department of Earth, Ocean and Ecological Sciences John F. Schneider University of Liverpool GEM Foundation Liverpool, UK Pavia, Italy Randy Showstack American Geophysical Union Harald Schuh Washington, DC, USA Department 1 “Geodesy” at Helmholtz Centre Potsdam and GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Independent Journalist Potsdam, Germany Washington, DC, USA

Gerard T. Schuster Lydie Sichoix Division of Environmental and Earth Sciences Observatoire Géodésique de Tahiti King Abdullah University of Science and Technology University of French Polynesia Thule, Saudi Arabia Faaa-Tahiti, French Polynesia

Martha Schwartz Michael G. Sideris Department of Earth Sciences Department of Geomatics Engineering University of Southern California University of Calgary Los Angeles, CA, USA Calgary, AB, Canada xxviii CONTRIBUTORS

Kumar Hemant Singh Frank D. Stacey Department of Earth Sciences Division of Exploration and Mining Indian Institute of Technology Bombay CSIRO Mumbai, India Kenmore, Australia

Sarva Jit Singh Vaughan Stagpoole Indian National Science Academy GNS Science New Delhi, India Lower Hutt, New Zealand

Seth Stein Satish C. Singh Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Laboratoire de Géoscience Marines Northwestern University Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Evanston, IL, USA Paris, France France St-Laurent Lee Slater LaSalle, QC, Canada Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Rutgers University Newark Paul L. Stoffa Newark, NJ, USA Department of Geological Sciences, UT Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences The University of Texas at Austin Daniel Slosky Austin, TX, USA U.S. Geological Survey Denver Federal Center Lakewood, CO, USA Dmitry A. Storchak International Seismological Centre (ISC) Thatcham, UK Alan G. Smith (Deceased) Eléonore Stutzmann Seismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du Globe Anselm Smolka Université de Paris, UMR CNRS/7154 GEM Foundation Paris, France Pavia, Italy Peter Suhadolc Gennady Sobolev Department of Geosciences Institute of Physics of the Earth University of Trieste Russian Academy of Sciences Trieste, Italy Moscow, Russia

Semere Solomon Neil Suttie Det Norske Veritas School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences DNV Research and Innovation University of Bradford Høvik, Norway Bradford, UK

Christopher J. Swain Xiaodong Song School of Earth and Planetary Sciences Department of Geology Curtin University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Perth, WA, Australia Urbana, IL, USA Laszló Szarka Ravi P. Srivastava Geodetic and Geophysical Research, Institute of the Equinor ASA Hungarian Academy of Sciences Bergen, Norway Sopron, Hungary

Vinee Srivastava Sampat Kumar Tandon Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences IISER Bhopal IISER Bhopal Bhopal, India Bhopal, India CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Donald H. Tarling Srinivasa Kumar Tummala School of Earth, Ocean and Environmental Sciences Earth System Science Ogranisation–Indian National University of Plymouth Centre for Ocean Information Services (ESSO–INCOIS) Plymouth, UK Hyderabad, India and E. Thébault ICG/IOTWMS Secretariat fi Laboratoire Magma et Volcans, Université Clermont UNESCO IOC Perth Regional Programme Of ce Auvergne (UCA), UMR CNRS 6524, Campus des West Perth, WA, Australia Cézeaux, 6, Avenue Blaise Pascal 63178 AUBIERE, FRANCE James A. Tyburczy School of Earth and Space Exploration Robert Thériault Arizona State University Québec Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Tempe, AZ, USA Québec, QC, Canada Seiya Uyeda Eric M. Thompson Japan Academy U.S. Geological Survey Tokyo, Japan Denver Federal Center Lakewood, CO, USA Franco Vaccari Clifford H. Thurber Department of Geosciences Department of Geoscience University of Trieste University of Wisconsin-Madison Trieste, Italy Madison, WI, USA Petr Vaníček H. Thybo Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences University of New Brunswick Istanbul Technical University Fredericton, NB, Canada Istanbul, Turkey and Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED) Nimisha Vedanti University of Oslo CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute Oslo, Norway Hyderabad, India

Virendra M. Tiwari Massimo Verdoya Gravity and Magnetic Studies Group Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences CSIR- National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR) University of Genoa Hyderabad, India Genoa, Italy

Harold Tobin Department of Earth and Space Sciences Lev P. Vinnik University of Washington Institute of Physics of the Earth Seattle, WA, USA Moscow, Russia

Shinji Toda Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg Disaster Prevention Research Institute National Heritage Department Kyoto University Regional Government of Baden-Wuerttemberg Uji, Kyoto, Japan Esslingen am Neckar, Germany

Tamás Tóth Geomega Limited John M. Wahr Budapest, Hungary (Deceased)

B. T. Tsurutani David J. Wald Jet Propulsion Laboratory U.S. Geological Survey California Institute of Technology Denver Federal Center Pasadena, CA, USA Lakewood, CO, USA xxx CONTRIBUTORS

