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% Bamboo rice Hard-pressed tribals in 's Wayanad Botanists Identify new species of North distict () are making a bountiful American bamboo harvest of bamboo rice, a Two Iowa State University botanists and their much in demand for its medicinal value and colleague at the University of North Carolina as an ingredient in ethnic cuisine. have discovered a new species of North With large stretches of the blossoming American bamboo in the hills of Appalachia. shedding its paddy-like , tribal It is the third known native species of the families gather in bamboo groves with hardy grass. The other two were discovered brooms, baskets and sacks to collect the more than 200 years ago. rice, which was a little supplementary Lynn Clark, Iowa State professor of income this year. A local Scheduled Tribe ecology, evolution and organismal biology, Cooperative Society is buying bamboo rice, and Ph.D. student Jimmy Triplett study brought mostly by the Paniya and Naika bamboo diversity and evolution. They first tribes in the Noolpuzha range of the heard about “hill cane” from a botanist at the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. University of North Carolina. Although the The gruel made of bamboo rice mixed %BEE PRODUCTS plant was known to the people in the area, its with herbs is prescribed for arthritis and distinctiveness was not recognized. rheumatic complaints in indigenous New study of Spanish varieties of Hill cane differs from the other two native medicine. The tribal cuisine has several According to a new study of Spanish North American bamboo species –commonly delicacies made of bamboo rice and wild varieties, honeydew honey has even higher known as switch cane and river cane – in an honey, with which the rural poor survived in levels of disease-fighting antioxidants than important way. It drops its in autumn. times of famine. the honey that bees make from nectar. “That's why it was recognized locally as being Grown in groves, bamboo has a lifespan But all honey, regardless of its origins, is different,” Clark said. “It's pretty uncommon of 12 to 36 years. The blossom only good for you, experts say. In recent years, for to drop their leaves.” once in their life time and perish after honey has gained a reputation as a health Clark should know. She's an shedding rice, leaving it for new shoots to food, especially in the light of research internationally recognized bamboo expert. come up from the stump. Local botanists suggesting that it has germ-fighting She had previously discovered 74 new say that the types of bamboo mostly found powers and is high in antioxidants and species of bamboo. Her 75th species in Wayanad are Bambusa and chemicals that appear to block certain discovery has been named Arundinaria Dendrocalamus strictus, but several other types of cell damage caused by molecules appalachiana. varieties also grow in the area. called free radicals. There are 1 400 known species of bamboo. A family can collect 20 to 30 kg of In 2004, researchers in the United States Of these, about 900 are tropical and 500 are bamboo rice a day. The cooperative buys it of America found that antioxidant levels temperate. The bamboos of North America for Rs10/kg, but private buyers offer higher rose in people who ate between four and are found in the eastern and southeastern prices. The rice is winnowed, husked and ten tablespoons of honey per day, United States, from New Jersey south to packed by the cooperative before being depending on their weight. It was not clear Florida and west to Texas. Giant cane sold. at the time, however, which varieties of (Arundinaria gigantea) occurs in low woods Bamboo blossoming also attracts tourists honey harboured the most antioxidants. and along riverbanks. Switch cane as vast areas of dark and shady forest turn In the new study, researchers looked at (Arundinaria tecta) is found in non-alluvial aglow with yellowish flowers. (Source: The 36 varieties of Spanish honey in two groups, swamps, moist pine areas, live oak woods Hindu [India], 25 February 2007.) clover honey, made by bees from the nectar and along sandy margins of streams. “The of flower blossoms and honeydew honey, United States’ native bamboo has been a very Hong Kong skyscrapers made of bamboo made by bees from a sweet, sticky important plant ecologically,” says Clark. Hong Kong's skyscrapers proudly dot its substance secreted by insects such as “And there's recent interest in using it for shores, giving the island its glossy, modern aphids that live off plants. Honeydew honey revegetation projects because it is native and image. Yet the structures, which are being is only produced in a few parts of the world has been used for habitat by so many built higher and faster every day, owe their and is considered a delicacy in certain different animals, especially birds.” identities to one of the oldest construction regions. Clark and Triplett began looking at the materials in history – bamboo. The researchers performed tests on the North American bamboos as part of a larger Advances in engineering and honeys and reported their findings in the collaboration with botanists worldwide to construction have not been able to outdate February issue of the Journal of the develop an evolutionary family tree of bamboo, a tried and successful material Science of Food and Agriculture. According bamboo species. They are using modern DNA used to construct buildings in China for to the results, honeydew honeys had higher sequencing technologies together with more than a thousand years. Light and levels of antioxidants in general. The traditional plant , which involve cheap bamboo, mostly from southern researchers also report that Spanish observation and description of a plant's form, China, helps Hong Kong's builders sheathe honeydew honeys tend to be darker and anatomy, ecology and other characteristics. entire buildings in a matter of weeks and is more acidic than clover varieties. (Source: Iowa State University [in Science constantly in high demand. (Source: Study coauthor Rosa Ana Perez, a Daily], 13 March 2007.) NDTV.com [India], 23 February 2007.) researcher with the Instituto Madrileño de

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Investigación y Desarrollo Rural, Agrario y manuka honey, honeydew honey can be Alimentario in Madrid, said honeydew used in cooking or dribbled on or PROPOLIS honey from outside of Spain should also fruit. (Source: Pottstown Mercury [United show similar signs of higher levels of States of America], 5 February 2007.) Propolis is the sticky glue used by antioxidants. Honeydew honey is relatively honey bees. It is usually coloured dark rare in the United States. brown, although it may also be , Perez said, however, that honey is not a green, grey or red. Plants are literally miracle food: “I don't think that a foodstuff rooted to the spot where they grow. on its own could allow the improvement of PROFITING FROM This means that threatened by an the health of anyone, or even prevent some HONEY BEES enemy, they cannot get away. They disease.” (Source: HealthDay News, therefore protect themselves with Washington Post [United States of This engaging film looks into the chemical defence systems, which America], 22 February 2007.) traditional and sustainable honey include toxins, bitter tastes and harvesting methods of the communities stinging repellents. Tender buds Rare New Zealand honey leads to sweet living around Danau Sentarum in West provide tasty snacks for insects unless importing business Kalimantan, , one of Southeast defended, and plants often protect The buzz about manuka honey has to do Asia's largest wetlands. their buds with sticky gums. When a with its health benefits, not its flavourful The communities harvest honey from tree is wounded it secretes properties in recipes. The antibacterial- wild honey bees (Apis dorsata) from the around the wound as the first stage of rich honey is produced by bees during the colonies that make the wetlands their the healing process. few weeks a year that New Zealand‘s home. Harvesting up to 25 tonnes of People have great benefit from manuka bushes are in bloom and is touted honey yearly, forest honey is a these powerful plant chemicals and as a remedy for everything from skin significant source of income. many medicines and drugs are derived conditions to digestive disorders. The traditional tikung method is from the plants. Propolis is antibiotic – Known in parts of Europe, New Zealand widely used for honey harvesting in the it has been proved to kill bacteria and and Australia, the product is virtually area. Since there are few tall trees, there are many claims for its medicinal unknown in the United States of America, people facilitate conducive nesting properties. but Fiona Nelson wants to change all that. conditions for the bees by attaching A bee collects propolis by biting off In October, Nelson opened Wedderspoon rafters or tikung to trees. A tikung takes scraps of plant resin with its mandibles Organic, an importing company that is about an hour to prepare and a family and packs them into the corbiculae bringing the honey to the country. She can have tens, or even hundreds of (pollen baskets) on its hind legs. Each currently imports and sells two products. them, whose ownership is passed on of these can carry about 10 mg of Both are stamped with the National from generation to generation. propolis. Because of its stickiness, Organic Program of the United States Also described is the periau, or gathering propolis is a slow business: it Department of Agriculture (USDA). traditional regulations for the use and can take an hour to fill both baskets. Manuka Honey Active 16+ is equivalent management of forest honey. Back at the hive, unloading can take to 16 percent antiseptic solution, according The film aims to underscore how another hour. Propolis is only collected to a testing method developed by the supporting traditional methods of when the temperature is above 18°C. University of Waikato in New Zealand. management are highly effective in Bees use propolis in a variety of ways, People take a spoonful of active manuka ensuring the sustainability of honey in such as keeping their homes dry, cosy honey for such gastrointestinal disorders the area. (Produced by: Riak Bumi, and hygienic. as acid reflux, oesophagus ulcer, Telapak and NTFP Exchange Programme It is not possible to define propolis heartburn, upset stomach, stomach ulcer for South and Southeast Asia, 2005. DVD any more than it is possible to define and irritable bowel syndrome. It is also [25 minutes]. In Bahasa Indonesia with honey – it all depends on what is touted for external use for wound care, English subtitles.) available for the bees. In general, burns, diabetic leg and foot ulcers, propolis consists of , , bedsores and post-operative scar healing. FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE volatile oils and pollen, as well as Nelson said the honey has no expiry date CONTACT: , minerals and plant chemicals because it is organic and does not need Ms Aloisa Zamora-Santos, Information such as flavonoids. The problem for refrigeration. Unlike processed honey Management Officer, Non-Timber Forest people marketing propolis bought for cooking, it does not crystallize. Products Exchange Programme for South commercially is to obtain a The other product, Autumn Forest and Southeast Asia, 92-A Masikap standardized product. Honeydew Honey, is derived from the of Extension, Barangay Central, Diliman, Depending on quality, the world trees. It was named by the Maoris, Quezon City 1101, the . price of propolis is currently around the indigenous people of New Zealand, for Fax: +63 2 4262757; e-mail: US$50/kg. the golden colour of the beech sap in the [email protected]; www.ntfp.org. (Source: Bees for Development, March morning light. Honeydew honey contains (See page 24 for information on another 2007.) complex in greater levels than DVD produced by the Programme.) average floral honeys. It is more readily available than manuka honey but, unlike

