ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Volume Editor Harsh K. Gupta National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad, India Editorial Board Kusumita Arora Ajay Manglik National Geophysical Research Institute National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India Anny Cazenave Sukanta Roy Laboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales (LEGOS) Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India CNES & Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées Borehole Geophysics Research Laboratory Toulouse, France Karad, India Eric Robert Engdahl Kalachand Sain Denver, CO, USA Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Uttarakhand, India Rainer Kind Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Seiya Uyeda GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences Tokyo, Japan Potsdam, Germany Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online. About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research for the past 35 years. He is also the Series Editor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU) (Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes the International Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning & Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). He has published numerous peer-reviewed technical research papers and edited or co-edited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified Professional Geological Scientist (Arvada, Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and a Chartered Marine Scientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida International University (Miami), Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (Port Everglades, Florida) and Full Professor at FAU. During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico, Jamaica; Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societies including the Geological Society of America; Soil Science Society of America; Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of Wetland Specialists. He is a recipient of the International Beach Advocacy Award (Florida Shore & Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. Chilingar Medal of Honor (Russian Academy of Natural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium). Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS Second Edition edited by HARSH K. GUPTA National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad, India Editor Harsh K. Gupta National Geophysical Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Hyderabad, India ISBN: 978-3-030-58630-0 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-030-58631-7 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-030-58632-4 Cover illustration: C.B. 3D ILLUSTRATION & ANIMATION | illustration by Christoph Burgstedt Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions. All rights reserved for the contributions: Earthquake Sounds; Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation; Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity; Sentinel Satellites Initiate New Era in Earth Observatories © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1st edition published by: © Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011 The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents About the Editor xiii Continental Rifts 64 A. M. Celâl Şengör Contributors xv Core Dynamo 78 Preface to the Second Edition xxxi Ulrich R. Christensen Preface to the First Edition xxxiii Core-Mantle Coupling 86 Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou Acknowledgments xxxv Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1 Chamber 101 Richard W. Carlson Satish C. Singh Anthropogenic Seismicity Related to Exploitation of Curie Temperature 112 Georesources 8 Vincenzo Pasquale Stanislaw Lasocki and Beata Orlecka-Sikora Deep Scientific Drilling 115 Archaeomagnetism 15 Ulrich Harms and Harold Tobin Donald H. Tarling Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes, Profiling 127 with Special Emphasis on Koyna, India 19 Kabir Roy Chowdhury Harsh K. Gupta Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner Core 144 Biogeophysics 33 Xiaodong Song Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana Earth Rotation 149 Body Waves 37 Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh Earth Tides 156 Borehole Seismic Networks and Arrays 44 John M. Wahr Marco Bohnhoff and Peter Malin Earth, Density Distribution 160 Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 53 Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan Earth’s Structure, Core 164 Continental Crustal Structure 56 Lianxing Wen Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern Earth’s Structure, Global 166 Continental Drift 63 Jean-Paul Montagner Alan G. Smith vi CONTENTS Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 176 Earthquakes, Energy 288 Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara and Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Borman James A. Tyburczy Earthquakes, Intensity 292 Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 183 Gottfried Grünthal and Roger M. W. Musson Guust Nolet Earthquakes, Intraplate 299 Earthquake Lights 189 Prantik Mandal John S. Derr, France St-Laurent, Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault Earthquakes, Location Techniques 301 Clifford H. Thurber Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 193 Toshiyasu Nagao, Masashi Kamogawa and Earthquakes, PAGER 308 Seiya Uyeda David J. Wald, Kishor S. Jaiswal, Kristin D. Marano and Michael Hearne Earthquake Prediction,