Yanghua Wang C. Bruce Worden Resource Geophysics Academy, Department of Earth U.S. Geological Survey Science and Engineering Denver Federal Center Imperial College London Lakewood, CO, USA London, UK

Steven N. Ward Zhongliang Wu Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics Institute of Earthquake Forecasting University of California at Santa Cruz China Earthquake Administration Santa Cruz, CA, USA Beijing, China

A. B. Watts Guangyin Xu Department of Earth Sciences Institute of Geophysics University of Oxford China Earthquake Administration Oxford, UK Beijing, China

Florian Wellmann Computational Geoscience and Reservoir Engineering Fumio Yamazaki RWTH Aachen University National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Aachen, Germany Resilience Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Lianxing Wen Department of Geosciences Takashi Yoshino State University of New York at Stony Brook Institute for Planetary Materials Stony Brook, NY, USA Okayama University Misasa, Japan Kathryn A. Whaler School of GeoSciences University of Edinburgh Yanxiang Yu Edinburgh, UK Institute of Geophysics China Earthquake Administration Beijing, China Joanne Whittaker Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) University of Tasmania Xiaohui Yuan Hobart, TAS, Australia Helmholtz Centre Potsdam GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Helmut Wiesemeyer Potsdam, Germany Millimeter and Submillimeter Astronomy Max-Planck-Institute for Radio Astronomy Bonn, Germany Colin A. Zelt Department of Earth Science Rice University P. B. Wilkinson Houston, TX, USA Geophysical Tomography Team British Geological Survey Keyworth, Nottingham, UK Mark A. Zumberge Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, Scripps Ray Wood Institution of Oceanography CRP-OCS Ltd University of California, San Diego Haumoana, New Zealand La Jolla, CA, USA Preface to the Second Edition

The oldest surviving encyclopedia is Naturalis Historia by coverage of central concepts and key topics of interest, Pliny the Elder, a Roman statesman in the first century while making no claims to represent every aspect of this AD. It has 37 chapters covering the history, geography, multi-disciplinary and multi-faceted field. The earliest ver- geology, and various other aspects of the world. In today’s sion of the Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics, edited digital world of easy access to information, encyclopedias by Prof. David E. James, was published by Van Nostrand continue to be a valued source of reliable content contrib- Reinhold publishing company in 1989. The extraordinary uted by experts. Subject encyclopedias contain in-depth growth and diversification of the field over the next entries offering essential and up-to-date information on the 20 years called for a major revision. A completely new respective field of study, reflecting the current state of work, namely Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics, knowledge in the discipline as well as current trends. published by Springer in 2011, was edited by Harsh Encyclopedias published in electronic format are much K. Gupta. It brought together over 200 entries covering easier to use than printed versions, given their search established and new concepts in geophysics across sub- functions. fields such as gravity, geodesy, geoelectricity, geomagne- All information about the Earth’s interior comes from tism, seismology, seismics, deep earth interior and field observations and measurements made within the top processes, plate tectonics, geothermics, and computational few kilometers of the surface, from laboratory experiments methods in a consistent format. Less than 10 years later, the and from the powers of human deduction, relying on need for an updated second edition was driven by the desire complex numerical modeling. Solid Earth geophysics to expand the scope of the entries, which would include the encompasses all these endeavors and aspires to define new knowledge derived through novel observations and and quantify the internal structure and processes of the techniques. Consequently, this edition includes 256 entries Earth in terms of physical principles, corresponding math- written by 347 authors, and includes 44 new topics, such as ematical formulations, and computational procedures. The Fiber Optics in Geophysics, Tracking Earth’s Water in role of solid Earth geophysics has gained prominence with Motion, A New Era of Earth Observatories and Others increasing recognition of the fact that understanding Earth Based on Satellite Observations, Deep Continental Bore- processes is central to the continued well-being of human- holes Like the KTB, Seismic Arrays in Boreholes, Envi- ity. Apart from the exploration of natural resources, geo- ronmental Seismology, High-Frequency Seismology, physical investigations provide crucial insights regarding Floating Seismographs, and several other new topics that the mutual relationships between climate and tectonics and have established themselves in recent years. on the effects of global change in terms of a broad range of The entries, written by leading experts, are intended to natural hazards. The field continues to grow rapidly, both provide a holistic treatment of solid Earth geophysics and in fundamental and applied aspects, parallel to advances in guide researchers to more detailed sources of knowledge allied fields of science and technology. should they require them. A basic understanding of solid The second edition of the Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Earth geophysics is essential for professionals in many Geophysics (ESEG) serves as a comprehensive compen- allied disciplines, such as civil engineering, environmental dium of information on important topics in solid earth sciences, and the mining, exploration and software Indus- geophysics and provides systematic and up-to-date tries, and for NGOs working on large-scale social agendas, xxxii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION etc. This encyclopedia offers readers an authoritative and a major part of my academic life. It is a pleasure to com- up-to-date reference source of extraordinary scope, draw- memorate the diamond jubilee of CSIR-NGRI with the ing its unique strength from the contributions prepared by publication of the second edition of ESEG. experts from around the globe. 2021 is the diamond jubilee year of the creation of the Harsh K. Gupta National Geophysical Research Institute, Council of Sci- entific & Industrial Research (CSIR-NGRI), where I spent Preface to the First Edition