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Beekeepers in Australia enjoy massive However, at the end of 2006, the projected that subsidies would potentially honey harvest governor of the large state of Para exacerbate deforestation because farmers Tasmanian beekeepers have reaped a announced a protected reserve of 16.4 would earn more cash from the Brazil nuts massive honey harvest from the state's million ha of forest, with the aim of creating and then reinvest it by clearing forest for native leatherwood trees. The trees, which a huge conservation corridor through the the more lucrative activity of cattle raising. mainly grow in the state's western rain northern Amazon. And in the state over (Source: Field guide to the future. Four forests, produce a unique flavoured honey Para's northern border, Amapa, small ways for communities to think ahead. 2006. for export and domestic markets. Yields communities are taking the Brazil to K. Evans et al.; www.asb.cgiar.org/ma/ this year are expected to be 30 to 40 generate income from the rain forest scenarios/) percent above average. Beekeepers believe without destroying it. “We needed to create the exceptionally warm February weather organizations in the region in order to has made the difference. (Source: ABC strengthen local production,” said Ajama Online [Australia], 8 March 2007.) da Silva Mendes, from the Amapa state department of industry, commerce and minerals. “So the government gave some % BRAZIL NUTS incentives to create cooperatives, together with the communities.” Brazil nuts' path to preservation gatherers and their families Help is at hand for the Amazon rain forest are now able to maintain decent and Brazil's poverty-stricken rural people, livelihoods. And small-scale factories have courtesy of the country's famous native nut. been set up to produce Brazil nut biscuits Brazil nuts are a valuable food source and oil, broadening the range of products with a huge market in Europe and North available for export, meaning that there is a America: up to 7 000 tonnes of unshelled better way for people to obtain a fair price Brazil nuts as an alternative energy nuts and 20 000 tonnes of shelled nuts are for their valuable resource. source shipped every year. And because the trees But there are further problems. A study conducted by the National that supply the nuts grow wild, they offer a Subsidized production in Bolivia is Research Institute of Amazonia (INPA) way for communities to make a living from challenging Brazil's dominance in the demonstrated that waste material from the forest without destroying it, something market. And when, in 2004, the European Brazil nuts can be used by industry and that is now being put to use in the country. Union found that Brazil nuts with shells on commerce. The material can be used to “This is a real financial resource for had traces of aflatoxins, which can cause generate energy both in its natural state as communities,” says Dr Rafael Salomao, who liver cancer, strong regulations were put in well as in the form of subproducts, for works at the Museu Goeldi, one of the most place regarding the nuts. While the example, charcoal, charcoal bricks (pieces important centres for the study of the American limit on aflatoxin levels in Brazil of small charcoal compressed into blocks), Amazon. “A tree which is over 400 years old nuts is 15 parts per billion, the European tar (bio-oil) and gases. can provide for generations and generations.” limit is just four parts per billion. This has The study, a result of the project, “Brazil Brazil nuts are considered to be one of damaged Brazil nut exporters. (Source: nut fruit: potential use as a source of raw the most valuable products to be harvested BBC News, 28 January 2007.) material for energy grid in the State of from undisturbed rain forests. The nuts, Amazonas”, was prepared by INPA known to Brazilians as Castanha do para, Modelling Brazil nut subsidies and technician, Paulo Roberto Guedes Moura, grow uniquely in the Amazon basin. They incentives with guidance provided by the Coordinating are hazardous to collect: each hard outer Over the last decade, settlers have moved Office for Forest Products Research shell weighs over 1 kg. However, they offer to Brazil’s western Acre state and put (CPPF/INPA). an alternative to the way that many areas of significant pressure on the Amazon forests. The study showed that this waste Brazil are trying to develop, by clearing the Most settlers are clearing land for cattle material has potential for use as firewood forest to create areas suitable for grazing pasture. However, half of the farm families in thermal plants, boilers, pottery works, cattle or growing products such as soya. maintain part of their farm as forest in etc. In the form of a subproduct (charcoal For many years, this has meant the order to harvest Brazil nuts. Some policy- and bricks), the waste can be used by the destruction of Brazil nut trees, even after makers have suggested subsidizing Brazil steel industry in making pig (raw) iron. they became officially protected. But nuts to provide incentives to maintain more Moura clarified that during his forests are burned to clear the land and the forest cover. comparative analyses of basic density of Brazil nut tree is very sensitive to fire. After ASB (alternatives to slash and burn) the waste material with other timber three years, the trees are dead. What is researchers used a specially developed species, Brazil nut acts as if it were dense worse for Brazil nut collectors is that once bioeconomic model that explored the wood. In his opinion, the tar is especially the trees have been destroyed, there is interactions of labour, capital and land interesting as it is a sort of wood-based little chance of getting them back. allocation over a 25-year period under bio-oil to generate energy, or for cooking Attempts to replace them have been largely various market and price scenarios. When since it adds taste to smoked products. unsuccessful. Saplings will not grow in they doubled the price of Brazil nuts in the Additionally, the oil can be used in the shade and they take up to 15 years to begin model, they found that the deforestation composition of paving materials and to producing nuts. rate would not decrease. In fact, they increase the durability of wood products. “It

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is highly valuable on the consumer The collected market,” he stressed. Given the fact that the more conspicuous The study was conducted to show that species of insects tend to be well value can be added to waste material that documented, contemporary scientific would otherwise be discarded. Moura said collectors are often focused on obscure that there will be a lack of raw material to taxonomic groups of small but species-rich supply industry and commerce, as in 2004 groups that may be useful as bioindicators. alone, the state of Amazonas produced Amateur collectors, however, still seek some 9 000 tonnes of Brazil nuts. This specimens that are large or beautiful in would generate roughly 18 000 tonnes of terms of colour, shape, texture or other waste material. (Source: Jornal da Ciência, things, with the highest prices going for 24 January 2007 [in Amazon News].) (See those specimens that are rare and in mint page 7 for information on certified Brazil condition. The dead stock insect trade alone nut oil.) runs into tens of millions of dollars annually. The humid tropics of Southeast Asia and South America are generally the most %FOREST INSECTS species-rich areas and thus the most significant suppliers of collectible insects in Eating worms and protecting parks Collectible forest insects the world. However, the United Republic of In an effort to ensure that mopane worms There are basically three reasons why Tanzania not only has many indifferent (Imbrassia belina), in the Uukwaluudhi people collect insects: for subsistence, for genera of insects, but also some specifically Conservancy of Namibia are not professional purposes or purely as a or largely African representatives, including overharvested but utilized in a sustainable recreational hobby. Although collecting is some of extraordinary size and beauty. As manner, the Uukwaluudhi Traditional occasionally broad-based, it is most often elsewhere in the tropics, the more humid Authority (UTA) has set up regulations focused on specific groups of insects sought parts and mountains may be the most governing the harvesting of these worms in for their utilitarian, scientific, ornamental rewarding areas in terms of collectibles, but their forests. or other benefits. the drier woodlands and semi-deserts also Before people start harvesting mopane yield some remarkable specimens. worms, says Veikko Iishila, the Headman of The collectors Amateur collectors everywhere are most Likokola district in the Uukwaluudhi area, a Subsistence. Some traditional cultures in strongly attracted to Lepidoptera and meeting is held to inform the people that Africa and elsewhere depend on Coleoptera, but several other orders include the worms are mature and can be hunting/gathering to some extent, including highly sought-after specimens. (Source: harvested. Each harvester has to have the collecting of insects and their products Springer/Kluwer Academic Publishers, written permission from the UTA or from for food, medicinal purposes, as a source of Forest Entomology in East Africa: Forest other relevant authorities at a fee. Mopane arrow poison, as fish and bird bait, and Insects of Tanzania. 2006. Chapter 9, Forest- harvesting time is usually from March to occasionally for ornamentation (jewellery, based insect industries. H.G. Schabel. (With April. This helps to make sure that forests textiles). kind permission of Springer Science and are not overharvested and that immature Professional. The two distinct categories of Business Media.). worms are not collected. individuals who make a living collecting Iishila said money levied from mopane insects are professional entomologists (who FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: collectors is put into the UTA under the study insects for scientific reasons) and Prof. H. Schabel, 7976 Co I, Custer, WI 54423, chairmanship of King Taapopi and is used commercial collectors (who collect or breed United States of America. to solve community problems. insects on behalf of others or who act as E-mail: [email protected] Mopane worms are large caterpillars intermediaries in the trade of live or dead (See page 59 for information on insect-based that feed on the leaves of the mopane tree insects and their products). Live insect industries in the United Republic of Tanzania.) in southern Africa. They are high in and exhibits (butterfly houses or insect zoos) are , have a gritty texture and a slightly a relatively new but dynamic development in meaty taste when fried; they are the commercialization of insects. considered a delicacy by many people in Amateur. Insect hobbyists come in three Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and South varieties: the aestheticist, the naturalist and Africa. the trophy hunter. Most entomological The Uukwaluudhi Conservancy was hobbyists are attracted to insects for their established through the Community-Based ornamental qualities, while some aspire to Natural Resource Management owning the biggest, most bizarre or rarest programme of the Ministry of Environment specimens available. Some collectors are and Tourism, which enables people to willing to pay thousands of dollars for certain manage and benefit from the natural outstanding specimens. In Japan, for resources in their environment in a instance, where some long-living beetles are sustainable way. (Source: The Namibian, 15 very popular as pets, one trophy stag beetle February 2007.) sold for US$20 000 in the mid-1990s.

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Because demand and competition for kroto have increased in recent years, some areas COLLECTIBLES: BUTTERFLY RANCHING and the are being overharvested and as a result IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA marketing of collectors are finding fewer larvae. To fill the insects their baskets they work on a much shorter The ranching for collectibles started in produced since rotation of host trees, which in turn affects Papua New Guinea, a country that 1974. the ability of the ant populations to recover. considers insects a “national resource” In 1995, over 800 villagers in Papua With less intense harvesting, the ants and in its constitution specifies insect New Guinea supplied stock to IFTA, normally rebuild and recoup quite quickly. conservation as a national objective. In whose staff fills orders from collectors As kroto can only be kept fresh for two 1966, seven rare and magnificent worldwide (especially Japan, Germany days, traders often transport boxes into the birdwing butterflies, Ornithoptera spp. and the United States of America), city on a daily basis. Because of increased (Papilionidae), were declared protected while the profits (less 25 percent for demand and economic necessity, local and a year later the world’s largest administrative costs) return to the traders may take 10–30 kg a day to the butterfly, O. alexandrae Roth, was villagers. market. They also take some dried kroto, proclaimed legally endangered. In 1968, At present, a pair of a certain species which is produced by collectors and can be a law banned the taking of any of the of Ornithoptera, such as O. priamus and kept for six months, but it sells at half the seven species of birdwings threatened O. goliath supremus f. titan, may be price of fresh supplies. with extinction. With these steps, Papua worth up to $300, but some collectors The rapid deterioration of the fresh New Guinea tried to stop unscrupulous have paid thousands for outstanding produce and the need for immediate bioprospectors who had opportunistically specimens. transport represent the biggest hurdles in exploited the country’s spectacular insect Serious butterfly ranchers in Papua marketing kroto. During the high season, fauna with little if any benefit for the New Guinea can earn US$2 500–5 000 traders pay collectors US$1.20–1.40 per kg rightful owners of these resources. per year in a country where the per and then sell to merchants at US$1.60–1.70 In the meantime, most of the capita income is around US$50/year. per kg, leaving little profit after transport formerly threatened birdwings and Villagers that earn revenue from insects costs. The markets sell around 100 other spectacular and sought-after are said to have shown a strong kg of kroto a day at US$3.50–5.00 per kg, insects of Papua New Guinea have tendency to conserve forests, making the merchants the main become available through legal trade. demonstrating the potential of such beneficiaries in the kroto trade. To make This was made possibly by the enterprises to foster ecologically more money, some collectors sell their daily establishment of several wildlife sensitive economic development. harvests directly to small retailers, who are management areas, the development of (Source: Springer/Kluwer Academic often willing to pay more for fresh kroto. butterfly ranching for export as part of Publishers, Forest Entomology in East For many collectors, kroto represents an the country’s rural development Africa: Forest Insects of Tanzania. 2006. important or principal source of income and programme and involvement of an Chapter 9, Forest-based insect industries. is regarded as one of the few ways that poor Insect Farming and Trading Agency H.G. Schabel. (With kind permission of people can earn money from a free (IFTA), which has assured quality control Springer Science and Business Media.). resource. Collectors use the money for subsistence needs or to save for harder times. Farmers often collect the resource as well, as a way of earning some extra money Kroto ant larvae and pupae: the bird food nests in trees. The ants can invade almost in between the two rice harvesting seasons. delicacy any type of tree but tend to prefer fruit trees, (Source: Case study on “Kroto, ant larvae “Kroto” is the Javanese name given to a such as the jackfruit or . A given and pupae”, by Nicolas Césard and Irdez combination of larvae and pupae from the colony may occupy various nests in a single Azhar [in Riches of the forest: food, , Asian weaver ant (mainly Oecophylla tree or even several trees. Located in one of crafts and resins of Asia, eds C. López and P. smaragdina). This mixture is well known to the highest nests is the queen, whose eggs Shanley].) Indonesian bird lovers and local fishers, with are distributed to the other colony sites (Please see page 44 for information on snail the ant larvae being popular as a fishing bait nearby. Weaver ants’ nests are among the farming in Cameroon.) and also as a dietary supplement to improve most complex of ant nests, with the the performance of songbirds. Bird fanciers Oecophylla species using the well developed treat their favourite pets with the protein- silk glands of their larvae to weave together Lac – Corrigendum and -rich kroto when preparing them a nest of living leaves – hence their name. The authors of the article “Cultivation of NTFPs to challenge other birds in singing Throughout the year, kroto is harvested as the best measure of poverty eradication of competitions. and sold on the islands of and . poor tribal cultivators – A case study of lac Weaver ants are found from India to Collecting kroto is a solitary job, which cultivation” printed on pages 28–29 of Non- Australia and throughout the Indonesian begins with the identification of host trees. Wood News 14 should have read: Dr S.P. archipelago, within a wide range of habitats During the dry season, the resource is less Bhardwaj (Principal Scientist) and Dr S.D. including coastal areas, secondary forests abundant but during the wet season the Sharma (Director), Indian Agricultural Statistics and plantations. They are well known for rice-like smaller larvae are more common, Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India. being aggressive predators and for building of a better quality and more highly valued.

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GINSENG Panax species), and labelling rules now (Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha) based on % prohibit it from being marketed under the indigenous knowledge of these plants’ genome library established in name “ginseng”. medicinal and healing properties. China Cultivated ginseng is the farm-grown Considering the global trade in MAPs – After years of study, Liu Shuying and her version, which requires shade arbours, now a US$60 billion industry and still team at the Institute of Applied Chemistry chemical pesticides and fungicides, and growing, especially with the increasing under the Chinese Academy of Sciences intense labour. For generations it was demand worldwide for herbal medicines – have established the first ginseng genome primarily cultivated in Wisconsin (United the potential of MAPs to provide relief from library in China. Including holographic States of America), but it is now widely poverty in South Asia, where 40 percent of material and genetic data, this library is grown in China and on farms around the the world’s poor reside, is tremendous, if it another step forward in the modernization world. can be tapped. of traditional Chinese medicine. Simulated-wild ginseng is a fairly new, However, issues of sustainable Jilin province in northeast China middle category (although experts harvesting – the need to balance the push- currently produces 80 percent of all maintain than thousands of years ago, and-pull factors of commercial demand on ginseng in China and 60 percent of ginseng Koreans grew simulated-wild ginseng in the one hand and conservation of these available on the world market. (Source: forests). valuable plants and their contribution to People's Daily Online, 15 March 2007.) Promoted as an ecologically sustainable biodiversity on the other; the need for alternative to cultivated ginseng, greater value addition at the community simulated-wild plants grow from seeds level and for stronger farmer-industry sown by people in forest conditions that collaboration to realize this; the need for mimic the habitat of wild ginseng. commercial cultivation of important Simulated-wild ginseng is mainly limited to species, as well as for more research areas where ginseng also grows wild – in about the plants and more information the United States of America, in forests including market information and east of the Mississippi River – and it is strategies together with a more supportive raised with no or very few chemicals and policy in the region must be addressed. little tilling. Markets in Asia have been slow Given the increasing value of MAPs, both to acknowledge this as a separate in terms of primary health care and as a category; simulated-wild are easily critical source of livelihoods and income mistaken for wild roots and command a for the rural poor in the region, the higher price than cultivated ones. (Source: International Centre for Integrated Ginseng Ginseng, the divine . The curious Mountain Development (ICIMOD) with history of the plant that captivated the support from the Common Fund for A note on ginseng terms world, by David A. Taylor.) Commodities (CFC), the Netherlands, is Wild ginseng refers to the plant as it grows (Please see page 77 for more information implementing a four-year, US$1.68 million in its native forest, with no help from on this book.) project “Medicinal Plants and Herbs: people. Wild ginseng commands the Developing Sustainable Supply Chain and highest price and is limited to the plant’s Enhancing Rural Livelihoods in the Eastern native range. American ginseng (Panax MEDICINAL PLANTS Himalayas” in three countries, Nepal, quinquefolius) is found in the mountains %AND HERBS and Bhutan, with India east of the Mississippi River, although it providing technical expertise. ICIMOD’s does grow in patches as far west as Medicinal and aromatic plants: the way Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Programme Nebraska. Wild Asian ginseng (Panax out of poverty? in Asia (MAPPA) is the project’s ginseng) is found only in northeastern About 20 000 tonnes of medicinal and implementing agency, with FAO’s China, the Republic of Korea, the aromatic plants (MAPs) worth US$18–20 Intergovernmental Subgroup on Tropical Democratic Republic of Korea and parts of million are traded every year in Nepal Fruits providing a supervisory role. Siberia. alone, and about 90 percent are harvested The project’s overall objective is to Other ginseng relatives are Panax in an uncontrolled fashion by landless, conserve natural resources, reduce poverty notoginseng, found in China as “san chi” or resource-poor mountain farmers for whom and improve livelihoods for mountain “tien chi” ginseng; Panax japonicum, or the harvest and trade in medicinal plants communities of the Himalayan region Japanese ginseng found only in Japan; and constitute their only form of cash income. through the sustainable development and Panax trifolium, known as dwarf ginseng. The situation is similar in Bangladesh, utilization of high-value, low-volume There is a less documented basis for these Bhutan, India and other countries of South MAPs. plants than for the main two ginseng Asia, and 90 percent of the plants from A three-day inception workshop in April species, and they are not nearly so Nepal are exported to India in raw form. launched the project. Participants included valuable. Eleutherococcus senticosus, The greater Himalayan region, in fact, representatives from nodal agencies (focal sometimes called Siberian ginseng, is not a has the comparative advantage of being point organizations for the project in each true ginseng, but a relative in the same home to many MAPs found only there. The country), research and academic institutes, plant family; it has almost no ginsenosides region also has various well-developed non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (the active chemical compounds in the practices in traditional medicines and the private sector. During the

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workshop, ICIMOD and experts from India Artemisia annua: WHO publishes manufacturers to determine the actual shared the latest trends and organic guidelines on cultivating an essential market demand for the plant. Recent practices in MAP cultivation and plant used in antimalaria medicines experience in some countries has shown processing as well as emerging value The World Health Organization (WHO) today that overproduction not only wastes money supply chain practices. publishes guidelines for the cultivation and and time, but it can also have a negative Partners in each country are collection of Artemisia annua L., a Chinese effect on the plant's future yield. Second, implementing the project. In Bangladesh traditional medicinal plant which is the they must ensure the availability of the the nodal agency is the Ministry of source of artemisinin, used to produce the technical skills and expertise needed to Commerce, with the Bangladesh Neem most effective medicines for malaria. The extract artemisinin from dried leaves. Foundation and the Development of guidelines will contribute to improving the The WHO monograph also aims to Biotechnology and Environmental quality of Artemisia annua L. to develop provide a model for countries and Conservation Centre as implementing artemisinin-based medicines further, and researchers to develop further partners. In Bhutan the project will be help ensure a sustainable supply to meet monographs on good agricultural and implemented by the Ministry of market demand. collection practices for other medicinal Agriculture, while the Ministry of Forests Artemisia annua L., used in Chinese plants, and promote the sustainable use of and Soil Conservation is the nodal agency traditional medicine for centuries, is today the plant as part of the larger aim of in Nepal, with the Herbs and Non-Timber considered part of the solution where protecting the wild resources of medicinal Forest Products Coordination Committee, malaria has become resistant to other plants. (Source: World Health Organization, Nepal working with partners to implement medicines. Artemisinin-based combination 12 March 2007.) the project in western Nepal. therapies (ACTs) have been recommended by WHO since 2001 in all countries where Global standard set for wild medicinal FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: falciparum malaria – the most resistant plant harvesting Dr RBS Rawat, Regional Programme form of the disease – is endemic. Since A new standard to promote sustainable Coordinator, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants then, the world market for products management and trade of wild medicinal Programme in Asia (MAPPA), ARID/ICIMOD, containing artemisinin derivatives has and aromatic plants was launched on International Centre for Integrated Mountain grown rapidly. However, not all artemisinin Friday in Nuremberg at Biofach, the World Development, ICIMOD, Khumaltar, PO Box 3226, meets the required standards to produce Organic Trade Fair. The standard is needed Kathmandu, Nepal. E-mail: [email protected] quality medicines, making it all the more to ensure plants used in medicine and urgent to promote best practices in the cosmetics are not overexploited. cultivation and collection of the raw About 15 000 species or 21 percent of all material used to make the combination medicinal and aromatic plant species are therapy. at risk, according to the report by the MOUNTAIN MEDICINAL PLANTS About 40 percent of the world's Medicinal Plant Specialist Group of the population is at risk of contracting malaria World Conservation Union’s (IUCN) Species Medicinal plants are one of the most which is resistant to other medicines. Of Survival Commission that sets forth the valuable resources at high altitudes. the 76 countries needing artemisinin- new standard. For example, 1 748 species from the based treatment today, 69 have adopted the More than 400 000 tonnes of medicinal Indian Himalayas are used for local WHO recommendation to use this therapy. and aromatic plants are traded every year, medicinal treatment or for trade, The availability of these treatments still and about 80 percent of these species are involving the pharmaceutical industry. falls short of what is needed. Of an harvested from the wild. Roughly a third grow in the subalpine estimated 600 million people needing ACTs Almost 70 000 species are involved, or alpine zone. Cultivation of medicinal worldwide, only about 82 million are many of them in danger of overexploitation plants instead of harvesting wild receiving the treatment through public or extinction through overharvesting and plants, which often causes local sector distribution systems (which habitat loss. In India, for instance, 319 extinction of highly priced medicinal constitute 90 percent of antimalarial medicinal plants are listed as threatened species, and local processing instead of distribution in developing countries). by IUCN. exporting raw material, are two The WHO monograph on good In Ecuador, one of the best known strategies that can ensure the agricultural and collection practices for medical herbs in the world, cascarilla sustainable use of medicinal plants and Artemisia annua L. provides a detailed Cinchona pubescens – the original source increase the incomes of mountain description of the cultivation and collection of the antimalarial drug – may be dwellers. (Source: Flyer, International techniques and measures required for a threatened as a result of overexploitation, Mountain Day 2006, FAO.) harvest to meet quality requirements. The according to the World Wide Fund for information is based on research data and Nature (WWF). Today the herb is used to the practical experience of several treat a variety of ailments, from upset countries where successful cultivation stomachs to immune system problems. practices have led to a high yield of good In Eastern Europe, unsustainable quality Artemisia annua L. collection of the wild herb pheasant's eye, The authors of the guidelines caution Adonis vernalis, used to treat cardiac governments on two fronts. First, they ailments, has led to declines throughout must ensure that farmers work with the plant's range, says WWF, and today the