All information about the Earth’s interior comes from field extraordinary growth and diversification of this science observations and measurements made within the top few over the last twenty years called for a complete revision. kilometers of the surface, from laboratory experiments and This is realized by identifying the necessary topics and from the powers of human deduction, relying on complex bringing together over 200 articles covering established numerical modeling. Solid Earth Geophysics encompasses and new concepts of Geophysics across the sub-disciplines all these endeavors and aspires to define and quantify the such as Gravity, Geodesy, Geoelectricity, Geomagnetism, internal structure and processes of the Earth in terms of the Seismology, Seismics, Deep Earth Interior and Processes, principles of physics, corresponding mathematical formu- Plate Tectonics, Geothermics, Computational Methods, lations and computational procedures. The role of Solid etc. in a consistent format. Exceptional Exploration Geo- Earth Geophysics has gained prominence with increasing physics and Geotechnical Engineering topics are included recognition of the fact that knowledge and understanding for the sake of completeness. Topics pertaining to near of Earth processes are central to the continued well being of Earth environs, other than the classical ‘Solid Earth’, are the global community. Apart from persistent search for not within the scope of this volume as it is felt that the natural resources, this research line is linked to basic inves- growth of knowledge in these fields justify a dedicated tigations regarding the mutual relationships between cli- volume to cover them. mate and tectonics and on the effects of global change in Articles written by leading experts intend to provide a terms of a wide spectrum of natural hazards. Consequently, holistic treatment of Solid Earth Geophysics and guide the pursuit of this science has seen spectacular progress all researchers to more detailed sources of knowledge should over the world in recent decades, both in fundamental and they require them. As basic understanding and application applied aspects, necessarily aided by advancements in of Solid Earth Geophysics is essential for professionals of allied fields of science and technology. many allied disciplines such as Civil Engineering; Envi- The Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics aims to ronmental Sciences; Mining, Exploration and software serve as a comprehensive compendium of information on industries; NGOs working on large scale social agenda; important topics of Solid Earth Geophysics and provide a etc., it would be useful to them to have access to a ready systematic and up-to-date coverage of its important aspects and up-to-date source of knowledge on key topics of Solid including primary concepts as well as key topics of inter- Earth Geophysics. Hopefully, this Encyclopedia would est. It, however, does not claim to chronicle each and every prove to be an authoritative and current reference source niche area that in reality is a part of this multidisciplinary with extraordinary width of scope, drawing its unique and multi-faceted science. Neither does it attempt to strength from the expert contributions of editors and describe the basic physics of matter and energy systems, authors across the globe. which comprise the underlying tenets of geophysical I am grateful to Anny Cazenave, Kusumita Arora, Bob research. The first edition of this Encyclopedia, edited by Engdahl, Seiya Uyeda, Rainer Kind, Ajay Manglik, Prof. David James, was published in 1989 by the Van Kalachand Sain and Sukanta Roy, members of the Editorial Nostrand Reinhold publishing company. The Board for their constant advice and guidance in developing xxxiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION the framework of this Encyclopedia and help with the Ms. M. Uma Anuradha provided extraordinary assistance editorial work. I am equally grateful to all the authors in the preparation of this volume. My wife Manju and who readily agreed to contribute and honoured the guide- daughters Nidhi & Benu supported me through the entire lines and time schedule. project. Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, Simone Giesler and D. Nishantini from Springer were very Harsh K. Gupta co-operative. It has been a pleasure working with Springer. Editor-in-Chief Acknowledgments

It has been a great pleasure working on the second edition numbering over 200 from all over the world. Please accept of the Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics. My thanks my heartfelt thanks. go to Springer, particularly Petra Van Steenbergen and Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, and Johanna Klute Sylvia Blago, for requesting it less than 10 years after the from Springer were very co-operative throughout this pro- release of the first edition in 2011. I am also grateful to ject, while Santhiya Rajarathinam helped with printing the Anny Cazenave, Kusumita Arora, Bob Engdahl, Seiya manuscripts. It has been a pleasure working with Springer Uyeda, Rainer Kind, Ajay Manglik, Kalachand Sain, and on this endeavor. Sukanta Roy, the members of the editorial board, for their M. Uma Anuradha provided extraordinary assistance in constant advice and guidance in developing the framework the preparation of this volume. for this encyclopedia and support with the editorial work. I gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the I am equally indebted to the 347 authors who readily CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Hydera- agreed to contribute and adhered to the guidelines and bad, and the National Academy of Sciences, India. schedule. Last but certainly not least, my wife Manju and daugh- The manuscripts went through several iterations during ters Nidhi and Benu gave their unflagging encouragement their development, and at each stage, they were carefully throughout the entire project. reviewed by prominent experts in their respective fields, Harsh K. Gupta