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species is protected from collection in major boon in cultivating medicinal and commercial crops (such as safed musli and many countries. aromatic plants (MAPs), which are on high ashwagandha), increase in labour costs, In the United States of America, large demand in the international as well as the little enthusiasm for processing and value quantities of American ginseng, Panax national market. The Government, semi- addition techniques and other marketing quinquefolius and goldenseal, Hydrastis government, NGOs, private industries and problems, farmers are rapidly decreasing canadensis, are collected in the wild. even individuals were largely attracted the area under MAP cultivation. The cases Although much of the ginseng exported from because of the high cost of raw materials of of failures in cultivation and marketing of the United States is now cultivated, enough species such as safed musli (Chlorophytum selected species are more than successful collection of the wild plant occurs that trade borivillianum), sarpgandha (Rauvolfia cases in the study area. This situation in the species is now regulated. Both ginseng serpentina), lemon grass (Cymbopogon needs special attention from government, and goldenseal are listed in Appendix II of martinii), stevia (Stevia rebundiana) and traders and the industry. the Convention on International Trade in coleus (Coleus forskohlii). The survey of the study area clearly Endangered Species of Wild Flora and The state and central government indicates that the cultivation of selected Fauna, which allows trade in these plants launched a massive campaign to promote species is not remunerative for small only through a permitting system. large-scale cultivation of some 20 to 30 landholding farmers. Overall, the false hopes About 90 percent of the ginseng species by giving subsidies and loans to given by planting material suppliers, exported from the United States each year farmers. The basic aim of the campaign is to consultants and the industry, along with goes to countries in East Asia. The United conserve medicinal plants from the forest, farmers’ own mistakes in cultivation and States imports hundreds of thousands of increase rural employment and income and processing, have led the small farmers of the tonnes of many different herbs each year to also increase exports. Because of the Malwa region to start reducing the cultivation support its US$3 billion market. decreasing availability of raw material from area even further. (Source: extracted from Following extensive consultation with the forest and the Coleus forskohlii high the executive summary of a project report plant experts and the herbal products costs of planting material and raw products, submitted to the Indian Institute of Forest industry, the International Standard for several companies and progressive farmers Management (IIFM), Bhopal, Madhya Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and have started large-scale cultivation of Pradesh, India in October 2006 by Dr Manish Aromatic Plants, ISSC-MAP, was drawn up highlighted species. As a result there is a Mishra and Dr P C Kotwal.) by the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group. The scarcity of planting material, crop suitability, German Federal Agency for Nature market and proper management. FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT Conservation was involved in the consultation Therefore, in the last decade or so the THE CONTRIBUTOR: together with WWF-Germany, and the area under medicinal crop cultivation has Dr Manish Mishra, Faculty of Ecosystem wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC, greatly increased because of the attractive Management, IIFM, Nehru Nagar, Bhopal, plus industry associations, companies, and remunerative market prices in both the Madhya Pradesh, India. Pin: 262003. certifiers and community-based NGOs. international and national markets. However, E-mail: [email protected]; The standard is based on six principles – more recently, through lack of market www.iifmnmpbmis.org/ maintaining medicinal and aromatic plant demand, low prices, high planting material resources in the wild, preventing negative and production costs, increasing labour environmental impacts, legal compliance, costs, less local and Industrial consumption, respecting customary rights, applying and more production, the market for these responsible management practices and commercially cultivated medicinal plants has applying responsible business practices. crashed. As a result, small-scale farmers Traditional Medicinals, a Californian failed to sell their produce (wet) in the local herbal medicine company, is testing the market: the cost of the raw or wet product application of the new standard to the dropped considerably and there were no collection of bearberry, a shrub whose buyers. Hence, some farmers left the leaves are used to treat the kidney, bladder cultivation or sold their produce at bargain and urinary tract. prices in the local market. To view the Medicinal Plant Specialist A recent report examines the various Rauvolfia serpentina Group paper that sets forth the complete causes of success and failures in the standard, please visit: cultivation of ashwagandha, safed musli, % www.floraweb.de/ proxy/floraweb/MAP- asaria, coleus and stevia plants in the pro/Standard_Version1_0.pdf Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh state. For Masses of moss (Source: Environment News Service [United several reasons, the market for the much Moss has been harvested in Scotland, the States of America], 20 February 2007.) sought after wonder crop safed musli has United Kingdom, for thousands of years and drastically crashed in the last one to two still is, although until recently very little was Assessment of success and failures in years. It has been flooded by the cultivated known about it outside harvesting circles. A cultivation, processing and marketing of medicinal crop and there were no buyers recent four-month study investigated moss medicinal plants in the Malwa region, for the raw material produced particularly harvesting in the country, involving contact Central India by small-scale farmers of the region. with 308 harvesters, traders, landowners, During the last decade India, particularly The study reveals that because of bryologists (moss experts) and informants Madhya Pradesh state, has observed a market saturation (overproduction) of on the illegal trade. The study comes at a

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time of increasing interest in NTFPs from the to a wealth of however and those annually and 125 jobs. Landowners charging Forestry Commission Scotland, private growing in non-native conifer plantations permit fees make on average very little landowners, community woodland groups offer opportunities for harvesters, either for money from moss harvesting but welcome and conservation bodies alike. personal use or commercial sale. the diversification of land activities. Today moss is harvested for use in the The study found that moss harvesting One-third of all landowners contacted floristry and horticultural trades and does occur throughout Scotland and on a had experience of moss harvesting in their represents a worldwide commodity (see variety of scales; from large-scale forests, although large-scale harvesting is article on moss harvesting in the Pacific commercial harvesting enterprises to concentrated in the expansive forests in the Northwest, Non-Wood News 13). In individual florists and garden centres south of the country. Cases of illegal moss Scotland, 70 percent of florists and 60 supplying their own needs, to individuals harvesting from bogs do occur and percent of garden centres trade in moss, harvesting for personal or charitable these cause concern over the sustainability although the majority of these import their purposes. As much illegal harvesting, i.e. and legality of the practice, thus damaging supplies from wholesalers in England or the without landowner permission, is thought to the industries’ reputation. However, most Netherlands, who in turn source most of occur as legal harvesting. Estimations put harvesting concentrates on just four their moss from across the European Union the total value of the harvest and trade of genera, Pleurozium, Polytrichum, (EU). Given its wet climate, Scotland is home Scottish-grown moss at UK£0.5 million Pseudoscleropodium and Sphagnum, the

MOSS GATHERING IN THE UNITED the resource is formed. If the end goal is through hoops, but never lifting a finger STATES OF AMERICA moss conservation, maybe efforts should to help him the way they do other first target the widespread destruction of stakeholders. However, he might be The following e-mail exchange of March moss habitat that occurs from clearcut persuaded to collect some data if he were 2007 presents interesting points of view on logging, mountain top removal for coal, offered money and training to do so. That moss harvesting guidelines. freeway construction, housing would be the sort of positive step that developments, etc. I suspect the impact could bring people like Kurt into discussions Proposal from JeriLynn E. Peck from harvesting is nothing compared with like these. It would send a message to him A number of us have been asked to pull these other activities. that he is not viewed negatively by together some draft guidelines for the Harvesters have no power and so an management and science, but actually is commercial harvest of mosses for attack on their livelihoods by science will seen as someone with important skills and discussion and distribution among the only push them more underground. How knowledge to contribute. members of the International Association do we as scientists and managers protect I mean no disrespect to the research you of Bryologists (IAB) at the annual meeting the good harvesters that are trying to have done, every little bit helps. However, this summer, with the ultimate intent of make some money while also trying to in reality we have so little information on providing IAB-approved general harvest understand and safeguard their moss moss it seems premature and guidelines. We are just starting to think patches? presumptuous to create guidelines for how about this, so I wanted to throw out to What would be great is to figure out a to harvest moss before we really investigate anyone who might wish to provide some way for a much greater number of what harvesters are doing. input the opportunity to provide some harvesters to be brought into the What if we tabled that idea and instead guidance on developing the guidelines! knowledge-sharing fold. I have yet to see worked to do the following three things. Specifically, any advice/documents/ Web a single scientific study that has • Submitted grants for serious in-depth links referring to existing guidelines for interviewed and documented the ethnobotantical research on moss moss or similar NTFPs or to the process of techniques and tools of harvesters and harvesting culture, knowledge and developing workable guidelines would then tested them. Instead, what so often technology/techniques. help ensure that we think about seems to happen is a harvester gets busted • Developed a strategy for educating everything that we should. (JeriLynn E. “poaching” moss and the pictures end up land managers about conservation (e.g. Peck, Research Fellow, 207 Forest Resources in the newspaper. Fear then spreads to all less damage to moss from logging). Building, Penn State, University Park, PA of us, scientists and managers included, • Worked to promote opportunities for 16802, United States of America; that harvesting equals resource harvester involvement in knowledge http://silv.cas.psu.edu/jp.htm; destruction. generation, such as data collection. www.strengthinperspective.com/JPmoss) My friend Kurt is just one of many good (Eric T. Jones, Ph.D., Environmental Response/proposal from Eric Jones people out there harvesting who could be Anthropologist, Institute for Culture and I suppose the creation of harvesting a great resource, but there is no way he or Ecology, (501c3), PO Box 6688, Portland, guidelines could be a positive step towards other harvesters are going to participate Oregon 97228-6688, United States of moss conservation, but so often these sorts in the process the way things are now. He America. E-mail: [email protected]; of efforts seem to do more to disrupt doesn't speak science, doesn't have extra www.ifcae.org) harvesting patterns, such as the way in time or money and he resents (Minor edits have been made for which local knowledge about stewarding management for making him jump clarification purposes only.)

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harvested species of which are all wound dressing that is said to have saved making the native bark cloth known as tapa. considered common and widespread. The thousands of lives during the First World The plant also has other less important uses. knowledge and practice of sustainable War. It is also used as a potting material Fruit. The sweetish fruits are edible, harvesting techniques among large-scale and soil conditioner. although where only male clones are harvesters were also found to be high. However, sphagnum’s potential as a present, such as in the Pacific Basin, no fruit Although conifer plantations are subject to NTFP should be limited to small-scale is formed. cyclical disturbances during felling development, as extensive harvesting is vegetable. In Indonesia, the steamed operations and, as such, moss harvesting leading to the destruction of many natural young leaves are eaten. pales into ecological insignificance, bogs, a delicate ecosystem that takes Medicinal. In Hawai‘i, the slimy sap was used bryologists recommend that places such as centuries to develop. (Source: Our Life, as a laxative and the ash of burnt tapa was streams, springs and rock outcrops where Medicine Path: Non-Timber Forest used for treating thrush. In Samoa, an rare mosses may be found should be Products of the Boreal. Taiga Rescue infusion of the crushed leaves is sometimes avoided during harvesting. Network fact sheet.) taken as a potion for treating stomach pains To conclude, market opportunities exist and ill-defined abdominal pains. The leaf, for Scottish-grown moss to replace current bark and fruit are used medicinally in Viet imports from elsewhere in the EU. Despite PAPER MULBERRY Nam, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic the ecological sensitivity demonstrated by %(BROUSSONETIA and Cambodia. many harvesters, concerns over the PAPYRIFERA) Animal fodder. The leaves are fed to pigs in sustainability of harvesting must be Viet Nam, the Lao People’s Democratic addressed in order to build confidence in the Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) Republic and Cambodia and to silkworms in industry. A code of conduct for moss is native to Japan and Taiwan Province of China. harvesting in Scotland is currently being China and is an ancient introduction across Fuelwood. After removing the bark for tapa, developed and is hugely welcomed as a way the Pacific as far east as Hawai‘i. Although the stems can be used for kindling. to promote this NTFP-based industry, for the tree is fertile in its native range, the Fibre/clothing. The inner bark has been which Scotland has great potential. plants carried into the Pacific were all male used for centuries in Southeast Asia for For a copy of the full report on which this clones, transported and planted as paper and textiles. The bark is traditionally article is based and for more information on rootstock or stems. Thus, the female plants used in Polynesia to make tapa. the code of conduct, please visit: with flowers and fruit are absent. The finest and most delicate tapa in www.forestharvest.org.uk The tree reaches a height of 12 m or Polynesia was made in Hawai‘i. Nowadays, (Contributed by: Sam Staddon, Institute of more if allowed to grow, but in practice it is however, tapa making in the Pacific is Geography, University of Edinburgh, usually harvested at a much shorter height limited to Tonga and Fiji and, to a lesser Edinburgh EH8 9QP, United Kingdom. when the stems are about 2.5 cm in E-mail: [email protected] diameter and 3–4 m tall. The tree was very important in traditional Polynesian culture, as its bark supplied one of the most THE MAKING OF TAPA CLOTH important materials in ancient Polynesia, tapa cloth. The bark is stripped from the cut stems Today, the tree has disappeared from by making a lengthwise incision across most of its traditional range and is the stem and pulling it off intact to cultivated to any extent only in Tonga, Fiji obtain a single long strip. The inner and Samoa. It is important in these places bark, or bast, is then separated from the because it is a major source of handicraft outer bark, and any green matter income in the form of finished tapa cloth. remaining on the bast is removed using Although it is no longer used in Polynesia scrapers; the bast is then washed to for clothing, in Tonga and Samoa tapa cloth remove the slimy sap. The strips are is still worn during ceremonial occasions pounded on a wooden anvil using a Sphagnum sp. such as festivals or dances. It does not last square beater made of a hard wood. very long when worn as everyday clothing. Two or three of the strips are then Sphagnum moss (Sphagnum sp.) The tree is grown in plantations and felted together by the pounding, helped Sphagnum moss has long been used for its home gardens on islands where tapa cloth by the stickiness of the bark. Several of medicinal properties. The entire plant is is still made. It can tolerate a wide range of the resulting sheets are often pounded antiseptic and a tar extracted from the environmental extremes and even does together in layers to increase the decaying moss is particularly valuable as well in temperate climates (its native thickness or to cover over thin spots or an external treatment for a variety of skin habitat). Since only the male clones are holes in the individual sheets. A bit of diseases, including eczema and psoriasis. present in Polynesia, the tree has no paste in the sprinkling water is usually Yet it is the plant’s incredible absorptive potential for becoming invasive. used at this point. These white tapas are properties that have made their mark on then painted or, as in Hawai‘i, printed modern field medicine. When thoroughly Uses and products with decorative designs. dried, sphagnum is able to absorb 16 times The most significant part of the paper its weight of water, making it an excellent mulberry is its strong, fibrous bark used in

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extent, Samoa, and the tree and the art are windows, boats and furniture). Farmers Compatible extraction: wood and resin nearly forgotten everywhere else. also use the unprocessed round wooden Pine trees are ready for /dye. Charcoal from the wood makes poles for building houses. The resin is used around the same time they reach a sufficient one of the best permanent black inks for as an industrial component to make diameter for timber logging – upwards of 20 tapa designs. products such as colophony (processed cm. However, the felling of trees generally Rope/cordage/string. The bark fibre can be resin) and , which are in high takes place two to four years after the resin is used to make rough cordage, as can the demand for the production of paints, tapped, to ensure a good harvest of both roots. , adhesives and disinfectants. products: resin and pine logs. Ceremonial/religious importance. The bark Most of Cuba's pine resin is exported to Resin tapping involves producing a central cloth is used ceremonially in Tonga, Fiji and several countries including Mexico, India wound in the trunk, at a height of around 1.6 Samoa. In Hawai‘i, tapa was important in and Spain. One tonne of crude resin has a m above the ground, along with additional, burial wrapping and other funerary market value of around US$350, tripling in small wounds called picas, which point customs. value once it is distilled. downwards in a V-shape. To prepare the tree (Source: extracted from Traditional Trees Pine trees in Cuba have a long history of for tapping, a section of trunk, at a width of of Pacific Islands, ed. Craig R. Elevitch. use, stretching from precolonial times up to around 65 cm, is debarked. This is the 2006. Full text available for downloading the present day. Pinus caribaea is part of the surface area that resin will be extracted from from: http://www.traditionaltree.org) natural vegetation of Cuba and is distributed over the next 40 to 44 weeks, using a mainly across Pinar del Río. This province is technique that allows the tree to continue FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT home to approximately 100 000 ha of pine living and growing until its timber is THE AUTHORS BELOW: trees, 70 percent of which are plantation harvested. W. Arthur Whistler, Isle Botanica, 2814 Kalawao based. Here, nearly 200 families are actively To stimulate the flow of resin a central St, Honolulu, Hawai’i 96822, United States of involved in the collection of pine resin. At wound is cut, below which a metallic funnel is America; http://www.Islebotanica.com present, the average Cuban monthly wage is hung, leading to a collection pot. Connected and Craig R. Elevitch, Permanent Agriculture 250 pesos, but resin extractors can earn to the central wound, several picas are then Resources, PO Box 428, Holualoa, almost three times this amount. One tonne made, each about 5 mm in depth and 10 mm Hawai‘i 96725, United States of America. of resin fetches around 663 pesos and, on in length. An additional incision is made each E-mail: [email protected] average, an extractor can produce 1.5 to 2 week to maintain the resin flow. Once the tonnes per month. resin channels are accessed, the thick, sticky In Cuba, industrial resin processing resin slowly exudes from the trunk for up to began in the mid-1980s. In the 17 years 25 hours. This is collected and deposited into between 1985 and 2002, a total of 12 500 200 kg tanks or cans, which are transported tonnes was produced – 80 percent of which to plant processors or export companies. A were exported. In the first year of single Pinus caribaea tree can yield about 4 production the output was around 70 kg of resin per year, which is equivalent to tonnes, increasing to almost 1 200 in 1989. around 2 tonnes of resin per ha. Each However, following the country's economic extractor is responsible for a production area

resins of Asia” crisis in 1990, the annual output of 6 to 10 ha (containing 2 000 to 5 000 pine plummeted to less than 200 tonnes. trees) – from which they collect between 15 In recent years research efforts have and 30 tonnes of resin annually. focused on the processing of resin products All resin extractors are linked with the Broussonetia papyrifera “Riches of the forest: food, spices, creafts and for export, using nationally developed State Forestry Company, which establishes technologies. As a result, production levels the payment system, and the Cuban Forest %PINE PRODUCTS have rapidly risen. In Pinar del Río, Commission keeps them informed about raw approximately 1 200 tonnes of resin have material prices, trade conditions and product Pine resin: turpentine, paints and been produced per year since 2000 and the commercialization. The present from Cuban trees forecast is for production to increase to management of pine trees and resin Turpentine is one of the products around 5 000 tonnes per year. The extraction includes the application of manufactured from the thick, translucent establishment of several factories has appropriate technologies and a focus on the pine resin extracted from tall coniferous helped to boost the volume being processed. conservation of pines – guaranteeing ongoing pine trees. Different Pinus species can be The fluctuations of resin production and wood and resin production. The extractors found growing naturally in various parts of the development of new processing benefit through stable employment and the the world, including Europe and Asia. technology are part of Cuba's recent use of techniques that ensure a high quality Species such as Pinus radiata are also economic and political history. Through the resin. If such conditions are maintained, this grown within plantations in many countries, efforts of its citizens, and through all bodes well for a sustainable future for the given the well-developed market for pine government support and research, Cuba industry. (Source: case study on pine resin, by products and the versatility of the timber. has managed to make its intensive Ynocente Betancourt Figueras and Maria In Cuba, Pinus caribaea (known as “male agricultural and industrial activities more Josefa Villalba Fonte [in Riches of the forest: pine”) is used for both its timber and resin. sustainable both socially and fruits, remedies and handicrafts in Latin The processed pine wood is used for a wide environmentally. The pine resin industry is America, eds C. López, P. Shanley and A.C. variety of construction purposes (doors, one such example. Fantini].)

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especialmente a nivel local que participan en la validación del marco jurídico forestal PINE RESIN PRODUCTION y del PRONAFOR (Programa Nacional forestal), llevando a cabo procesos locales The following is a reply from FAO’s NWFP Programme to a de carácter piloto de los cuales surjan reader in Fiji regarding an inquiry on pine resin production. propuestas para su mejoramiento y Regarding general information about pine resin (tapping dinámicas participativas para su techniques, markets, etc.), I am pleased to invite you to browse our implementación. El FNPP, Apoyo a la online publication on pine tapping (Gum naval stores: turpentine and Operacionalización del Marco Jurídico from pine resin, www.fao.org/docrep/v6460e/ v6460e00.htm). The techniques Forestal y del Programa Nacional Forestal described are still valid, although the market information is a bit outdated. Since its trabaja en Honduras desde enero de 2005 publication, China has reinforced its dominant place in the global rosin market. en tres áreas pilotos: Villa San Antonio, Here is the reply to your two specific questions MAMUCA y Gualaco. 1. To collect and export raw pine resin ... which are the best markets for export? En la comunidad de Protección, Villa de First, raw pine resin is not a commodity for international trade. It needs to be San Antonio, a unos 50 km al oeste de la refined locally, from which rosin is an exportable raw material. Investment costs for capital, Tegucigalpa, un grupo de mujeres setting up a resin refinery are relatively low (see estimate in the above publication). fueron capacitadas para elaborar artesanías Please check also the species of pines available for tapping, as not all pine species con acículas de pino a través del Proyecto are fully suitable to yield marketable resins (rosin from some pine species commands FNPP. La Villa de San Antonio, es una much higher prices). In addition, please be aware that tapping pines is damaging to comunidad forestal, enclavada en un bosque their stems and that the wood from tapped pines sells at lower prices (so there will de pino y tiene organizada una cooperativa be an economic trade-off to be calculated between extra income from tapping pines que se dedica al aprovechamiento de la versus selling the wood at a lower price). madera, a la extracción de resina de pino y The best markets to look for from Fiji for the rosin would be China (that cannot además poseen un pequeño aserradero y get enough of it for its fast-growing chemical industries), but also Japan, the una carpintería, estas labores son realizadas Republic of Korea or nearby New Zealand and Australia. The rosin market is very por los hombres. competitive, so production “costs” would have to be very low in order to be able to Alrededor de 20 mujeres de la comunidad sell at a profit. se capacitaron en noviembre pasado para 2. To manufacture resin-based products ... what are the best products, which fetch elaborar artesanías utilizando las hojas de high returns? pino, las cuales son «cosechadas» después Raw pine resin can be refined into (solid) rosin (which is the most common resin- que los árboles son derribados para based product and maybe the best suitable product in your case). It is exported in aprovechar la madera; la capacitación duró barrels. Eventually the capture of the volatile substances during the refinery process un par de semanas, al final de las cuales el can also be envisaged, but this requires substantial higher investment. Rosin is a raw ingenio humano y la imaginación se ponen a material for the chemical industries (e.g. paint, varnishes, prints, flavours and prueba, porque las personas comenzaron a fragrances). elaborar diferentes objetos, para adorno o For Fiji, my suggestion would be to go into the “tourist-curious” type of products para uso práctico de los hogares. Ésta es una and produce from the rosin an oil-based “aromatherapy type of fragrance substance” actividad innovadora en la zona y en las sold in small glass flasks to tourists at a high prices. áreas que trabaja el FNPP, utilizando (Please contact us at the address on the first page for a hard copy of the publication productos forestales no madereros, por mentioned.) ejemplo las acículas, que durante años se quemaban en la época de incendios forestales. Esta actividad es realizada por mujeres de todas las edades que han estado Pine bark extract shows promise for body of research reporting the antidiabetic siempre al margen de las actividades slowing uptake effects of the pine bark extract, productivas que genera el bosque. Esta Extracts from French maritime pine bark Pycnogenol. actividad significa ingresos para los hogares. may inhibit an enzyme linked to glucose The product is extracted from the bark of Además, la capacitación para su aprendizaje absorption 190 times more than a synthetic the maritime pine that grows on the fue realizada por mujeres de otra medication, says new research from southern coast of France and is currently comunidad, las cuales no formaban parte del Germany that could offer significant used in over 400 dietary supplements, proyecto, lo cual evidencia la solidaridad benefits for diabetics if the results can be multivitamins and health products. entre grupos de mujeres. translated from the laboratory to humans. (Source: NutraIngredients-usa.com Además de los beneficios indirectos que The results of the new study, published [France], 9 February 2007.) aportan para la protección del bosque, el online in the Elsevier journal Diabetes beneficio directo es que los ingresos Research and Clinical Practice Mujeres elaboran artesanías con acículas monetarios aumentaron sustancialmente en (“Oligomeric procyanidins of French de pino en Honduras las familias que se dedican a esta labor, ya maritime pine bark extract [Pycnogenol] El Programa de Cooperación entre la FAO y que una pieza la pueden vender en alrededor effectively inhibit alpha-glucosidase”, by A. los Países Bajos (FNPP, siglas en inglés), de $15, producto de dos días de trabajo. Ésta Schafer and P. Hogger), add to a growing brinda una oportunidad a diversos actores, es una actividad temporal puesto que el

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grupo necesita apoyo en el proceso de develop a processing plant. This project will For example, turpentine can be obtained mercadeo. probably be funded in 2007. (Source: Sierra from the oleoresins of all pine species, A pesar de que Honduras tiene más de Madre Alliance [SMA] Update, March 2007.) although trees from warmer areas generally dos millones de ha de bosques de pino, son give higher yields, making the process more muy pocas las comunidades que poseen esta FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: economically viable. The that can also experiencia de aprovechamiento de las Sierra Madre Alliance, PO Box 40474, be extracted from these resins can be used acículas del pino. Tucson, AZ 85717, United States of America. for waterproofing and as a wood Aportado por Renán Mairena, FNPP Fax: 011 52 614 412-0420; preservative. Honduras, [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]; Certain species are also edible and can be www.sierramadrealliance.org/index.shtml used for medicinal purposes. For example, in PARA MÁS INFORMACIÓN, DIRIGIRSE A: the northeastern Russian Federation Pinus Agenda Forestal Hondureña production in the Kozac region of pumilla (dwarf Siberian pine) produces Col Palmira, Avenida República del Perú, Turkey edible pine nuts and the inner bark of Pinus costado norte del Parque Benito Juárez, Some 27 percent of (Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), which ranges across casa No. 402, Tegucigalpa, Honduras pinea) forests in Turkey are located in the northern Europe and well into the Russian Correo electrónico: [email protected] 16 villages of the Kozac region. They boreal, has been ground up and used to www.agendaforestalhn.org/noticias207.htm produce about 1 000 of the 1 300 tonnes of make bread in times of famine. the country’s annual yield of pine nuts, 80 In terms of medicinal uses, Pinus percent of which are exported. Of the 18 sylvestris is also valued for its antiseptic 600 ha of stone pines in the area, 16 500 ha properties and its positive effects on the are on private land, 1 400 ha belong to respiratory system; its essential oil is often villages and 700 ha are private plantations used in aromatherapy. (Source: Our Life, in state forests. Medicine Path: Non-Timber Forest Products Rising revenues from pine nuts have of the Boreal. Taiga Rescue Network fact encouraged people to convert vineyards, fruit sheet.) gardens and degraded coppice lands into stone pine stands. Higher incomes have allowed them to invest in agriculture, Pine nut harvesting in Mexico horticulture and animal husbandry, thereby Every seven years, hundreds of tonnes of diversifying their economic base as well as piñon nuts are wild harvested in the Sierra. that of the region. Because stone pine forests These pink nuts bring the highest value on make good grazing lands, integrated land the global market – 800 pesos per kg in use became more common. Manure Mexico. fertilizes the soil and the trees’ large canopy The problem is that thousands of protects grass from the sun so that it stays harvesters from all over Chihuahua descend green longer and develops better. The areas America” on the ejidos (communal land) on the are opened to animals only when trees reach eastern foothills of the Sierra, most notably a certain age so that no damage occurs. Balleza, to harvest this natural production. Because selling pine nuts has increased The local people also harvest, but receive incomes and employment levels, the Kozac nothing from outside harvesters. The region has experienced significant changes Tarahumara and mestizos (people of mixed in socio-economic conditions: health blood) in the region want to control services and infrastructure have improved, “Riches of the forest: fruits, remedies and handicrafts in Latin production and develop value-added education has increased, etc. These benefits enterprises such as shelling, packaging, have created a unity not seen in other parts and the production of chocolates, sweets of the country and fostered the development % and other products with pine nuts. of business cooperatives that not only have Piñon pines produce large quantities of increased bargaining power but also created Halting the rapid disappearance of the nuts every seven years. In their shells, the jobs. (Source: extracted from Better forestry, world’s rattan resources nuts store for years, so a community can less poverty: a practitioner’s guide. FAO Unlike bamboo, which is quite widely store the harvest and have products on a Forestry Paper 149. 2006. Rome. ISBN 92-5- cultivated because of its versatility and sustainable level for five or six years. 105550-5; www.fao.org/docrep/ importance in trade, most of the rattan Smaller intermittent harvests could also 009/a0645e/a0645e00.HTM) people use is collected from the wild. But, sustain production during off years. apart from timber, rattan is now one of the With support from Sierra Madre Pine products from boreal forests most economically important products Alliance, agronomist Nora Jacques has A large number of pine species are found from the moist tropical forests of Asia and helped a group in Ejido Baquiriachi to throughout the boreal forest and many of West Africa. Overharvesting is becoming a organize, evaluate the feasibility of the these species make a significant serious threat – both to the survival of project and develop proposals to purchase contribution to the local economy, beyond rattan populations and the livelihoods of 10 tonnes of nuts from harvesters and to the obvious harvesting of timber. the people who depend on them.

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However, despite their economic and resources. What we do know is that rattan’s Drying and sometimes sulphur social significance, there are hardly any forest habitats are shrinking while demand fumigation follow oil curing. Drying is reliable data on rattan resources. Rattan is and extraction rates are increasing. determined complete by weight, colour and part of the forest undergrowth so it is not The International Network for Bamboo the pitch of the sound made when a cane is picked up by the remote sensing and Rattan (INBAR) aims to increase rapped on the ground. Drying is crucial to techniques used in routine forest awareness of the threats to rattan quality. Sulphur fumigation kills insect inventories. It is, therefore, hard to evaluate resources as a first step in promoting their larvae and enhances colour. the true state of the world’s rattan sustainable management and use. At the Bringing rattan to market is not thought same time methods of gathering basic to create significant environmental damage information should be developed as to how or danger to workers. Undesirable canes much rattan remains and where it is, and to can cause litter and monetary waste. Care RATTAN encourage organizations to go out and must be taken in using hand tools and collect such information. Sustainable personal protective equipment is a wise are spiny, climbing palms. Some management and harvesting methods choice to protect the respiratory system. 600 species grow in the tropical forests must also be developed and show how they Rattan resources can be renewable. of Asia and Africa, with around 50 can be applied in natural rain and monsoon Research is critical to the ecosystem and the traded commercially. Unlike bamboo, forests and assist in developing and people who work in the industry. Cultivation rattan does not regrow rapidly and is demonstrating ways of growing rattan in efforts have seen small successes but seldom sustainably managed. plantations. (Source: In partnership for a deforestation threatens rattan’s natural Overexploitation and loss of habitat better world – strategy to the year 2015. habitats. Rattan’s value protects trees from have led to a dramatic reduction in the 2006. INBAR, Beijing, China.) cutting as it supports families. (Contributed resource over the last 50 years. by: Rebecca Arrington, Side Porch Ind., LLC, Rattan is used locally for bridges, 2705 W. Buno Rd, Milford, Mi 48380, United netting and baskets. Most is gathered by States of America; e-mail: [email protected]) villagers and forest dwellers and in some (Please see page 52 for information on places communities have developed participatory rattan management in Nepal.) advanced management systems, such as the rattan gardens in Kalimantan, Indonesia. % WILDLIFE Commercially, rattan is mainly used spirit in Africa” to make furniture and craft goods for export. Rattan collection is often

separated from manufacture so the “Riches of the forest: for health, life and poorest people do not benefit from the People obtain more than 20 percent of value of the finished product. But Rattan: from harvest to market their protein from wild meat and fish in products can be made by small craft Rattan is a valuable palm family NTFP 62 developing countries. People in the industries to increase local incomes providing income for villagers who harvest it Congo Basin alone consume more than significantly. For example, collectors in for sale and use it in handicrafts. 1 million tonnes of wild meat yearly Ghana who send rattan poles to From harvest to market, the rattan (equivalent to 4 million cattle), while commercial factories earn about US$45 business is laborious. Villagers harvest on people in the Amazon Basin consume per month, while furniture makers can foot. Using simple hand tools, they scale huge 67 000 to 164 000 tonnes per year. Wild earn up to US$250 per month simply trees and cut the vines. Skill is required to forest-dwelling animals represent a from producing items for local sale. make accurate cuts while keeping watch for mixed blessing, however, with raids on Product quality and design are two ants and wasps nesting in the spiky crops counterbalancing ease of hunting. of the most important factors protection of the vine’s outer covering. (Source: Unasylva, 57(224): 5–6.) influencing marketability. Export of Processing soon follows harvest. rattan products can make important Methods vary between regions, but one goal contributions to national incomes. is shared: producing smooth, even- China, Indonesia, and the coloured, blemish-free, pliable cane. How wildlife can better contribute to Philippines exported an estimated Oil curing or deglazing consists of placing livelihoods and poverty reduction US$1.68 billion worth of rattan and the canes in boiling diesel oil solutions. Wild animals historically have been a major rattan products in 2004. Some countries, Curing removes moisture, reduces fungal source of food, clothing, weapons, medicine such as Indonesia, have introduced attacks, improves colour and increases and rituals, although intensive use is export controls on rattan poles and pliability. declining because wildlife populations are semi-processed rattan with the aim of In some regions workers place canes in decreasing. As an important component of protecting resources and boosting local mud solutions and heat them over a fire forests, the sustainable management of manufacturing, but the effects on local before rubbing the surface clean. This wildlife requires a range of integrated and global trade appear to be mixed. method is seen in Indonesia, while in Papua approaches if lasting solutions to the supply New Guinea water washing is followed by a crisis in many poor rural areas are to be fine steel and kerosene scrubbing. found (see Box).

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encompass several villages. As a result, Rhinos and elephants targeted by poachers hunters generally do not feel a sense of in southern Africa CREATING INCENTIVES FOR stewardship, preferring instead to capture as Rhinos and elephants are being increasingly CONSERVATION many animals as possible before others targeted by poachers for the rhino horn and deplete the stocks. In addition, the equipment ivory trades, while smaller mammals such The World Wide Fund for Nature is simple (bows and arrows, guns and traps), as antelope are being tracked for bushmeat, (WWF) is working with a village on the hunting fits in well with the farming cycle in according to Animal Rights Africa (ARA). In edge of the rain forest in southeast terms of labour needs and dried meat is easy its Consuming wild life: the illegal Cameroon to regulate the commercial to transport to market because it is light. exploitation of wild animals in South Africa, hunting of bushmeat. With new roads Illegal harvest and trade. Bushmeat is Zimbabwe and Zambia report, the group opened for logging, local hunters and often harvested for meat, as well as for notes that the illegal killing of wild animals, outside poachers were selling their trophies, by using explosives, wire traps and using guns, snares, poison or hunting dogs, catch to passing truck drivers for more other unlawful methods. Drivers of logging falls into three categories: traffickers, often money than they could earn from trucks then illicitly move the carcasses to operating as part of international criminal other activities. Collaborative efforts urban markets. These activities involve networks, trade meat, ivory and rhino horn with the Ministry of Environment and thousands of people and are spread over on local and international markets; poor Forests to stop such trading failed immense areas, many of which are remote people kill for food and to sell parts as because it was impossible to patrol the and inaccessible. Efforts to regulate hunting souvenirs or to traditional healers; and, large number of trucks travelling on and trade with the intention of benefiting poor finally, wealthy individuals hunt animals in the numerous roads. people can have quite the opposite effect. protected areas for their trophy value. Given the incentive to keep wildlife Given clear indications that current levels While data on the subject are fragmented, abundant for foreign hunters who pay of wildlife harvesting are unsustainable in figures obtained by ARA show significant large sums of money for trophies, the many places, finding solutions requires amounts of poaching, often targeting villagers and WWF worked out a building national and local capacity, reserves. At least 70 rhinos have been killed scheme by which residents hunted only clarifying rights, adopting participatory in South Africa's famous Kruger National for their own needs in return for the approaches to decision-making, using local Park in the past six years. In Zimbabwe, the community receiving a portion of the knowledge and skills, and integrating rhino population in three parks has dropped licence fees that foreigners were bushmeat issues into broader strategies to sharply, ARA said, quoting figures from the charged. These revenues paid for improve livelihoods. Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force. The improvements such as equipment for Field practitioners can address issues group also cited media reports of 28 schools. The logging concessionaire also related to the sustainable use of wildlife by elephants killed in two national parks in agreed to improve operations, provide first learning about the local hunters, the Zimbabwe since October 2006. jobs for local people and allow them to trade in bushmeat and the links to In Zambia, the trade in illegal bushmeat access forest products for their own livelihoods. On the basis of this information, was seen to be brisk with 12 tonnes of meat consumption. To help restrict hunting, they can then suggest to village leaders and seized in the country in 2006. company trucks bring frozen meat back other authorities ways to maintain Several countries, including Zimbabwe, from the cities to feed workers. sustainable hunting levels. (Source: have complained that the ban on elephant extracted from Better forestry, less poverty: products proposed by Kenya and Mali will a practitioner’s guide. FAO Forestry Paper seriously affect hunting. The proposal is to 149. 2006. Rome. ISBN 92-5-105550-5; be discussed at a conference of the Although gaps in information make it www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0645e/a0645e00. Convention on International Trade and difficult to determine the extent to which HTM) Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and bushmeat can alleviate poverty and improve Flora (CITES) in the Netherlands in June. livelihoods, evidence shows that poor people FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: (Source: Monsters and Critics [United obtain a significant portion of their protein Dr René Czudek, Forestry Officer (Wildlife and Kingdom], 2 April 2007.) from this source, particularly in lean seasons. Protected Area Management), FOMC, They also earn income from the sale of any Forestry Department, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Nature & Faune surplus catch. While hunting wild animals is Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy. Fax: +39 06 570 Nature & Faune is an international unlikely to be a major route out of poverty, if 55137; e-mail: [email protected] bilingual (English and French) publication regulated and sustainable it can diversify of the FAO Regional Office for Africa. Its livelihood options and provide a stepping aim is to disseminate information stone for landless people to start a small (scientific and technical knowledge) and business or have money to invest elsewhere. promote the exchange of experiences on Open access. Despite the value of wildlife, protected area management and bushmeat as a source of high-quality protein the sustainable use and conservation of and income, access is not tightly controlled in natural resources in Africa. most cases. Individuals or entities generally The current issue deals with the theme do not own the resource per se so that local of human/wildlife conflicts. use or management rights are not well Subscription is free; just send an e-mail defined, especially over large areas that to [email protected]. Alternatively, the

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magazine can be downloaded from the Department of Agriculture-approved bushmeat as a source of protein. A Nature & Faune Web site at the address trade.” Brashares said his team of significant portion of bushmeat from below. volunteers have seen markets openly tropical forests consists of primates. While selling the banned meat. The black market local farmers and subsistence hunters are FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT: is especially lucrative in the Bay Area, consumers and increasingly traders, Ms Lonneke Bakker, Assistant Editor, Nature & including San Francisco and San José. wealthier households also consume Faune, FAO Regional Office for Africa, Forestry Brashares says anyone who wants it can considerable amounts of bushmeat. Departmental Group, PO Box GP 1628, Accra, find bushmeat. (Source: CBS 5 [San Rural populations in the Brazilian Ghana. Fax: (+233-21) 7010943; Francisco, United States of America], 21 Amazon alone are estimated to consume e-mail: [email protected] or March 2007.) between 2.2 and 5.4 million primates per [email protected]; www.fao.org/world/ year. Because of their slow reproductive regional/raf/workprog/forestry/magazine_en.htm rate and low population densities many primate species cannot sustain this immense offtake. Hunting of large and medium-sized Neotropical primates occurs FUNDING FOR WILDLIFE PROJECTS at a rate that poses an extreme threat to their long-term survival. Although current SITA Trust’s Enriching Nature hunting levels are lower in some areas, this Programme is providing funds for does not necessarily indicate a decreased wildlife projects. Funding is available to threat. Instead, these numbers may reflect support species and habitats that have overexploitation in the past that has led to been identified as a priority by the generally low population numbers. The Biodiversity Action Planning process. increasing commercialization of bushmeat hunting, modern hunting techniques and FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE equipment, expanding infrastructure and CONTACT: The Neotropical bushmeat crisis growing human populations, combined The Barn, Brinkmarsh Lane, Falfield, South The devastating effects of the bushmeat with serious habitat degradation and Gloucestershire GL12 8PT, United Kingdom. trade on wild primates in Central and West fragmentation, further exacerbate the Fax: +44 1454 269090; Africa are well recognized. In contrast, the situation. e-mail: [email protected]; largely uncontrolled hunting of primates in Whereas the extent of habitat http://www.sitatrust.org.uk/apply/nature Central and South America has received destruction in the Neotropics is widely little attention. As in Africa, the acknowledged, the serious impact of convergence of large-scale deforestation, hunting is often ignored. However, the increasing commercial hunting and the hunting of primates for food, rather than Illegal bushmeat trade growing in the capture of live animals have had habitat loss is predicted to pose the most United States of America devastating effects on Neotropical serious threat to the survival of large The illegal import of African bushmeat is a primates and many species may be pushed primates in Central and South America growing trade. Federal agents are to the brink of extinction. within the next two decades. As in Africa, confiscating thousands of animals Drawing on almost 200 primarily habitat fragmentation and hunting are including African rats, bats and great ape scientific publications, Going to pot. The synergistic, causing newly accessed forest parts smuggled into the country. Tourists Neotropical bushmeat crisis and its impact regions to become available to hunters. bringing in bushmeat in suitcases are being on primate populations comprehensively Data from hunted areas in many caught at airports at least once a week. reviews the scale of primate use across 22 different Amazonian sites show that large Boxloads of illegal cargoes of bushmeat Central and South American countries. In primate biomass has dropped by up to 93.5 have been discovered. There is a thriving doing so, the authors demonstrate that percent, in comparison with areas where black market and the authorities say that it current levels of offtake are unsustainable hunting is absent. The impact of this is a dangerous one. Bushmeat is a cultural across most Neotropical primates' range reduction goes beyond the effects on food preference for African expatriates in and that effective conservation measures primate species. There is a domino effect the United States. But government are urgently required. In at least 16 of the on the forest ecosystem as a whole. scientists say bushmeat carries potentially 22 Neotropical nations examined, hunting Primates are important dispersers. deadly diseases that have already spread for bushmeat poses a critical threat to Highly mobile woolly and spider monkeys from animals to humans. primate populations. There is a paucity of feed on fruits, and woolly monkeys in University of California, Berkeley Wildlife data for the remaining five countries particular consume the fruit of over 200 Ecology Professor Justin Brashares says (Argentina, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua different woody plants. The removal of health is not the only issue. He is worried and Uruguay). However, this does of course these species therefore significantly affects that whole species are now in danger of not imply a paucity of problems. One the ability of plants to disperse their seeds extinction. “I don't condone it at all,” he country, Chile, does not have any primates and changes the dominance relationship said, “but many people who are selling it, at all. between tree species. In the medium term and eating it, would like to see some Approximately eight million people in this leads to changes in forest composition, legalized trade. A United States South America regularly consume structure and biodiversity.

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The hunting of Neotropical primates Decline in selected animal populations outlined in this report illustrates how a Species Initial Year Current Decline traditional way of life has become population population (%) biologically devastating. There are no easy answers to this dilemma, and any Bonobo (pygmy chimpanzee) 100 000 1984 5 000 95.0 Asian elephant 200 000 1900 40 000 80.0 resolution of this continent-wide African elephant 10 000 000 1900 500 000 95.0 conservation crisis depends on genuine Tibetan antelope 1 000 000 1900 75 000 92.5 commitment from all stakeholders. Preventing the disappearance of many primate species in the Neotropics requires There are success stories of the revival suspending chilli pepper-impregnated urgent national and international action. To of overexploited wild animal populations. In cloths on ropes surrounding agricultural protect national biodiversity and the 1969, all 23 species of crocodilians were fields, a technique used successfully in an integrity of their forests, range states are threatened or had declining populations. FAO project in Ghana to deter elephants therefore encouraged to prohibit primate Today, one-third of crocodilians can sustain from raiding crops. At present, the most hunting and strengthen the a regulated commercial harvest, and only reasonable approach to managing the implementation and enforcement of four species are critically endangered. In conflict is to implement short-term binding protection measures. (Source: many cases, well-managed, CITES- mitigation strategies jointly with long-term extracted from the Executive Summary, approved ranching programmes produce preventive measures. Going to pot. The Neotropical bushmeat sustainably harvested hides for the A challenge for policy-makers is to crisis and its impact on primate international market, garnering the balance conservation of wildlife resources populations. 2007. Care for the Wild support of industry and governments, while with the livelihood requirements of local International, Kingsfold, United Kingdom helping supplant illicit trade. Similar populations in all regions. (Source: State of and Pro Wildlife, Munich, Germany. programmes in regulating the trade in wool the World’s Forests [SOFO] 2007, FAO.) Download from: www.careforthewild.com/ products from South America’s vicuña have files/Bushmeatreport1206_singlepages.pdf resulted in similar successes. By the (Please see page 56 for information on the 1960s, vicuña populations had been bushmeat trade in Sierra Leone.) reduced to 5 000 animals, less than 1 percent of historical populations, but Wildlife management conservation and management have Among the multiple threats to wildlife, two restored their numbers to 160 000. Today, of the most immediate and direct are the illegal global trade in wildlife is second unsustainable hunting and trading in only to narcotics and is valued at almost wildlife and wildlife products, and US$5 billion. human/wildlife conflict. Because of human population growth, In many parts of Africa, commercial trade the accompanying growth of human in bushmeat for consumption is probably the settlements and the consequent reduction The impact of crops on deer hunting single most important cause of the decline of wildlife habitat, conflicts between in the United States of America of wildlife populations, ranging from insects, humans and wildlife are occurring more Deer hunters around Pocahontas say that birds and turtles to primates, antelopes, and more frequently around the world. In many of the trees are withering and their elephants and hippopotamuses. It was Africa, where many people depend directly vegetation is dead. Thanks to a cold snap estimated that in the Congo Basin alone, the on natural resources for their livelihoods, that hit Northeast Arkansas last week annual offtake of bushmeat is about wildlife species such as crocodiles, much of spring’s green has now turned to 5 million tonnes, but a recent, detailed study elephants, hippopotamuses and lions raid brown. Avid hunters know the threat this of bushmeat offtake in the moist forests of crops, injure or kill livestock, invade human could have on wildlife: not having an acorn Cameroon and Nigeria, which documented settlements and cause damage to personal crop will make it hard for deer and turkeys an average offtake of 346 kg per km2, belongings, and can even injure and kill to make it through the winter. suggests a much lower offtake of up to people. As a result, local people are produced by many of these 1 million tonnes for the Congo Basin. increasingly hostile to wildlife and local withering trees provide vital nutrients for However, this lower estimate gives little communities do not cooperate with animals such as deer. “Acorns are the cause for comfort, because it is still far in conservation authorities. The result is staple for wildlife. They count on the nut excess of a sustainable level, given the increased instances of poaching and other crop every year. You have lean years, but I inherently low production of animal biomass illegal activities. don't think there's ever been a year where in tropical forests. The causes of human/wildlife conflict you have zero,” said one hunter. He says Meat from wild animals is not only an will not be eliminated in the near future the true effects of this cold snap on plant African issue (see Table). The meat from and it can be expected that conflict will only vegetation probably will not be seen until freshwater turtles is consumed in huge increase in frequency and intensity. There later in the year, when the deer hunting volumes in East Asia, despite the fact that is, therefore, an urgent need to find ways to season begins. “In order for the does to 75 percent of the 90 species found in Asia manage this conflict. A range of produce good fawns for the spring, they are are considered threatened, and 18 of these approaches are being tried, including going to need some fat preserves. That's are critically endangered. natural and artificial barriers, such as what the acorns do for the deer.”

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The problems with vegetation will not sequía así como temperaturas altas y hojas), teniendo otras alternativas de affect the current turkey season, but mínimas de 4-5 ºC. Para producir raíces industrialización tales como: hojuelas, hunters will see the effects on the deer comestibles necesita suelos profundos, jarabe y pasas. Numerosos estudios hunting season which begins in October. ricos y bien drenados. En el Perú se cultiva demuestran la presencia de altas (Source: KAIT [Arkansas, United States of actualmente desde el norte hasta el sur del concentraciones de oligofructanos en las America], 14 April 2007.) país. raíces, fundamento importante para Pertenece a la Familia Asteraceae considerar a esta especie como fuente de (Compositae), es una planta perenne que azúcar natural para el control de la puede medir hasta 2,5 m de altura, con diabetes. hojas laminares simples palmatinervias de Aportado por el Ing. M. Abozaglo, color verde con abundante pubescencia en Madrid, España el haz y en el envés, tallo exhuberante cilíndrico, piloso y hueco, de color verde. PARA MÁS INFORMACIÓN, DIRIGIRSE A: Flores visibles a partir de los 4–5 meses M. Abozaglo C/ Santa Eduvigis Nº 5, después de la plantación, de color amarillo 1ºB 28042 Madrid, España o anaranjado, inflorescencia racimosa de Correo elecrónico: [email protected] tipo cabezuela en capítulo con un promedio y Mr J.L: de Pedro. ETS Ingenieros de Montes de 10 flores por planta, con 5 sépalos por Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, España flor. Posee dos tipos de raíces: fibrosas y de Correo electrónico: [email protected] p reserva, raíz tuberosa. Las raíces fibrosas son muy delgadas y su función principal es la fijación de la planta al suelo y la

Smallanthus sonchifolius absorción de agua y nutrientes. Las raíces de reserva son engrosadas, fusiformes, ovadas, existen diferentes formas % YACÓN hortícolas, tales como la blanca, anaranjada y morada. Entre las labores El Yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius) en más importantes para su cultivo está la Perú propagación exclusivamente asexual, El Yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius) es una encontrándose seis formas: 1) por especie conocida principalmente en el porciones de cepa; 2) por brotes enraizados Perú y en los últimos años ha tomado en la cepa; 3) por estacas; 4) por nudos importancia económica. Fue domesticada y individuales; 5) por tallos enteros y 6) in cultivada utilizando su raíz tuberosa como vitro, siendo las más usadas las dos alimento fresco, de sabor dulce, primeras. refrescante y con propiedades El período vegetativo varía entre 8 y 9 antidiabéticas. Esto se confirma a través de meses dependiendo del ecotipo y lugar de los restos arqueológicos (cerámica, textiles siembra, se puede cultivar todo el año, y restos de raíces) de las culturas Nazca pero se restringe básicamente a la época (500 aC.-700 dC), Paracas (1500–500 aC y de lluvias (octubre a diciembre). La Mochica (500 aC–700 dC), de la costa pubescencia de las hojas evita que los peruana, así como la cultura Candelaria insectos se alimenten y transmitan plagas del noroeste argentino, entre otras. y enfermedades importantes. Del vocablo quechua llaqón (su agua), El rendimiento de raíces varía entre 20 y también conocida en Aimara como aricoma 50 tm/ha y es considerado un producto o jicoma, es originaria de la vertiente perecedero después de cosechado. El oriental de los Andes y valles interandinos, precio en campo es de 0,13 euros/kg principalmente en Perú. Es común (S/ 0,50 nuevos soles), pudiendo llegar a los encontrarla en los huertos familiares y mercados de Lima a 0,38 euros/kg alrededor de los campos o en asociación (S/1,50 nuevos soles). Las hojas también con otras especies tales como maíz (Zea son comercializadas, principalmente para mays) y frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris); sin forraje y para la elaboración de tisanas. embargo posee un amplio rango de El Yacón se cultiva también en Nueva distribución, desde Venezuela hasta Zelandia, Japón, República Checa, China, Argentina, extendiéndose su cultivo a Corea, Estados Unidos, Brasil, Paraguay y zonas agroecológicas tropicales altas. Su Taiwán. Es en el Japón donde radica su hábitat natural varía entre los 1000-2500 m mayor estudio y comercio. de altitud. Requiere humedad en las Como elaboración de productos primeras etapas de crecimiento, pero derivados de esta especie podemos “Riches of the forest: fruits, remedies and handicrafts in Latin America” después puede soportar períodos de mencionar refrescos, miel y tisanas (de

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